Lenguia | B1 Arabic Grammar: 66 Topics & Examples

When an Arabic verb is turned into the passive (mabnī li-l-majhūl), the doer (fāʿil) disappears and the former direct object takes its place as the grammatical subject. This new subject is called nāʾib al-fāʿil — 'the deputy of the doer'. Crucially, it RAISES to the nominative (ḍamma / -un), even though it was accusative in the active sentence. Compare كَتَبَ الطَّالِبُ الدَّرْسَ ('the student wrote the lesson') with كُتِبَ الدَّرْسُ ('the lesson was written'): الدَّرْسَ (accusative object) becomes الدَّرْسُ (nominative deputy). The verb also agrees with this deputy in gender and number, just as it would with a real doer. The original doer is simply not mentioned. Recognising the case-shift from accusative to nominative is the heart of this rule.

Key rule

In the passive, the former accusative object becomes the nominative deputy subject (nāʾib al-fāʿil) and the verb agrees with it: كُتِبَ الدَّرْسُ، فُتِحَتِ الْأَبْوَابُ.

Examples

كُتِبَتِ الرِّسَالَةُ أَمْسِ.
كُتِبَتِ الرِّسَالَةَ أَمْسِ.
The deputy subject of a passive verb is nominative: الرِّسَالَةُ with ḍamma, not the old accusative.
فُتِحَتِ الْأَبْوَابُ صَبَاحًا.
فُتِحَتِ الْأَبْوَابَ صَبَاحًا.
الْأَبْوَابُ is the nāʾib al-fāʿil and must be raised; the verb is feminine-singular because the plural is non-human.
يُعَامَلُ الضُّيُوفُ مُعَامَلَةً حَسَنَةً.
يُعَامَلُ الضُّيُوفَ مُعَامَلَةً حَسَنَةً.
In the present passive the deputy الضُّيُوفُ is nominative; مُعَامَلَةً is a cognate accusative, not the subject.

Common mistakes

Keeping the object in the accusative after building the passive
قُرِئَ الْكِتَابَ.
قُرِئَ الْكِتَابُ.
Once the verb is passive, the former object becomes the nominative deputy subject: الْكِتَابُ.
Using the accusative sound-plural -īn for the deputy
كُرِّمَ الْمُعَلِّمِينَ.
كُرِّمَ الْمُعَلِّمُونَ.
The deputy is marfūʿ, so the sound masculine plural takes ـُونَ: الْمُعَلِّمُونَ.

B1Cases

The Five Nouns (al-Asmāʾ al-Khamsa)

الْأَسْمَاءُ الْخَمْسَةُ

Five special nouns — أَب ('father'), أَخ ('brother'), حَم ('father-in-law'), فُو ('mouth') and ذُو ('possessor of') — do NOT show their case with a short vowel. Instead they mark case with a LONG vowel (a whole letter): و for nominative, ا for accusative, ي for genitive. So 'your father' is أَبُوكَ (subject), أَبَاكَ (object), أَبِيكَ (after a preposition or in iḍāfa). This long-vowel marking only appears under two conditions: the noun must be the FIRST term of an iḍāfa (i.e. followed by another noun or a pronoun suffix), and it must be singular. أَبُو مُحَمَّدٍ 'Muhammad's father', رَأَيْتُ أَخَاكَ 'I saw your brother', سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى أَبِيهِ 'I greeted his father'. Standing alone they behave normally (أَبٌ، أَبًا، أَبٍ).

Key rule

أَب، أَخ، حَم، فُو، ذُو — when singular and the first term of an iḍāfa — show case with a long vowel: و (nom.), ا (acc.), ي (gen.): أَبُوكَ / أَبَاكَ / أَبِيكَ.

Examples

جَاءَ أَبُوكَ.
جَاءَ أَبُكَ.
As the nominative muḍāf, أَب takes a wāw: أَبُوكَ, not a bare ḍamma.
رَأَيْتُ أَخَاكَ فِي السُّوقِ.
رَأَيْتُ أَخُوكَ فِي السُّوقِ.
As the object it is accusative, marked by alif: أَخَاكَ, not the nominative wāw.
سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى أَبِيهِ.
سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى أَبُوهِ.
After a preposition the noun is genitive, marked by yāʾ: أَبِيهِ.

Common mistakes

Using a short vowel instead of the long-vowel marker in iḍāfa
جَاءَ أَبُكَ.
جَاءَ أَبُوكَ.
A Five Noun in iḍāfa marks the nominative with wāw: أَبُوكَ.
Keeping the nominative wāw for the object
زُرْتُ أَخُوهُ.
زُرْتُ أَخَاهُ.
The object is accusative and is marked by alif: أَخَاهُ.

B1Cases

Diptotes (Mamnūʿ min al-Ṣarf)

الْمَمْنُوعُ مِنَ الصَّرْفِ

Most Arabic nouns are 'triptotes': they take all three tanwīns (-un, -an, -in) when indefinite. A diptote (al-mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf, 'forbidden from full declension') is a special class that REFUSES tanwīn and uses only TWO endings: ḍamma (-u) for nominative and fatḥa (-a) for BOTH accusative and genitive. In other words, when it is indefinite, a diptote shows the genitive with a fatḥa, not a kasra. So 'in red [things]' is فِي أَحْمَرَ (fatḥa after a preposition!), not فِي أَحْمَرٍ. Common diptotes include most non-Arabic and feminine proper names (أَحْمَدُ، فَاطِمَةُ، لُنْدُنُ), colours and defects on the pattern أَفْعَل (أَحْمَر، أَعْرَج), the feminine أَفْعَلُ comparative, words ending in -āʾ (حَمْرَاء، صَحْرَاء) and -ā, and the broken-plural patterns مَفَاعِل / مَفَاعِيل (مَدَارِس، مَفَاتِيح). BUT: add الـ or put it in iḍāfa and the diptote 'recovers' the normal kasra in the genitive (فِي الْمَدَارِسِ).

Key rule

A diptote refuses tanwīn and shows the genitive with FATḤA when indefinite (بِأَحْمَدَ); but الـ or iḍāfa restores the normal kasra (فِي الْمَدَارِسِ).

Examples

سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى أَحْمَدَ.
سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى أَحْمَدٍ.
أَحْمَدُ is a diptote (proper + wazn أَفْعَل), so the genitive after عَلَى is fatḥa: أَحْمَدَ, with no tanwīn.
زُرْتُ مَدَارِسَ كَثِيرَةً.
زُرْتُ مَدَارِسٍ كَثِيرَةً.
مَدَارِس is a muntahā al-jumūʿ pattern, hence a diptote: no tanwīn; here as object it is fatḥa مَدَارِسَ.
دَرَسْتُ فِي مَدَارِسَ حَدِيثَةٍ.
دَرَسْتُ فِي مَدَارِسٍ حَدِيثَةٍ.
As an indefinite diptote in the genitive it takes fatḥa مَدَارِسَ (not kasr-tanwīn), while the triptote adjective keeps its kasra.

Common mistakes

Putting tanwīn kasr on an indefinite diptote in the genitive
مَرَرْتُ بِأَحْمَدٍ.
مَرَرْتُ بِأَحْمَدَ.
A diptote shows the genitive with fatḥa and never takes tanwīn: بِأَحْمَدَ.
Adding tanwīn ḍamm to a diptote subject
جَاءَ أَحْمَدٌ.
جَاءَ أَحْمَدُ.
Diptotes refuse tanwīn; the nominative is a bare ḍamma أَحْمَدُ.

B1Cases

Case Endings of Dual & Sound Plurals

إِعْرَابُ الْمُثَنَّى وَجَمْعَيِ السَّلَامَةِ

The dual and the two 'sound' plurals do NOT mark case with a short vowel. Instead they use a whole LETTER (iʿrāb bi-l-ḥurūf). The dual ends in ـَانِ for the nominative and ـَيْنِ for both the accusative and the genitive: طَالِبَانِ ('two students', subject) vs رَأَيْتُ طَالِبَيْنِ ('I saw two students'). The sound masculine plural ends in ـُونَ (nominative) and ـِينَ (accusative/genitive): مُعَلِّمُونَ vs قَابَلْتُ مُعَلِّمِينَ. The sound feminine plural is different: it NEVER takes a fatḥa for the accusative — it keeps a kasra. So it ends in ـَاتٌ / ـَاتُ (nominative) and ـَاتٍ / ـَاتِ (accusative AND genitive): مُعَلِّمَاتٌ vs رَأَيْتُ مُعَلِّمَاتٍ (kasra, not fatḥa!). Remember: the dual and masculine plural share ONE ending for accusative + genitive; the feminine plural shares its accusative with the genitive (kasra).

Key rule

Dual: ـَانِ (nom.) / ـَيْنِ (acc.+gen.); sound masc. pl.: ـُونَ (nom.) / ـِينَ (acc.+gen.); sound fem. pl.: ـَاتُ (nom.) / ـَاتِ (acc.+gen., kasra — never fatḥa).

Examples

حَضَرَ الطَّالِبَانِ.
حَضَرَ الطَّالِبَيْنِ.
As the doer, the dual raises with ـَانِ: الطَّالِبَانِ.
رَأَيْتُ الطَّالِبَيْنِ.
رَأَيْتُ الطَّالِبَانِ.
As the object, the dual takes ـَيْنِ: الطَّالِبَيْنِ.
نَجَحَ الْمُهَنْدِسُونَ.
نَجَحَ الْمُهَنْدِسِينَ.
The doer is a sound masculine plural in the nominative: ـُونَ, الْمُهَنْدِسُونَ.

Common mistakes

Using the dual accusative form as the subject
ذَهَبَ الْوَلَدَيْنِ.
ذَهَبَ الْوَلَدَانِ.
The dual subject is nominative with ـَانِ: الْوَلَدَانِ.
Using -īn for the masculine plural subject
فَازَ اللَّاعِبِينَ.
فَازَ اللَّاعِبُونَ.
As doer, the sound masculine plural raises with ـُونَ: اللَّاعِبُونَ.

B1Cases

The Cognate Accusative (Mafʿūl Muṭlaq)

الْمَفْعُولُ الْمُطْلَقُ

The mafʿūl muṭlaq is a verbal noun (maṣdar) derived from the SAME root as the verb and placed in the accusative right after it. It does three jobs: (1) plain emphasis — ضَرَبَهُ ضَرْبًا 'he struck him a [real] striking'; (2) describing HOW the action was done, with an adjective — ضَرَبَهُ ضَرْبًا شَدِيدًا 'he struck him a severe striking' (= hard); or (3) counting the action, with a number-like noun — دَارَ دَوْرَتَيْنِ 'it turned two turns'. The key facts: the maṣdar matches the verb's root, and it is ALWAYS accusative (fatḥa / tanwīn fatḥ). Where English adds an adverb ('hardly', 'twice', 'really'), Arabic very often adds a cognate accusative instead. Many fixed phrases are exactly this: شُكْرًا جَزِيلًا ('many thanks'), أَهْلًا، حُبًّا وَكَرَامَةً.

Key rule

Put a same-root maṣdar in the accusative after the verb to emphasise it (ضَرْبًا), describe its manner (ضَرْبًا شَدِيدًا), or count it (دَوْرَتَيْنِ).

Examples

فَرِحْتُ فَرَحًا شَدِيدًا.
فَرِحْتُ فَرَحٌ شَدِيدٌ.
The cognate accusative is manṣūb: فَرَحًا شَدِيدًا, not nominative.
اِنْتَصَرَ الْجَيْشُ انْتِصَارًا عَظِيمًا.
اِنْتَصَرَ الْجَيْشُ انْتِصَارٍ عَظِيمٍ.
It is accusative (fatḥa/tanwīn fatḥ), never genitive: انْتِصَارًا عَظِيمًا.
ضَرَبَهُ ضَرْبًا شَدِيدًا.
ضَرَبَهُ بِضَرْبٍ شَدِيدٍ.
The cognate accusative takes no preposition; it is a bare manṣūb maṣdar: ضَرْبًا شَدِيدًا.

Common mistakes

Leaving the cognate maṣdar in the nominative
فَرِحْتُ فَرَحٌ شَدِيدٌ.
فَرِحْتُ فَرَحًا شَدِيدًا.
The mafʿūl muṭlaq is always manṣūb: فَرَحًا شَدِيدًا.
Adding a preposition before the maṣdar
ضَرَبَهُ بِضَرْبٍ قَوِيٍّ.
ضَرَبَهُ ضَرْبًا قَوِيًّا.
The cognate accusative is direct (no بِـ); it is a manṣūb maṣdar.

B1Cases

The Accusative of Purpose (Mafʿūl li-Ajlih)

الْمَفْعُولُ لِأَجْلِهِ

The mafʿūl li-ajlih (also called al-mafʿūl lahu) is an accusative verbal noun (maṣdar) that gives the REASON or PURPOSE for an action — it answers 'why?'. قَامَ احْتِرَامًا لِلْمُعَلِّمِ means 'he stood up out of respect for the teacher'; جَاءَ طَلَبًا لِلْعِلْمِ means 'he came seeking knowledge'. To work as a mafʿūl li-ajlih a word must be a maṣdar expressing an emotion or motive (خَوْفًا 'out of fear', رَغْبَةً 'out of desire', طَمَعًا 'out of greed', حُبًّا 'out of love'), it must share the time and doer of the main verb, and it is put in the accusative (fatḥa / tanwīn fatḥ). It is the Arabic equivalent of English 'out of…', 'for the sake of…', 'in order to…'. If the maṣdar is NOT clearly a motive, you instead use a لِـ phrase (لِلدِّرَاسَةِ).

Key rule

Use an indefinite motive maṣdar in the accusative to say WHY: قَامَ احْتِرَامًا لِلْمُعَلِّمِ, جَاءَ طَلَبًا لِلْعِلْمِ.

Examples

قُمْتُ احْتِرَامًا لِلْمُعَلِّمِ.
قُمْتُ احْتِرَامٌ لِلْمُعَلِّمِ.
The mafʿūl li-ajlih is manṣūb: احْتِرَامًا, giving the reason for standing.
هَاجَرَ طَلَبًا لِلرِّزْقِ.
هَاجَرَ بِطَلَبِ الرِّزْقِ.
The motive maṣdar is a bare accusative طَلَبًا, not a بِـ-phrase.
تَصَدَّقَ بِمَالِهِ ابْتِغَاءَ الثَّوَابِ.
تَصَدَّقَ بِمَالِهِ ابْتِغَاءٌ الثَّوَابِ.
ابْتِغَاءَ is the accusative motive maṣdar (here in iḍāfa to الثَّوَابِ).

Common mistakes

Leaving the motive maṣdar nominative
قَامَ احْتِرَامٌ لِلضَّيْفِ.
قَامَ احْتِرَامًا لِلضَّيْفِ.
The mafʿūl li-ajlih is manṣūb: احْتِرَامًا.
Adding بِـ before the motive maṣdar
جَاءَ بِطَلَبِ الْعِلْمِ.
جَاءَ طَلَبًا لِلْعِلْمِ.
A pure motive maṣdar is a bare accusative طَلَبًا, not a prepositional phrase.

B1Cases

The Accusative of Accompaniment (Mafʿūl Maʿah)

الْمَفْعُولُ مَعَهُ

The mafʿūl maʿah is an accusative noun that comes after a special wāw meaning 'together with / alongside' (wāw al-maʿiyya), telling you WHAT the action happened with or beside. سِرْتُ وَالنِّيلَ means 'I walked along the Nile' (literally 'I walked, with the Nile'). The crucial point: this wāw is NOT the ordinary 'and' (wāw al-ʿaṭf) that links two equal things — here النِّيلَ is not doing the walking, it is the thing you walked ALONGSIDE, so it is accusative (النِّيلَ, fatḥa), not nominative. Compare سَافَرْتُ وَأَخِي ('I and my brother travelled', both travellers, ʿaṭf) with سِرْتُ وَالشَّاطِئَ ('I walked along the shore', the shore is companion, not co-walker). The test: if the second noun could not realistically share the verb, the wāw is maʿiyya and the noun is accusative.

Key rule

After wāw al-maʿiyya ('together with'), the following noun is accusative because it accompanies the action rather than performing it: سِرْتُ وَالنِّيلَ.

Examples

سِرْتُ وَالنِّيلَ.
سِرْتُ وَالنِّيلُ.
The Nile accompanies the walking, it does not walk; the wāw al-maʿiyya makes النِّيلَ accusative.
اسْتَيْقَظْتُ وَالْفَجْرَ.
اسْتَيْقَظْتُ وَالْفَجْرِ.
The dawn is the accompaniment, marked accusative الْفَجْرَ, not genitive.
سَارَ الْقَائِدُ وَالْجَيْشَ.
سَارَ الْقَائِدُ وَالْجَيْشُ.
Here the army is treated as accompaniment (maʿiyya), so it is accusative الْجَيْشَ; nominative would (mis)imply pure coordination.

Common mistakes

Treating the accompaniment as a coordinated subject (nominative)
سِرْتُ وَالشَّاطِئُ.
سِرْتُ وَالشَّاطِئَ.
The shore accompanies the walking; wāw al-maʿiyya requires the accusative الشَّاطِئَ.
Putting the accompaniment in the genitive (treating wāw as a preposition)
اسْتَيْقَظْتُ وَالْفَجْرِ.
اسْتَيْقَظْتُ وَالْفَجْرَ.
Wāw al-maʿiyya is not a preposition; the noun after it is manṣūb, not majrūr.

B1Cases

The Circumstantial Accusative (Ḥāl)

الْحَالُ

The ḥāl describes the STATE of the subject or object DURING the action — it answers 'how / in what state?'. جَاءَ مُسْرِعًا means 'he came hurrying' (in a hurried state); شَرِبْتُ الْمَاءَ بَارِدًا means 'I drank the water cold'. The single-word ḥāl is an indefinite accusative (fatḥa / tanwīn fatḥ) and it must AGREE in gender and number with the noun it describes (its ṣāḥib al-ḥāl): جَاءَتْ مُسْرِعَةً (feminine), جَاؤُوا مُسْرِعِينَ (plural). Importantly, the ṣāḥib al-ḥāl is normally DEFINITE while the ḥāl itself is INDEFINITE — the reverse of a normal adjective. The ḥāl can also be a whole clause: a verbal sentence (جَاءَ يَضْحَكُ 'he came laughing') or a nominal sentence introduced by wāw al-ḥāl (دَخَلَ وَهُوَ يَبْتَسِمُ 'he entered while smiling').

Key rule

Use an indefinite accusative participle agreeing in gender/number to describe a state during the action (جَاءَ مُسْرِعًا), or a clause with wāw al-ḥāl (دَخَلَ وَهُوَ يَبْتَسِمُ).

Examples

جَاءَ الطَّالِبُ مُسْرِعًا.
جَاءَ الطَّالِبُ مُسْرِعٌ.
The ḥāl is manṣūb: مُسْرِعًا ('hurrying'), describing the doer's state.
جَاءَتِ الطَّالِبَةُ مُسْرِعَةً.
جَاءَتِ الطَّالِبَةُ مُسْرِعًا.
The ḥāl agrees in gender with its ṣāḥib: feminine مُسْرِعَةً.
عَادَ الْجُنُودُ مُنْتَصِرِينَ.
عَادَ الْجُنُودُ مُنْتَصِرُونَ.
The plural ḥāl is accusative: مُنْتَصِرِينَ (-īn), not nominative -ūn.

Common mistakes

Leaving the single-word ḥāl in the nominative
رَجَعَ مُنْتَصِرٌ.
رَجَعَ مُنْتَصِرًا.
The ḥāl is manṣūb: مُنْتَصِرًا.
Failing gender/number agreement with the ṣāḥib al-ḥāl
جَاءَتِ الْبِنْتُ مُسْرِعًا.
جَاءَتِ الْبِنْتُ مُسْرِعَةً.
The ḥāl agrees with its noun in gender: feminine مُسْرِعَةً.

B1Cases

The Accusative of Specification (Tamyīz)

التَّمْيِيزُ

The tamyīz is an indefinite accusative noun that REMOVES ambiguity — it specifies 'in what respect?'. ازْدَادَ الطَّالِبُ عِلْمًا means 'the student increased in knowledge' (عِلْمًا tells you in WHAT he increased). It clears up an otherwise vague amount or quantity. Two common settings: (1) after a comparative أَفْعَل — هُوَ أَكْثَرُ مِنْكَ مَالًا 'he is richer than you in money' (مَالًا = 'in money'); (2) after measures, weights and numbers — كَيْلُو لَحْمًا 'a kilo of meat', اشْتَرَيْتُ عِشْرِينَ كِتَابًا '20 books'. The tamyīz is singular, indefinite and accusative (fatḥa / tanwīn fatḥ). It is the answer to a hidden 'مِنْ' ('of/in terms of'): طِبْتُ نَفْسًا = 'I am happy in [respect of] soul'. Don't confuse it with the ḥāl (which describes a temporary STATE).

Key rule

Use a singular, indefinite, accusative noun to specify 'in what respect / of what': ازْدَادَ عِلْمًا, أَكْثَرُ مَالًا, كَيْلُو لَحْمًا.

Examples

اِزْدَادَ الطَّالِبُ عِلْمًا.
اِزْدَادَ الطَّالِبُ عِلْمٌ.
The tamyīz is manṣūb: عِلْمًا, specifying the respect of the increase.
هُوَ أَكْثَرُ مِنْكَ مَالًا.
هُوَ أَكْثَرُ مِنْكَ مَالٍ.
After the comparative, the tamyīz is accusative مَالًا, never genitive.
اِشْتَرَيْتُ كِيلُو لَحْمًا.
اِشْتَرَيْتُ كِيلُو لَحْمٍ.
After a measure word the specified substance is a tamyīz, manṣūb: لَحْمًا.

Common mistakes

Leaving the tamyīz nominative
اِزْدَادَ عِلْمٌ.
اِزْدَادَ عِلْمًا.
The tamyīz is manṣūb: عِلْمًا.
Putting the comparative tamyīz in the genitive
أَكْبَرُ مِنْكَ سِنٍّ.
أَكْبَرُ مِنْكَ سِنًّا.
After أَفْعَل the tamyīz is accusative: سِنًّا.

B1Idafa

Unreal / Adjectival Iḍāfa

الْإِضَافَةُ اللَّفْظِيَّةُ

A normal iḍāfa expresses possession and makes the whole phrase definite (بَابُ الْبَيْتِ 'the door of the house'). The 'unreal' or adjectival iḍāfa (al-iḍāfa al-lafẓiyya) is different: its first term is a PARTICIPLE or adjective, and the second term is really its OBJECT — كَثِيرُ الْمَالِ means 'wealthy' (lit. 'much-of-money'), حَسَنُ الْخُلُقِ 'of good character'. The big surprise: this kind of iḍāfa does NOT make the phrase definite. So you can put الـ on the first term and still describe an indefinite noun: رَجُلٌ حَسَنُ الْخُلُقِ, الرَّجُلُ الْحَسَنُ الْخُلُقِ. It behaves like an adjective (it agrees with the noun it describes in gender, number and CASE), while the second (genitive) term just completes it. Its real purpose is grammatical 'lightness' — it lets you drop the tanwīn/nūn of the participle (كَاتِبُ الدَّرْسِ instead of كَاتِبٌ الدَّرْسَ).

Key rule

When the first term of a construct is a participle/adjective describing a noun (كَثِيرُ الْمَالِ), the iḍāfa is 'lafẓiyya': it gives no definiteness, may take الـ, and agrees with the noun like an adjective.

Examples

هَذَا رَجُلٌ كَثِيرُ الْمَالِ.
هَذَا رَجُلٌ كَثِيرٌ الْمَالِ.
In a lafẓiyya iḍāfa the participle drops its tanwīn: كَثِيرُ الْمَالِ, while still describing an indefinite رَجُلٌ.
جَاءَ الرَّجُلُ الْحَسَنُ الْخُلُقِ.
جَاءَ الرَّجُلُ حَسَنُ الْخُلُقِ.
Because the lafẓiyya gives no definiteness, the describing participle TAKES الـ to match the definite noun: الْحَسَنُ الْخُلُقِ.
رَأَيْتُ طَالِبًا كَثِيرَ الْأَسْئِلَةِ.
رَأَيْتُ طَالِبًا كَثِيرُ الْأَسْئِلَةِ.
The lafẓiyya muḍāf agrees in CASE with the noun: accusative كَثِيرَ to match طَالِبًا.

Common mistakes

Keeping the tanwīn on the participle muḍāf
رَجُلٌ كَثِيرٌ الْمَالِ.
رَجُلٌ كَثِيرُ الْمَالِ.
The lafẓiyya iḍāfa drops the tanwīn of the first term: كَثِيرُ الْمَالِ.
Refusing الـ on the describer of a definite noun
الرَّجُلُ حَسَنُ الْخُلُقِ.
الرَّجُلُ الْحَسَنُ الْخُلُقِ.
Since the lafẓiyya gives no definiteness, the describer must itself take الـ to match the definite noun.

B1Conditionals

Counterfactual Conditional with law

الشَّرْطُ بِـ لَوْ (الِامْتِنَاعِيُّ)

لَوْ introduces an unreal, 'contrary-to-fact' condition — something that did NOT happen, so its result also did not happen. It usually pairs a PAST-tense condition verb with a result clause introduced by لـ (also followed by a past verb): لَوْ دَرَسْتَ لَنَجَحْتَ ('if you had studied, you would have succeeded' — but you didn't). This is different from إِذَا / إِنْ, which are for real, possible conditions. Think of لَوْ as 'if (only) … would have …', expressing regret or imagining the opposite of reality.

Key rule

لَوْ marks an UNREAL condition (it didn't happen): لَوْ + past verb, and the result clause opens with لـ + past verb ('would have …').

Examples

لَوْ دَرَسْتَ جَيِّدًا لَنَجَحْتَ.
لَوْ تَدْرُسُ جَيِّدًا لَنَجَحْتَ.
After لَوْ the condition verb is PAST (دَرَسْتَ), not present — the action did not happen.
لَوْ كُنْتُ غَنِيًّا لَسَافَرْتُ حَوْلَ الْعَالَمِ.
لَوْ كُنْتُ غَنِيًّا سَافَرْتُ حَوْلَ الْعَالَمِ.
The result clause of لَوْ must open with لـ (لَسَافَرْتُ); dropping the لـ loses the counterfactual marker.
لَوْ عَرَفْتُ بِالْمَوْعِدِ لَحَضَرْتُ.
لَوْ أَعْرِفُ بِالْمَوْعِدِ لَأَحْضُرُ.
Both verbs are past with لَوْ (عَرَفْتُ … لَحَضَرْتُ); the present tense belongs to real conditions with إِذَا.

Common mistakes

Using a present verb after law
لَوْ تَدْرُسُ لَنَجَحْتَ.
لَوْ دَرَسْتَ لَنَجَحْتَ.
لَوْ takes a PAST condition verb because the action is imagined as not having happened.
Dropping the lām on the answer clause
لَوْ سَأَلْتَنِي أَجَبْتُكَ.
لَوْ سَأَلْتَنِي لَأَجَبْتُكَ.
The جَوَاب of لَوْ normally begins with لَامُ الْجَوَابِ (لـ) to mark the unreal result.

B1Conditionals

The Conditional & Its Two Jussives

جَزْمُ فِعْلَيِ الشَّرْطِ وَالْجَوَابِ

Some conditional words (especially إِنْ 'if', and مَنْ 'whoever', مَا 'whatever') put BOTH verbs of the sentence into the jussive (مَجْزُوم): the condition verb AND the result verb. In إِنْ تَدْرُسْ تَنْجَحْ ('if you study, you will succeed'), both تَدْرُسْ and تَنْجَحْ end in sukūn. These conditional words are called أَدَوَاتُ الشَّرْطِ الْجَازِمَة ('the jussive-causing conditional particles'). This is different from إِذَا and لَوْ, which take past verbs and do NOT cause the jussive.

Key rule

Jussive conditional words (إِنْ، مَنْ، مَا…) put BOTH the condition and answer verbs in the jussive; if the answer can't be jussive, link it with فـ.

Examples

إِنْ تَدْرُسْ تَنْجَحْ.
إِنْ تَدْرُسُ تَنْجَحُ.
Both verbs after إِنْ are jussive with sukūn (تَدْرُسْ، تَنْجَحْ), not indicative with ḍamma.
مَنْ يَزْرَعْ يَحْصُدْ.
مَنْ يَزْرَعُ يَحْصُدُ.
مَنْ ('whoever') is a jussive conditional; both verbs take sukūn (يَزْرَعْ، يَحْصُدْ).
إِنْ تَدْرُسْ فَسَتَنْجَحُ.
إِنْ تَدْرُسْ سَتَنْجَحُ.
Because the answer begins with سَـ, it must be linked with فـ (فَسَتَنْجَحُ).

Common mistakes

Leaving the verbs indicative after in
إِنْ تَدْرُسُ تَنْجَحُ.
إِنْ تَدْرُسْ تَنْجَحْ.
إِنْ is a jussive conditional; both verbs must end in sukūn, not ḍamma.
Omitting the fā' on a non-jussive answer
إِنْ تَدْرُسْ سَتَنْجَحُ.
إِنْ تَدْرُسْ فَسَتَنْجَحُ.
An answer that begins with سَـ/سَوْفَ، قَدْ، مَا، a noun, or an imperative needs فـ to link it.

B1Conditionals

Conditional Nouns (man, mā, mahmā)

أَسْمَاءُ الشَّرْطِ

Besides the particle إِنْ, Arabic has conditional NOUNS that mean 'whoever / whatever / whenever / wherever / however much'. The main ones are مَنْ ('whoever', for people), مَا and مَهْمَا ('whatever'), مَتَى ('whenever'), أَيْنَمَا / حَيْثُمَا ('wherever'), كَيْفَمَا ('however'), and أَيٌّ ('whichever'). Like إِنْ, they put BOTH verbs in the jussive: مَنْ يَدْرُسْ يَنْجَحْ ('whoever studies succeeds'), مَهْمَا تَفْعَلْ أَحْتَرِمْكَ ('whatever you do, I will respect you'). They carry both a question-like meaning and a condition at the same time.

Key rule

Conditional nouns (مَنْ، مَا، مَهْمَا، مَتَى، أَيْنَمَا، أَيٌّ…) act like إِنْ: they put BOTH verbs in the jussive, with فـ on a non-jussive answer.

Examples

مَنْ يَدْرُسْ يَنْجَحْ.
مَنْ يَدْرُسُ يَنْجَحُ.
مَنْ ('whoever') is a conditional noun: both verbs are jussive (يَدْرُسْ، يَنْجَحْ).
مَهْمَا تَفْعَلْ أَحْتَرِمْكَ.
مَهْمَا تَفْعَلُ أَحْتَرِمُكَ.
مَهْمَا ('whatever') causes the double jussive (تَفْعَلْ، أَحْتَرِمْ).
مَتَى تُسَافِرْ أُسَافِرْ مَعَكَ.
مَتَى تُسَافِرُ أُسَافِرُ مَعَكَ.
مَتَى ('whenever') is a conditional noun; both verbs take sukūn.

Common mistakes

Leaving the verbs indicative after a conditional noun
مَنْ يَعْمَلُ يَكْسَبُ.
مَنْ يَعْمَلْ يَكْسِبْ.
مَنْ is a jussive conditional noun; both verbs end in sukūn, not ḍamma.
Confusing conditional man/mā with the interrogative
مَنْ يَدْرُسُ؟ يَنْجَحُ. (intending 'whoever studies succeeds')
مَنْ يَدْرُسْ يَنْجَحْ.
As a CONDITION (not a question) مَنْ joins two jussive verbs in one statement, with no question mark.

B1Connectors

Time Subordinators

رَوَابِطُ الزَّمَنِ

To link two events in time, Arabic uses subordinators like عِنْدَمَا ('when'), حِينَ ('when'), بَيْنَمَا ('while'), بَعْدَ أَنْ ('after'), قَبْلَ أَنْ ('before'), and مُنْذُ أَنْ ('since'). For example: عِنْدَمَا وَصَلْتُ كَانَ الْبَابُ مَفْتُوحًا ('when I arrived, the door was open'). Note two key patterns: after قَبْلَ أَنْ the verb is in the SUBJUNCTIVE (قَبْلَ أَنْ تَذْهَبَ 'before you go'), while after بَعْدَ أَنْ the verb is usually PAST (بَعْدَ أَنْ ذَهَبَ 'after he went'). بَيْنَمَا ('while') sets up two simultaneous actions.

Key rule

Use عِنْدَمَا/حِينَ ('when'), بَيْنَمَا ('while'), بَعْدَ أَنْ + past, and قَبْلَ أَنْ + SUBJUNCTIVE to link events in time.

Examples

عِنْدَمَا وَصَلْتُ كَانَ الْبَابُ مَفْتُوحًا.
عِنْدَمَا أَصِلُ كَانَ الْبَابُ مَفْتُوحًا.
A completed 'when I arrived' uses the past وَصَلْتُ, matching the past main clause.
سَأَتَّصِلُ بِكَ قَبْلَ أَنْ أُسَافِرَ.
سَأَتَّصِلُ بِكَ قَبْلَ أَنْ أُسَافِرُ.
قَبْلَ أَنْ governs the SUBJUNCTIVE: أُسَافِرَ (fatḥa), not the indicative أُسَافِرُ.
بَعْدَ أَنْ تَنَاوَلْنَا الْعَشَاءَ خَرَجْنَا.
بَعْدَ أَنْ نَتَنَاوَلَ الْعَشَاءَ خَرَجْنَا.
بَعْدَ أَنْ for a completed prior event takes the PAST verb (تَنَاوَلْنَا).

Common mistakes

Indicative instead of subjunctive after qabla an
اغْسِلْ يَدَيْكَ قَبْلَ أَنْ تَأْكُلُ.
اغْسِلْ يَدَيْكَ قَبْلَ أَنْ تَأْكُلَ.
أَنْ in قَبْلَ أَنْ forces the subjunctive (fatḥa) on the present verb: تَأْكُلَ.
Using a present verb after baʿda an for a past event
بَعْدَ أَنْ يَصِلُ نَخْرُجُ. (intending 'after he arrived we went out')
بَعْدَ أَنْ وَصَلَ خَرَجْنَا.
For a completed prior action بَعْدَ أَنْ takes the past verb (وَصَلَ).

B1Connectors

Result & Purpose Clauses

جُمَلُ النَّتِيجَةِ وَالْغَايَةِ

To express PURPOSE ('in order to') and RESULT ('so that / so'), Arabic uses connectors that take the SUBJUNCTIVE: لِكَيْ / كَيْ ('in order to'), لِـ ('to'), حَتَّى ('so that / until'), and لِئَلَّا / كَيْلَا ('so as not to'). For example: أَدْرُسُ لِكَيْ أَنْجَحَ ('I study in order to succeed'). There is also فـ (فَاءُ السَّبَبِيَّةِ, 'the fā' of cause') which, after a command or a negative, gives the subjunctive: اجْتَهِدْ فَتَنْجَحَ ('work hard so that you succeed'). All these put the following present verb in the subjunctive (fatḥa).

Key rule

Purpose/result connectors لِـ، لِكَيْ، كَيْ، حَتَّى (and فـ after a command/negative) put the following present verb in the SUBJUNCTIVE (fatḥa).

Examples

أَدْرُسُ لِكَيْ أَنْجَحَ.
أَدْرُسُ لِكَيْ أَنْجَحُ.
لِكَيْ governs the subjunctive: أَنْجَحَ (fatḥa), not the indicative أَنْجَحُ.
ذَهَبْتُ إِلَى السُّوقِ لِأَشْتَرِيَ خُبْزًا.
ذَهَبْتُ إِلَى السُّوقِ لِأَشْتَرِي خُبْزًا.
Purpose لِـ + subjunctive: لِأَشْتَرِيَ (fatḥa on the defective verb), not لِأَشْتَرِي.
نُسْرِعُ لِئَلَّا نَتَأَخَّرَ.
نُسْرِعُ لِئَلَّا نَتَأَخَّرُ.
Negative purpose لِئَلَّا (= لِ+أَنْ+لَا) governs the SUBJUNCTIVE: نَتَأَخَّرَ (fatḥa), not the indicative نَتَأَخَّرُ.

Common mistakes

Indicative after likay/kay
أَعْمَلُ لِكَيْ أَكْسَبُ الْمَالَ.
أَعْمَلُ لِكَيْ أَكْسِبَ الْمَالَ.
لِكَيْ/كَيْ governs the subjunctive (fatḥa): أَكْسِبَ.
Forgetting the fatḥa on a defective verb after li-
جِئْتُ لِأَلْتَقِي بِكَ.
جِئْتُ لِأَلْتَقِيَ بِكَ.
After purpose لِـ a final-weak (defective) verb takes the subjunctive with an OVERT fatḥa on the weak letter: لِأَلْتَقِيَ, not the indicative لِأَلْتَقِي.

B1Connectors

Concession Connectors

رَوَابِطُ الْمُخَالَفَةِ

To say 'although / despite', Arabic uses concession connectors. Before a CLAUSE you use مَعَ أَنَّ or رَغْمَ أَنَّ ('although') — these are sisters of أَنَّ, so the noun after them is ACCUSATIVE: رَغْمَ أَنَّ الْجَوَّ بَارِدٌ ('although the weather is cold'). Before a NOUN (or a verbal noun) you use بِالرَّغْمِ مِنْ / رَغْمَ ('despite') + genitive: بِالرَّغْمِ مِنَ الْبَرْدِ ('despite the cold'). The main clause that follows often starts with فـ or إِلَّا أَنَّ ('nevertheless').

Key rule

Use مَعَ أَنَّ / رَغْمَ أَنَّ ('although') + a clause (accusative ism, sister of أَنَّ), and رَغْمَ / بِالرَّغْمِ مِنْ ('despite') + a genitive noun.

Examples

رَغْمَ أَنَّ الْجَوَّ بَارِدٌ خَرَجْنَا.
رَغْمَ أَنَّ الْجَوُّ بَارِدٌ خَرَجْنَا.
رَغْمَ أَنَّ is a sister of إِنَّ, so the ism is accusative (الْجَوَّ), not nominative.
بِالرَّغْمِ مِنَ الْمَطَرِ ذَهَبْنَا إِلَى الْحَدِيقَةِ.
بِالرَّغْمِ مِنَ الْمَطَرُ ذَهَبْنَا إِلَى الْحَدِيقَةِ.
بِالرَّغْمِ مِنْ takes a GENITIVE noun (الْمَطَرِ), because مِنْ is a preposition.
مَعَ أَنَّهُ مَرِيضٌ فَإِنَّهُ يَعْمَلُ.
مَعَ أَنَّ هُوَ مَرِيضٌ فَإِنَّهُ يَعْمَلُ.
A pronoun attaches to أَنَّ as its accusative ism (أَنَّهُ); the detached هُوَ cannot stand there.

Common mistakes

Nominative ism after raghma anna
رَغْمَ أَنَّ الْعَمَلُ صَعْبٌ أَنْجَزْتُهُ.
رَغْمَ أَنَّ الْعَمَلَ صَعْبٌ أَنْجَزْتُهُ.
رَغْمَ أَنَّ is a sister of إِنَّ; the noun after أَنَّ is accusative (الْعَمَلَ).
Using anna before a bare noun
رَغْمَ أَنَّ الْبَرْدِ خَرَجْنَا.
رَغْمَ الْبَرْدِ خَرَجْنَا. / رَغْمَ أَنَّ الْبَرْدَ شَدِيدٌ خَرَجْنَا.
Use رَغْمَ + genitive before a noun; أَنَّ introduces a full clause, not a single noun.

B1Connectors

Coordination & Its Case Agreement (ʿAṭf al-Nasaq)

عَطْفُ النَّسَقِ وَإِعْرَابُهُ

When you join two nouns with a coordinating particle (حَرْفُ الْعَطْفِ) like وَ ('and'), أَوْ ('or'), فَ ('and so'), ثُمَّ ('then'), لَكِنْ ('but'), the SECOND noun takes the SAME case as the first. So if the first noun is accusative, the second is accusative too: رَأَيْتُ مُحَمَّدًا وَعَلِيًّا ('I saw Muhammad and Ali' — both accusative). The coordinated noun (الْمَعْطُوف) copies the case of the word before the particle (الْمَعْطُوف عَلَيْهِ). This is called عَطْفُ النَّسَقِ.

Key rule

In coordination (عَطْفُ النَّسَقِ) the second noun takes the SAME case as the first: رَأَيْتُ مُحَمَّدًا وَعَلِيًّا (both accusative).

Examples

رَأَيْتُ مُحَمَّدًا وَعَلِيًّا.
رَأَيْتُ مُحَمَّدًا وَعَلِيٌّ.
The coordinated noun copies the accusative of the first object: عَلِيًّا, not the nominative عَلِيٌّ.
جَاءَ الطَّالِبُ وَالْمُعَلِّمُ.
جَاءَ الطَّالِبُ وَالْمُعَلِّمَ.
Both are subjects, so both are nominative (الْمُعَلِّمُ); accusative الْمُعَلِّمَ is wrong here.
مَرَرْتُ بِأَحْمَدَ وَخَالِدٍ.
مَرَرْتُ بِأَحْمَدَ وَخَالِدًا.
After the preposition بِـ the case is genitive, so the coordinated خَالِدٍ is genitive too.

Common mistakes

Giving the coordinated noun a default nominative
زُرْتُ الْأُسْتَاذَ وَالْمُدِيرُ.
زُرْتُ الْأُسْتَاذَ وَالْمُدِيرَ.
The maʿṭūf copies the case of the first noun; here the object is accusative (وَالْمُدِيرَ).
Wrong case on the maʿṭūf in a genitive coordination
تَحَدَّثْتُ مَعَ سَمِيرٍ وَخَالِدًا.
تَحَدَّثْتُ مَعَ سَمِيرٍ وَخَالِدٍ.
مَعَ governs the genitive, so the coordinated noun copies it: خَالِدٍ (genitive), not the accusative خَالِدًا.

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Hundreds, Thousands & Compound Numbers

الْمِئَاتُ وَالْآلَافُ وَالْأَعْدَادُ الْمُرَكَّبَةُ

Large numbers in Arabic build on مِئَة (100) and أَلْف (1000). The counted noun after مِئَة, أَلْف, مِلْيُون is always SINGULAR and GENITIVE: مِئَةُ كِتَابٍ ('a hundred books'), أَلْفُ رَجُلٍ ('a thousand men'). Compound numbers are read from the highest part down, joined by وَ: ١٢٣ = مِئَةٌ وَثَلَاثَةٌ وَعِشْرُونَ. The hundreds are مِئَتَانِ (200), ثَلَاثُمِئَةٍ (300)…; thousands أَلْفَانِ (2000), ثَلَاثَةُ آلَافٍ (3000). The تمييز (counted noun) takes its number/case from the LAST part of the compound.

Key rule

After مِئَة، أَلْف، مِلْيُون the counted noun is SINGULAR and GENITIVE (مِئَةُ كِتَابٍ); in compounds the tamyīz follows the LAST element.

Examples

فِي الْمَكْتَبَةِ مِئَةُ كِتَابٍ.
فِي الْمَكْتَبَةِ مِئَةُ كُتُبٍ.
After مِئَة the counted noun is SINGULAR genitive (كِتَابٍ), never the plural كُتُبٍ.
دَفَعْتُ أَلْفَ دِينَارٍ.
دَفَعْتُ أَلْفَ دَنَانِيرَ.
After أَلْف the noun is singular genitive (دِينَارٍ), not the broken plural دَنَانِيرَ.
حَضَرَ مِئَةٌ وَخَمْسُونَ طَالِبًا.
حَضَرَ مِئَةٌ وَخَمْسُونَ طُلَّابٍ.
The last element is 50, which takes a singular ACCUSATIVE tamyīz (طَالِبًا).

Common mistakes

Pluralising the noun after miʾa/alf
مِئَةُ طُلَّابٍ.
مِئَةُ طَالِبٍ.
مِئَة، أَلْف، مِلْيُون take a SINGULAR genitive tamyīz, unlike English 'a hundred students'.
Ignoring the last element for the tamyīz
مِئَةٌ وَعِشْرُونَ كُتُبًا.
مِئَةٌ وَعِشْرُونَ كِتَابًا.
The last part (20) governs a singular ACCUSATIVE tamyīz (كِتَابًا).

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Ordinal Numbers: Full System

الْأَعْدَادُ التَّرْتِيبِيَّةُ الْكَامِلَةُ

Ordinal numbers ('first, second, third…') are ADJECTIVES, so they come AFTER the noun and AGREE with it in gender and definiteness: الدَّرْسُ الْأَوَّلُ ('the first lesson'), الصَّفْحَةُ الثَّالِثَةُ ('the third page'). They follow the فَاعِل pattern from 2 to 10 (ثَانٍ، ثَالِث، رَابِع…) plus أَوَّل for 'first'. For 11th–19th, both parts take the masculine/feminine form and end in fatḥa: الْفَصْلُ الْحَادِيَ عَشَرَ ('the eleventh chapter'), الصَّفْحَةُ الْحَادِيَةَ عَشْرَةَ. Tens like العِشْرُونَ are used as-is for 20th.

Key rule

Ordinals are adjectives: they FOLLOW the noun and agree with it in gender and definiteness (الدَّرْسُ الْأَوَّلُ، الصَّفْحَةُ الثَّالِثَةُ).

Examples

قَرَأْتُ الْفَصْلَ الْأَوَّلَ.
قَرَأْتُ الْأَوَّلَ الْفَصْلَ.
The ordinal is an adjective and FOLLOWS its noun: الْفَصْلَ الْأَوَّلَ, not the English order.
هَذِهِ هِيَ الْمَرَّةُ الثَّالِثَةُ.
هَذِهِ هِيَ الْمَرَّةُ الثَّالِثُ.
A feminine noun (الْمَرَّة) needs the feminine ordinal الثَّالِثَةُ, not the masculine الثَّالِث.
نَحْنُ فِي الْقَرْنِ الْحَادِي وَالْعِشْرِينَ.
نَحْنُ فِي الْقَرْنِ الْعِشْرِينَ وَالْحَادِي.
Compound ordinals are read unit + وَ + ten: الْحَادِي وَالْعِشْرِينَ ('twenty-first').

Common mistakes

Placing the ordinal before the noun
الْأَوَّلُ الدَّرْسُ صَعْبٌ.
الدَّرْسُ الْأَوَّلُ صَعْبٌ.
Ordinals are adjectives; they come AFTER the noun in Arabic.
No gender agreement on the ordinal
الصَّفْحَةُ الثَّالِثُ.
الصَّفْحَةُ الثَّالِثَةُ.
The ordinal agrees in gender with its noun; a feminine noun needs الثَّالِثَة.

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Duration: mundhu / li-

التَّعْبِيرُ عَنِ الْمُدَّةِ (مُنْذُ وَلِـ)

To say how long something has lasted, Arabic uses مُنْذُ (or its short form مُذْ) for 'since / for', and لِـ / لِمُدَّةِ for 'for (a period)'. مُنْذُ marks the STARTING point or the whole span: أَدْرُسُ الْعَرَبِيَّةَ مُنْذُ سَنَتَيْنِ ('I have been studying Arabic for two years'), لَمْ أَرَهُ مُنْذُ الصَّبَاحِ ('I haven't seen him since morning'). The noun after مُنْذُ is GENITIVE. For an action lasting a length of time you can also say لِمُدَّةِ ثَلَاثِ سَاعَاتٍ ('for three hours'). Crucially, Arabic uses the PRESENT tense for an action still going on ('have been doing').

Key rule

Use مُنْذُ + GENITIVE for 'since/for'; for an action still ongoing use the PRESENT tense (أَدْرُسُ … مُنْذُ سَنَتَيْنِ).

Examples

أَدْرُسُ الْعَرَبِيَّةَ مُنْذُ سَنَتَيْنِ.
دَرَسْتُ الْعَرَبِيَّةَ مُنْذُ سَنَتَيْنِ — meaning 'I have been studying for two years (still ongoing)'.
For an action still continuing, Arabic uses the PRESENT (أَدْرُسُ), not the past.
لَمْ أَرَهُ مُنْذُ الصَّبَاحِ.
لَمْ أَرَهُ مُنْذُ الصَّبَاحُ.
مُنْذُ is a preposition; the following noun is GENITIVE (الصَّبَاحِ).
أَعِيشُ فِي هَذِهِ الْمَدِينَةِ مُنْذُ عَشْرِ سَنَوَاتٍ.
أَعِيشُ فِي هَذِهِ الْمَدِينَةِ لِعَشْرِ سَنَوَاتٍ — for an ongoing residence.
Ongoing duration up to now uses مُنْذُ; لِـ tends to mark intended/planned duration, not 'since now'.

Common mistakes

Past tense for an ongoing 'have been doing'
عَمِلْتُ هُنَا مُنْذُ خَمْسِ سَنَوَاتٍ — meaning 'I still work here'.
أَعْمَلُ هُنَا مُنْذُ خَمْسِ سَنَوَاتٍ.
If the action continues to now, Arabic uses the PRESENT with مُنْذُ, not the past.
Nominative/accusative noun after mundhu
مُنْذُ سَاعَةً.
مُنْذُ سَاعَةٍ.
مُنْذُ governs the genitive on the following noun (سَاعَةٍ).

B1Numbers dates time

Tamyīz after kam

تَمْيِيزُ كَمْ

The interrogative كَمْ ('how many?') is followed by a SINGULAR noun in the ACCUSATIVE — كَمْ كِتَابًا قَرَأْتَ؟ ('how many books did you read?'), كَمْ سَاعَةً تَنَامُ؟ ('how many hours do you sleep?'). This noun is called the تَمْيِيز ('specifier') of كَمْ. Note: it is SINGULAR (not plural) and ACCUSATIVE (fatḥa/tanwīn fatḥ), even though in English we say 'how many bookS'. If a preposition comes between كَمْ and the noun, the noun becomes genitive instead.

Key rule

Interrogative كَمْ takes a SINGULAR ACCUSATIVE specifier (كَمْ كِتَابًا؟); insert مِنْ and the noun becomes genitive (كَمْ مِنْ كِتَابٍ؟).

Examples

كَمْ كِتَابًا قَرَأْتَ هَذَا الْعَامَ؟
كَمْ كُتُبًا قَرَأْتَ هَذَا الْعَامَ؟
The specifier of كَمْ is SINGULAR (كِتَابًا), not the plural كُتُبًا, despite the English 'how many books'.
كَمْ سَاعَةً تَنَامُ كُلَّ لَيْلَةٍ؟
كَمْ سَاعَةٍ تَنَامُ كُلَّ لَيْلَةٍ؟
Directly after كَمْ the specifier is accusative (سَاعَةً), not genitive (سَاعَةٍ).
كَمْ طَالِبًا فِي الصَّفِّ؟
كَمْ طَالِبٌ فِي الصَّفِّ؟
The specifier is accusative (طَالِبًا), not the default nominative طَالِبٌ.

Common mistakes

Pluralising the specifier of kam
كَمْ كُتُبًا عِنْدَكَ؟
كَمْ كِتَابًا عِنْدَكَ؟
Interrogative كَمْ takes a SINGULAR specifier, even where English uses a plural.
Genitive specifier directly after kam
كَمْ سَاعَةٍ تَدْرُسُ؟
كَمْ سَاعَةً تَدْرُسُ؟
With no intervening preposition the specifier is accusative (سَاعَةً).

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Centuries & Numeric Reading

قِرَاءَةُ الْقُرُونِ وَالسَّنَوَاتِ

To read centuries, Arabic uses an ORDINAL number after الْقَرْن ('the century'): فِي الْقَرْنِ الْعِشْرِينَ ('in the twentieth century'), فِي الْقَرْنِ الْحَادِي وَالْعِشْرِينَ ('in the 21st century'). Years are read as cardinal numbers in a genitive iḍāfa after سَنَة / عَام: فِي سَنَةِ أَلْفَيْنِ وَأَرْبَعٍ وَعِشْرِينَ ('in the year 2024'). After فِي / سَنَةِ everything is GENITIVE. Centuries usually use ordinals (agreeing in gender), while years use cardinals.

Key rule

Read centuries with an ORDINAL (فِي الْقَرْنِ الْحَادِي وَالْعِشْرِينَ) and years with a CARDINAL (فِي سَنَةِ أَلْفَيْنِ وَأَرْبَعٍ وَعِشْرِينَ); everything after فِي/سَنَةِ is genitive.

Examples

نَعِيشُ فِي الْقَرْنِ الْحَادِي وَالْعِشْرِينَ.
نَعِيشُ فِي الْقَرْنِ الْوَاحِدِ وَالْعِشْرِينَ.
Centuries use the ORDINAL الْحَادِي ('first'), not the cardinal الْوَاحِد.
بُنِيَ هَذَا الْمَسْجِدُ فِي الْقَرْنِ الْخَامِسَ عَشَرَ.
بُنِيَ هَذَا الْمَسْجِدُ فِي الْقَرْنِ خَمْسَةَ عَشَرَ.
Use the ordinal teen form الْخَامِسَ عَشَرَ, not the cardinal خَمْسَةَ عَشَرَ.
وُلِدَ فِي سَنَةِ أَلْفٍ وَتِسْعِمِئَةٍ وَتِسْعِينَ.
وُلِدَ فِي سَنَةِ أَلْفٌ وَتِسْعُمِئَةٌ وَتِسْعُونَ.
After سَنَةِ the year number is read in the GENITIVE (أَلْفٍ … تِسْعِينَ).

Common mistakes

Using a cardinal for a century
فِي الْقَرْنِ عِشْرِينَ.
فِي الْقَرْنِ الْعِشْرِينَ.
Centuries take an ordinal (here the tens-form العِشْرِينَ as ordinal), with al- and genitive after فِي.
Wāḥid instead of ḥādī in 21st
الْقَرْنُ الْوَاحِدُ وَالْعِشْرُونَ.
الْقَرْنُ الْحَادِي وَالْعِشْرُونَ.
In the ordinal compound 'twenty-first', 'first' is الْحَادِي, not الْوَاحِد.

B1Register

MSA vs Dialect Register

الْفُصْحَى وَالْعَامِّيَّةُ

Arabic exists in two main layers: al-fuṣḥā (Modern Standard Arabic, MSA) and al-ʿāmmiyya (the spoken dialects). MSA is the shared written and formal language — used in news, books, official documents, lectures and any serious writing — while dialects are what people actually speak at home and on the street, and they differ from country to country. When you write or speak formally you must stay in fuṣḥā: avoid dialect words, dialect verb prefixes (like bi-), and dialect pronunciations. The most common leakage is using everyday spoken words (like a dialect 'I want' or 'now') instead of their fuṣḥā equivalents. Knowing which level a situation calls for, and not mixing them, is a core B1 skill.

Key rule

In all formal writing and speaking, stay in al-fuṣḥā (MSA): use standard vocabulary, full conjugation and standard negation, and never mix in dialect words or the spoken bi-/ḥa- prefixes.

Examples

أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَذْهَبَ إِلَى السُّوقِ الْآنَ.
عَايِز أَرُوح السُّوق دِلْوَقْتِي.
The first is fuṣḥā (أُرِيدُ، الْآنَ); the second uses Egyptian dialect words عايز 'want' and دلوقتي 'now', which do not belong in MSA.
هَذَا الْكِتَابُ مُفِيدٌ جِدًّا.
الْكِتَابُ دَه مُفِيدٌ قَوِي.
MSA uses هَذَا for 'this' and جِدًّا for 'very'; دَه and قَوِي are dialect demonstrative and intensifier.
سَأَكْتُبُ الرِّسَالَةَ غَدًا.
حَكْتِب الرِّسَالَة بُكْرَة.
MSA marks the future with سـ on the verb; the dialect حـ prefix and بُكْرَة 'tomorrow' are spoken forms.

Common mistakes

Using the dialect indicative prefix bi- in MSA
هُوَ بِيَكْتُبُ الْآنَ.
هُوَ يَكْتُبُ الْآنَ.
MSA's present is the bare imperfect (يَكْتُبُ); the بـ prefix is a spoken-dialect aspect marker and never appears in fuṣḥā.
Borrowing dialect content words
أَنَا عَايِز قَهْوَة.
أَنَا أُرِيدُ قَهْوَةً.
عايز 'want' is colloquial; the MSA verb is أُرِيدُ, and the noun takes tanwīn (قَهْوَةً).

B1Register

Formal Letters & Emails

الْمُرَاسَلَاتُ الرَّسْمِيَّةُ

Formal Arabic letters and emails follow fixed conventions. They open with a respectful salutation — often حَضْرَةُ + title, or السَّيِّدُ الْمُحْتَرَمُ — followed by تَحِيَّةً طَيِّبَةً وَبَعْدُ ('warm greetings, and then…'), which signals the start of the body. The body uses polite, indirect phrasing: أَتَشَرَّفُ بِأَنْ، أَوَدُّ أَنْ، يُرْجَى, and similar formulas, plus the courtesy pronoun حَضْرَتُكُمْ / سِيَادَتُكُمْ instead of plain 'you'. You close with a fixed phrase such as وَتَفَضَّلُوا بِقَبُولِ فَائِقِ الِاحْتِرَامِ ('please accept our highest respect') and then your name. Learning these set openings, connectors and closings is what makes your writing sound properly formal rather than like casual speech.

Key rule

A formal Arabic letter follows a fixed frame: respectful salutation → تَحِيَّةً طَيِّبَةً وَبَعْدُ → polite purpose statements with حَضْرَتُكُمْ and يُرْجَى → a set closing such as وَتَفَضَّلُوا بِقَبُولِ فَائِقِ الِاحْتِرَامِ → name.

Examples

حَضْرَةَ الْمُدِيرِ الْمُحْتَرَمِ، تَحِيَّةً طَيِّبَةً وَبَعْدُ،
أَهْلًا يَا مُدِير، إِزَّيَّكْ؟
The first is the standard formal opening; the second is a casual/dialect greeting unsuitable for an official letter.
أَتَشَرَّفُ بِأَنْ أَتَقَدَّمَ إِلَيْكُمْ بِطَلَبِ الِالْتِحَاقِ بِالْعَمَلِ.
أَنَا عَايِز أَشْتَغِل عِنْدُكُمْ.
Formal correspondence uses deferential verbs (أَتَشَرَّفُ بِأَنْ); the second sentence is blunt dialect.
يُرْجَى التَّكَرُّمُ بِالنَّظَرِ فِي طَلَبِي.
شُوفُوا طَلَبِي بِسُرْعَة.
Requests use the impersonal يُرْجَى + maṣdar; a direct imperative is too informal.

Common mistakes

Addressing an official with the bare 'you'
أَنْتَ يَا مُدِير، أُرِيدُ إِجَازَةً.
حَضْرَةَ الْمُدِيرِ الْمُحْتَرَمِ، أَرْجُو الْمُوَافَقَةَ عَلَى إِجَازَةٍ.
Formal letters use an honorific title plus حَضْرَتُكُمْ/سِيَادَتُكُمْ, never the plain أَنْتَ.
Opening with a casual greeting
مَرْحَبًا، إِزَّيَّك؟
تَحِيَّةً طَيِّبَةً وَبَعْدُ،
The standard transition into a formal letter is تَحِيَّةً طَيِّبَةً وَبَعْدُ; dialect greetings break the register.

B1Vocabulary usage

Common Idiomatic Frames

تَعَابِيرُ اصْطِلَاحِيَّةٌ

Arabic uses many fixed adverbial and discourse frames that you learn as whole chunks rather than building word by word. Many follow the pattern عَلَى + noun (عَلَى كُلِّ حَالٍ 'anyway/in any case', عَلَى سَبِيلِ الْمِثَالِ 'for example', عَلَى الْفَوْرِ 'immediately'), or بِـ + noun (بِشَكْلٍ عَامٍّ 'generally', بِالطَّبْعِ 'of course', بِالنِّسْبَةِ لِـ 'as for / regarding'). Others are short fixed phrases like فِي الْوَاقِعِ 'in fact', مِنْ نَاحِيَةٍ… وَمِنْ نَاحِيَةٍ أُخْرَى 'on one hand… on the other', لَا بَأْسَ 'no problem'. These idioms make your speech and writing sound natural and connect your ideas — but the noun inside them is governed by the preposition, so it must be in the genitive. Memorise each frame as a unit, with its correct ending.

Key rule

Learn adverbial idioms as fixed blocks (عَلَى كُلِّ حَالٍ، بِشَكْلٍ عَامٍّ، فِي الْوَاقِعِ); the noun inside is always genitive, and you cannot swap its words for synonyms.

Examples

عَلَى كُلِّ حَالٍ، سَأَزُورُكَ غَدًا.
عَلَى كُلَّ حَالًا، سَأَزُورُكَ غَدًا.
After عَلَى the noun is genitive: كُلِّ حَالٍ, not the accusative كُلَّ حَالًا.
أُحِبُّ الْفَاكِهَةَ، عَلَى سَبِيلِ الْمِثَالِ التُّفَّاحَ.
أُحِبُّ الْفَاكِهَةَ، عَلَى سَبِيلٍ مِثَالٍ التُّفَّاحَ.
The frame is the fixed iḍāfa عَلَى سَبِيلِ الْمِثَالِ; you cannot add tanwīn or break the construct.
بِشَكْلٍ عَامٍّ، الطَّقْسُ جَمِيلٌ هُنَا.
بِطَرِيقَةٍ عَامَّةٍ، الطَّقْسُ جَمِيلٌ هُنَا.
The set phrase is بِشَكْلٍ عَامٍّ; بِطَرِيقَةٍ عَامَّةٍ is not the idiomatic form.

Common mistakes

Putting the idiom's noun in the wrong case
عَلَى كُلَّ حَالًا
عَلَى كُلِّ حَالٍ
The preposition عَلَى forces the genitive; both كُلّ and حَال must end in kasra/kasratān.
Substituting a synonym inside a fixed frame
بِنَوْعٍ عَامٍّ
بِشَكْلٍ عَامٍّ
Idioms are fixed; the conventional word is شَكْل, and it cannot be replaced by نَوْع.

B1Orthography

Medial Hamza Seats

كِتَابَةُ الْهَمْزَةِ الْمُتَوَسِّطَةِ

When a hamza (ء) falls in the MIDDLE of a word, you must decide what to write it ON — its 'seat'. The rule compares two vowels: the vowel ON the hamza and the vowel BEFORE it, and the STRONGER of the two chooses the seat. Strength order is: kasra (i) is strongest → seat is yāʾ ئ; then ḍamma (u) → seat is wāw ؤ; then fatḥa (a) → seat is alif أ; and sukūn (no vowel) is weakest. So سُؤَال has a wāw seat (ḍamma is strongest there), سَأَلَ has an alif seat (fatḥa wins over sukūn), and بِئْر / فِئَة take a yāʾ seat (kasra wins). When the hamza sits on a yāʾ seat the dots of the yāʾ are dropped (ئـ). This is one of the trickiest parts of Arabic spelling, so learn the strength ladder.

Key rule

For a medial hamza, compare the vowel on it with the vowel before it and let the stronger one pick the seat: kasra→ئ (yāʾ, no dots), ḍamma→ؤ (wāw), fatḥa→أ (alif), with sukūn weakest.

Examples

سُؤَال
سْأَال
The preceding ḍamma is stronger than the hamza's fatḥa, so the seat is wāw (ؤ): سُؤَال.
سَأَلَ
سَءَلَ
Both vowels are fatḥa, so fatḥa chooses the alif seat (أ); a bare hamza on the line is wrong here.
بِئْر
بِأْر
The hamza is voweless (sukūn) and the preceding vowel is kasra; kasra wins, so the seat is yāʾ (ئ).

Common mistakes

Ignoring the vowel-strength ladder
سُأَال
سُؤَال
The strongest vowel (the preceding ḍamma) chooses the seat, so it must be a wāw seat (ؤ), not an alif.
Keeping the dots on the yāʾ seat
مِيَة (with dotted yāʾ)
مِئَة
When the hamza sits on a yāʾ, the two dots are dropped, giving ئ.

B1Orthography

Final Hamza Seats

كِتَابَةُ الْهَمْزَةِ الْمُتَطَرِّفَةِ

When a hamza comes at the END of a word, its seat depends only on the vowel of the letter BEFORE it (the hamza's own ending does not matter for the seat). If the preceding letter has a fatḥa → the hamza sits on alif (قَرَأَ, مَلْجَأ). If it has a ḍamma → on wāw (تَبَاطُؤ, لُؤْلُؤ). If it has a kasra → on a (dotless) yāʾ (قَارِئ, شَاطِئ). If the preceding letter has a SUKŪN or is a long vowel (ا و ي), the hamza is written ALONE on the line, with no seat (شَيْء, دِفْء, مَاء, سُوء, بَطِيء). This is more regular than the medial hamza, because you only look at one vowel — the one just before the hamza.

Key rule

For a word-final hamza, look only at the letter before it: fatḥa→أ, ḍamma→ؤ, kasra→ئ; but after a sukūn or a long vowel the hamza is written alone on the line (ء).

Examples

قَرَأَ
قَرَأَء
The preceding letter carries fatḥa, so the final hamza sits on alif (أ); adding a separate ء is wrong.
شَيْء
شَيْأ
The letter before the hamza (yāʾ with sukūn) is voweless, so the hamza is written alone on the line, not on an alif.
قَارِئ
قَارِء
The preceding kasra requires a (dotless) yāʾ seat (ئ); a bare hamza ignores that kasra.

Common mistakes

Putting the final hamza on a seat after a sukūn
شَيْئ (as the citation form)
شَيْء
A voweless letter before the hamza means it is written alone on the line: شَيْء.
Adding an alif seat after a long vowel
مَاأ
مَاء
After ا/و/ي the final hamza stands alone; it never sits on another alif.

B1Orthography

The Distinguishing Alif (Alif al-Tafrīq)

أَلِفُ التَّفْرِيقِ (الْفَارِقَةُ)

When a plural verb ends in the subject-wāw 'they/you' (the wāw al-jamāʿa), Arabic adds a SILENT alif after that wāw. This extra alif — alif al-tafrīq, the 'distinguishing alif' — is written but NOT pronounced. Its job is to separate the plural-verb wāw from the wāw that is part of a root or a different word, so كَتَبُوا 'they wrote' is clearly a verb, not 'their kataba-w'. You write it after the wāw in the past tense (كَتَبُوا), in the present subjunctive/jussive (لَنْ يَكْتُبُوا، لَمْ يَكْتُبُوا), and in the plural imperative (اكْتُبُوا!). You do NOT write it when the wāw is part of the verb's root (like in يَدْعُو 'he calls') or a noun. Remember: write the alif, but never say it.

Key rule

Add a silent alif after the plural-subject wāw of a verb (كَتَبُوا، لَنْ يَكْتُبُوا، اكْتُبُوا!), but never when the wāw is a root letter (يَدْعُو) or when the indicative نون is present (يَكْتُبُونَ).

Examples

كَتَبُوا الدَّرْسَ.
كَتَبُو الدَّرْسَ.
The plural-verb wāw must be followed by the silent alif al-tafrīq: كَتَبُوا.
لَمْ يَذْهَبُوا إِلَى الْمَدْرَسَةِ.
لَمْ يَذْهَبُونَ إِلَى الْمَدْرَسَةِ.
After لَمْ the verb is jussive: the نون is dropped and the silent alif is added after the wāw (يَذْهَبُوا).
اكْتُبُوا أَسْمَاءَكُمْ.
اكْتُبُو أَسْمَاءَكُمْ.
The plural imperative ends in wāw + silent alif: اكْتُبُوا.

Common mistakes

Omitting the silent alif on a plural verb
ذَهَبُو إِلَى السُّوقِ.
ذَهَبُوا إِلَى السُّوقِ.
The plural-subject wāw of a past verb must be followed by alif al-tafrīq: ذَهَبُوا.
Adding the alif to the present indicative
هُمْ يَكْتُبُوا الْآنَ.
هُمْ يَكْتُبُونَ الْآنَ.
The indicative keeps the نون (يَكْتُبُونَ); the distinguishing alif only appears when that نون is dropped.

B1Particles

Exception with illā

الاسْتِثْناءُ بِـ إِلّا

Exception (al-istithnāʾ) is how Arabic says 'all of X except Y'. The most common tool is the particle إِلّا (except). The sentence has three parts: the general group (al-mustathnā minhu), the particle إِلّا, and the excepted item (al-mustathnā). In a complete affirmative sentence — where the group is mentioned and the sentence is positive — the excepted noun after إِلّا is ACCUSATIVE (manṣūb): جَاءَ الطُّلَّابُ إِلّا طَالِبًا (the students came except one student). The accusative ending (fatḥa/tanwīn fatḥ) is the visible sign of exception. Learn the frame 'group … إِلّا + accusative noun' and the case ending becomes automatic.

Key rule

In a complete affirmative sentence, the noun after إِلّا is accusative (manṣūb): جَاءَ الطُّلَّابُ إِلّا طَالِبًا.

Examples

حَضَرَ الطُّلَّابُ إِلّا طَالِبًا.
حَضَرَ الطُّلَّابُ إِلّا طَالِبٌ.
In a complete affirmative sentence the excepted noun is accusative: طَالِبًا, not nominative طَالِبٌ.
قَرَأْتُ الْكُتُبَ كُلَّهَا إِلّا كِتَابًا.
قَرَأْتُ الْكُتُبَ كُلَّهَا إِلّا كِتَابٍ.
The mustathnā after إِلّا takes fatḥa (كِتَابًا), never genitive كِتَابٍ.
نَجَحَ الْجَمِيعُ إِلّا الْمُهْمِلَ.
نَجَحَ الْجَمِيعُ إِلّا الْمُهْمِلُ.
A definite excepted noun is still accusative: الْمُهْمِلَ with fatḥa.

Common mistakes

Leaving the excepted noun in the nominative
جَاءَ الطُّلَّابُ إِلّا طَالِبٌ
جَاءَ الطُّلَّابُ إِلّا طَالِبًا
In a complete affirmative sentence the noun after إِلّا must be accusative (fatḥa/tanwīn fatḥ).
Putting the excepted noun in the genitive (treating إِلّا like a preposition)
قَرَأْتُ الْكُتُبَ إِلّا كِتَابٍ
قَرَأْتُ الْكُتُبَ إِلّا كِتَابًا
إِلّا is not a preposition; it governs the accusative, not the genitive.

B1Particles

Exception with ghayr / siwā

الاسْتِثْناءُ بِـ غَيْرٍ وسِوَى

Besides إِلّا, Arabic expresses exception with the nouns غَيْر and سِوَى. They are not particles but nouns, so they form an iḍāfa (construct) with the excepted item, which therefore becomes GENITIVE: حَضَرَ الطُّلَّابُ غَيْرَ طَالِبٍ (the students came except one student). Crucially, غَيْر / سِوَى themselves take exactly the case that the excepted noun would have taken after إِلّا — so in a complete affirmative sentence غَيْر is ACCUSATIVE (غَيْرَ), while the noun after it is genitive. سِوَى is written with a final alif maqṣūra and its case ending is hidden (muqaddar). Frame: 'group … غَيْرَ + genitive noun'.

Key rule

غَيْر and سِوَى are exceptive nouns: the excepted item after them is genitive (iḍāfa), while غَيْر itself takes the case إِلّا's noun would have had — accusative in a complete affirmative sentence (غَيْرَ طَالِبٍ).

Examples

حَضَرَ الطُّلَّابُ غَيْرَ طَالِبٍ.
حَضَرَ الطُّلَّابُ غَيْرَ طَالِبًا.
The noun after غَيْر is a muḍāf ilayhi, so it is genitive طَالِبٍ, not accusative.
نَجَحَ الْجَمِيعُ غَيْرَ وَاحِدٍ.
نَجَحَ الْجَمِيعُ غَيْرُ وَاحِدٍ.
In a complete affirmative sentence غَيْر is accusative (غَيْرَ), like إِلّا's noun would be.
قَرَأْتُ الْكُتُبَ سِوَى كِتَابٍ.
قَرَأْتُ الْكُتُبَ سِوَى كِتَابٌ.
The noun after سِوَى is genitive (كِتَابٍ), being the second term of a construct.

Common mistakes

Making the noun after غَيْر accusative like إِلّا's noun
غَيْرَ طَالِبًا
غَيْرَ طَالِبٍ
غَيْر is a noun; the excepted item is its muḍāf ilayhi, so it is genitive.
Leaving غَيْر in the nominative in a complete affirmative sentence
حَضَرَ الْجَمِيعُ غَيْرُ وَاحِدٍ
حَضَرَ الْجَمِيعُ غَيْرَ وَاحِدٍ
غَيْر carries the case إِلّا's noun would carry — accusative here.

B1Particles

inna and Sisters: Full Use

إِنَّ وأَخَواتُها (مُوَسَّعٌ)

إِنَّ and its 'sisters' are particles that open a nominal sentence and put the topic (now called اسْم إِنَّ) in the ACCUSATIVE, while the predicate (خَبَر إِنَّ) stays nominative. You already met إِنَّ، أَنَّ، لَكِنَّ، لِأَنَّ. The full family adds: كَأَنَّ (as if / as though, for likeness), لَيْتَ (if only / I wish, for unattainable wishes), and لَعَلَّ (perhaps / hopefully, for hope or fear). Example: لَيْتَ الشَّبَابَ يَعُودُ (if only youth would return); كَأَنَّ الْوَلَدَ أَسَدٌ (the boy is as if a lion); لَعَلَّ الْجَوَّ جَمِيلٌ غَدًا (perhaps the weather will be nice tomorrow). The frame is the same: sister + accusative noun + nominative predicate.

Key rule

Every sister of إِنَّ (إِنَّ، أَنَّ، كَأَنَّ، لَكِنَّ، لَيْتَ، لَعَلَّ) makes its noun accusative (ism inna) and keeps the predicate nominative (khabar inna).

Examples

كَأَنَّ الْوَلَدَ أَسَدٌ.
كَأَنَّ الْوَلَدُ أَسَدٌ.
كَأَنَّ makes its noun accusative: الْوَلَدَ; the predicate أَسَدٌ stays nominative.
لَيْتَ الشَّبَابَ يَعُودُ يَوْمًا.
لَيْتَ الشَّبَابُ يَعُودُ يَوْمًا.
After لَيْتَ the noun is accusative: الشَّبَابَ, expressing an unattainable wish.
لَعَلَّ الْجَوَّ جَمِيلٌ غَدًا.
لَعَلَّ الْجَوُّ جَمِيلٌ غَدًا.
لَعَلَّ (perhaps/hope) makes its noun accusative: الْجَوَّ.

Common mistakes

Leaving the noun of كَأَنَّ in the nominative
كَأَنَّ الْوَلَدُ أَسَدٌ
كَأَنَّ الْوَلَدَ أَسَدٌ
Every sister of إِنَّ makes its noun accusative (ism inna).
Making the predicate of لَعَلَّ accusative too
لَعَلَّ الْجَوَّ جَمِيلًا
لَعَلَّ الْجَوَّ جَمِيلٌ
Only the noun is accusative; the khabar stays nominative.

B1Particles

The Emphatic Lām after inna

اللامُ المُزَحْلَقَةُ

When a sentence opens with إِنَّ, you can add an emphatic لَـ ('truly, indeed') to strengthen the assertion. This لَـ is called al-lām al-muzaḥliqa ('the slipped lām') because it 'slips' from the start of the sentence onto the PREDICATE: إِنَّ الْعِلْمَ لَنُورٌ (knowledge is truly a light). Normally لَـ would belong at the very front with إِنَّ, but since two emphasis markers cannot stand together, it moves to the khabar. It prefixes the predicate (لَنُورٌ), or the ism if the khabar is delayed, or an attached pronoun. It does NOT change any case ending — it is purely for emphasis.

Key rule

After إِنَّ, an emphatic لَـ ('truly') slips onto the predicate (or delayed ism / separating pronoun) without changing any case: إِنَّ الْعِلْمَ لَنُورٌ.

Examples

إِنَّ الْعِلْمَ لَنُورٌ.
لَإِنَّ الْعِلْمَ نُورٌ.
The emphatic لَـ slips onto the predicate لَنُورٌ; it never attaches to إِنَّ at the front.
إِنَّ الْحَقَّ لَوَاضِحٌ.
إِنَّ الْحَقَّ لَوَاضِحًا.
The لَـ adds emphasis but does not change the case: the khabar stays nominative وَاضِحٌ.
إِنَّ فِي ذَلِكَ لَعِبْرَةً.
إِنَّ فِي ذَلِكَ عِبْرَةٌ لَ.
With a fronted khabar, the لَـ prefixes the delayed accusative ism: لَعِبْرَةً.

Common mistakes

Attaching the لَـ to إِنَّ at the front
لَإِنَّ الْعِلْمَ نُورٌ
إِنَّ الْعِلْمَ لَنُورٌ
Two emphasizers cannot begin a sentence; the لَـ slips onto the predicate.
Thinking the لَـ changes the case of the khabar
إِنَّ الْحَقَّ لَوَاضِحًا
إِنَّ الْحَقَّ لَوَاضِحٌ
The emphatic لَـ is purely semantic; the khabar stays nominative.

B1Prepositions

Compound (Phrasal) Prepositions

حُروفُ الجَرِّ المُرَكَّبَةُ (شِبْهُ الجُمْلَةِ الظَّرْفِيَّةُ)

Beyond the simple prepositions, Arabic builds compound (phrasal) prepositions from a preposition or noun + a following genitive: بِسَبَبِ (because of), بِفَضْلِ (thanks to), مِنْ أَجْلِ (for the sake of), بِالنِّسْبَةِ إِلَى (with respect to), فِيمَا يَتَعَلَّقُ بِـ (regarding), حَوْلَ (around/about), خِلَالَ (during), عَبْرَ (across/through). They behave like one unit and ALWAYS put the following noun in the GENITIVE: بِسَبَبِ الْمَطَرِ (because of the rain), مِنْ أَجْلِ الْعَائِلَةِ (for the family's sake). They are essential for connecting ideas (cause, purpose, time) in B1-level writing.

Key rule

Compound prepositions (بِسَبَبِ، مِنْ أَجْلِ، حَوْلَ، خِلَالَ، بِالنِّسْبَةِ إِلَى …) act as one unit and put the following noun in the genitive.

Examples

تَأَخَّرْتُ بِسَبَبِ الزِّحَامِ.
تَأَخَّرْتُ بِسَبَبِ الزِّحَامُ.
The noun after بِسَبَبِ is genitive (iḍāfa): الزِّحَامِ, not nominative.
نَجَحْتُ بِفَضْلِ مُعَلِّمِي.
نَجَحْتُ بِفَضْلَ مُعَلِّمِي.
بِفَضْل ends in kasra (genitive of بـ), and the noun after it is genitive too.
عَمِلَ بِجِدٍّ مِنْ أَجْلِ أُسْرَتِهِ.
عَمِلَ بِجِدٍّ مِنْ أَجْلُ أُسْرَتِهِ.
أَجْل is genitive after مِنْ, and the whole phrase governs a genitive noun.

Common mistakes

Leaving the noun nominative after a compound preposition
بِسَبَبِ الْمَطَرُ
بِسَبَبِ الْمَطَرِ
The final noun in a compound preposition is genitive (it is a muḍāf ilayhi).
Making the adverbial part nominative
خِلَالُ الْأُسْبُوعِ
خِلَالَ الْأُسْبُوعِ
Adverbial prepositions like خِلَالَ، حَوْلَ stay accusative (ẓarf manṣūb).

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B1Relative clauses

Relatives without the Article: man & mā

المَوْصولُ العامُّ (مَنْ وما)

Besides الَّذِي/الَّتِي (the one who, with a specific antecedent), Arabic has two GENERAL relative nouns that contain their own antecedent: مَنْ ('the one(s) who / whoever', for people) and مَا ('that which / what / whatever', for things and ideas). They need no preceding noun: مَنْ يَدْرُسْ يَنْجَحْ (whoever studies succeeds); أُحِبُّ مَا تَقُولُ (I like what you say). The relative clause that follows still needs a returning pronoun (ʿāʾid) where required: هَذَا مَا أُرِيدُهُ (this is what I want — note the ـه). مَنْ/مَا are invariable: one form covers singular, dual, plural, masculine and feminine.

Key rule

مَنْ ('the one who', people) and مَا ('that which', things) are invariable relatives that include their own antecedent; their clause keeps a returning pronoun where needed.

Examples

سَاعِدْ مَنْ يَحْتَاجُ إِلَى الْمُسَاعَدَةِ.
سَاعِدِ الَّذِي يَحْتَاجُ إِلَى الْمُسَاعَدَةِ.
With no specific antecedent, the general relative مَنْ is more natural than الَّذِي.
خُذْ مَا تُرِيدُهُ.
خُذْ مَا تُرِيدُ مِنْ ذَلِكَ الَّذِي.
مَا is the general relative for things; the ʿāʾid pronoun ـه returns to it.
لَا أَفْهَمُ مَا قُلْتَهُ.
لَا أَفْهَمُ مَا قُلْتَ هُوَ.
The returning pronoun is the attached object ـه (قُلْتَهُ), not a detached هُوَ.

Common mistakes

Using مَا for people or مَنْ for things
أَحْتَرِمُ مَا يَعْمَلُ بِجِدٍّ
أَحْتَرِمُ مَنْ يَعْمَلُ بِجِدٍّ
مَنْ is for rational beings (people); مَا is for things/ideas.
Dropping the returning pronoun (ʿāʾid)
هَذَا مَا أُرِيدُ
هَذَا مَا أُرِيدُهُ
When the verb needs an object, the clause keeps a pronoun returning to مَا.

B1Syntax

Fronting for Emphasis (Taqdīm)

التَّقْديمُ والتَّأْخيرُ

Arabic word order is flexible, and moving a word to the FRONT (taqdīm) puts it in focus. You can front the predicate before the subject (فِي الْبَيْتِ ضَيْفٌ — there is a guest in the house / IN THE HOUSE is a guest), or front the object before the verb for emphasis (الْكِتَابَ قَرَأْتُ — THE BOOK I read). Crucially, the words keep their original case: a fronted object stays accusative (الْكِتَابَ), a fronted khabar that is a prepositional phrase has no case to change. Fronting a prepositional/adverbial khabar is also REQUIRED when the subject (mubtadaʾ) is indefinite: عِنْدِي سُؤَالٌ (I have a question).

Key rule

Fronting (taqdīm) moves an element forward for focus without changing its case; a locative/prepositional khabar must precede an indefinite mubtadaʾ (فِي الْبَيْتِ ضَيْفٌ).

Examples

فِي الْحَدِيقَةِ أَطْفَالٌ.
أَطْفَالٌ فِي الْحَدِيقَةِ.
An indefinite mubtadaʾ (أَطْفَالٌ) must follow its locative khabar: فِي الْحَدِيقَةِ أَطْفَالٌ.
عِنْدِي سُؤَالٌ مُهِمٌّ.
سُؤَالٌ مُهِمٌّ عِنْدِي.
With an indefinite subject, the khabar (عِنْدِي) is fronted.
الْحَقِيقَةَ أَقُولُ، لَا الْكَذِبَ.
الْحَقِيقَةُ أَقُولُ، لَا الْكَذِبُ.
The fronted object keeps its accusative case: الْحَقِيقَةَ, not nominative.

Common mistakes

Starting a sentence with an indefinite subject and a locative khabar after it
ضَيْفٌ فِي الْبَيْتِ
فِي الْبَيْتِ ضَيْفٌ
An indefinite mubtadaʾ must follow its locative/prepositional khabar.
Changing a fronted object to nominative
الْحَقِيقَةُ أَقُولُ
الْحَقِيقَةَ أَقُولُ
Fronting does not change case; the object stays accusative.

B1Syntax

kam: Interrogative vs Exclamatory

كَمِ الاسْتِفْهامِيَّةُ والخَبَرِيَّةُ

The word كَمْ has two very different uses, distinguished by the case of the noun after it (the tamyīz / specifier). (1) Interrogative كَمْ ('how many?') asks a question and its specifier is a SINGULAR ACCUSATIVE noun: كَمْ كِتَابًا قَرَأْتَ؟ (how many books did you read?). (2) Exclamatory/predicative كَمْ ('how many …! / so many …') expresses a large amount, and its specifier is a GENITIVE noun — singular or plural: كَمْ كِتَابٍ قَرَأْتُ! (how many books I have read!), كَمْ مِنْ كُتُبٍ قَرَأْتُ! The genitive can also be introduced by مِنْ. So the case of the noun tells you whether كَمْ is a question or an exclamation.

Key rule

Interrogative كَمْ ('how many?') takes a singular accusative specifier (كَمْ كِتَابًا؟); exclamatory كَمْ ('how many…!') takes a genitive specifier, often with مِنْ (كَمْ كِتَابٍ! / كَمْ مِنْ كُتُبٍ!).

Examples

كَمْ كِتَابًا قَرَأْتَ هَذَا الْعَامَ؟
كَمْ كِتَابٍ قَرَأْتَ هَذَا الْعَامَ؟
Interrogative كَمْ takes a singular ACCUSATIVE specifier: كِتَابًا.
كَمْ كِتَابٍ قَرَأْتُ فِي حَيَاتِي!
كَمْ كِتَابًا قَرَأْتُ فِي حَيَاتِي!
Exclamatory كَمْ (how many…!) takes a GENITIVE specifier: كِتَابٍ.
كَمْ سَاعَةً تَعْمَلُ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ؟
كَمْ سَاعَاتٍ تَعْمَلُ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ؟
Interrogative تمييز is singular accusative (سَاعَةً), not plural.

Common mistakes

Using a genitive specifier with interrogative كَمْ
كَمْ كِتَابٍ قَرَأْتَ؟
كَمْ كِتَابًا قَرَأْتَ؟
A question 'how many?' takes a singular accusative specifier.
Using an accusative specifier with exclamatory كَمْ
كَمْ كِتَابًا قَرَأْتُ!
كَمْ كِتَابٍ قَرَأْتُ!
The exclamation of plenty takes a genitive specifier.

B1Syntax

Apposition (Badal)

البَدَلُ

Badal is a 'substitute' — a second noun placed right after another to clarify or rename it, with NO connecting word. The badal takes the SAME CASE as the noun it follows (al-mubdal minhu): جَاءَ أَخُوكَ مُحَمَّدٌ (your brother, Muhammad, came) — both nominative; رَأَيْتُ الْقَائِدَ خَالِدًا (I saw the leader, Khalid) — both accusative. There are three common types: badal muṭābiq (the whole = the whole: الْخَلِيفَةُ عُمَرُ), badal baʿḍ min kull (a part of the whole: أَكَلْتُ الرَّغِيفَ نِصْفَهُ — I ate the loaf, half of it), and badal ishtimāl (an attribute of the whole: أَعْجَبَنِي الطَّالِبُ أَدَبُهُ — I admired the student, his manners). The defining rule: the badal copies the case.

Key rule

A badal (substitute noun) directly follows another noun with no conjunction and copies its case: جَاءَ أَخُوكَ مُحَمَّدٌ / رَأَيْتُ أَخَاكَ مُحَمَّدًا.

Examples

جَاءَ صَدِيقُكَ عَلِيٌّ.
جَاءَ صَدِيقُكَ عَلِيًّا.
The badal عَلِيّ copies the nominative of صَدِيقُكَ: عَلِيٌّ.
رَأَيْتُ الْقَائِدَ خَالِدًا.
رَأَيْتُ الْقَائِدَ خَالِدٌ.
Both the noun and its badal are accusative (object): خَالِدًا.
سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى الْأُسْتَاذِ سَعِيدٍ.
سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى الْأُسْتَاذِ سَعِيدًا.
After a preposition both are genitive: الْأُسْتَاذِ سَعِيدٍ.

Common mistakes

Not matching the case of the badal to the first noun
جَاءَ صَدِيقُكَ عَلِيًّا
جَاءَ صَدِيقُكَ عَلِيٌّ
The badal copies the case of the mubdal minhu (here nominative).
Inserting a conjunction before the badal
أَكَلْتُ الرَّغِيفَ وَنِصْفَهُ
أَكَلْتُ الرَّغِيفَ نِصْفَهُ
Badal has no linking word; وَ would make it coordination (ʿaṭf).

B1Syntax

Emphasis (Tawkīd)

التَّوْكيدُ (نَفْس، عَيْن، كُلّ، جَميع)

Tawkīd (al-tawkīd al-maʿnawī) is a 'follower' that emphasises a noun using a fixed set of emphasiser words: نَفْس / عَيْن (self, very) and كُلّ / جَمِيع / كِلَا / كِلْتَا (all, both). The emphasiser comes after the noun, copies its CASE, and carries an attached pronoun agreeing with the noun: جَاءَ الْمُدِيرُ نَفْسُهُ (the manager himself came); رَأَيْتُ الطُّلَّابَ كُلَّهُمْ (I saw all the students); نَجَحَ الطَّالِبَانِ كِلَاهُمَا (both students passed). The rule is like badal: same case, plus a matching pronoun. كُلّ/جَمِيع emphasise the totality of a plural; نَفْس/عَيْن stress the very identity.

Key rule

An emphasiser (نَفْس، عَيْن، كُلّ، جَمِيع، كِلَا/كِلْتَا) follows its noun, copies its case, and carries a pronoun agreeing with it: جَاءَ الْمُدِيرُ نَفْسُهُ / رَأَيْتُ الطُّلَّابَ كُلَّهُمْ.

Examples

جَاءَ الْمُدِيرُ نَفْسُهُ.
جَاءَ الْمُدِيرُ نَفْسَهُ.
نَفْس copies the nominative of الْمُدِيرُ: نَفْسُهُ, with the matching pronoun ـه.
قَرَأْتُ الْكِتَابَ كُلَّهُ.
قَرَأْتُ الْكِتَابَ كُلُّهُ.
كُلّ copies the accusative of الْكِتَابَ: كُلَّهُ.
سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى الطُّلَّابِ جَمِيعِهِمْ.
سَلَّمْتُ عَلَى الطُّلَّابِ جَمِيعُهُمْ.
After a preposition the emphasiser is genitive too: جَمِيعِهِمْ.

Common mistakes

Not matching the case of the emphasiser to its noun
جَاءَ الْمُدِيرُ نَفْسَهُ
جَاءَ الْمُدِيرُ نَفْسُهُ
Tawkīd copies the case of the muʾakkad (nominative here).
Wrong pronoun agreement on the emphasiser
رَأَيْتُ الطُّلَّابَ كُلَّهَا
رَأَيْتُ الطُّلَّابَ كُلَّهُمْ
The pronoun must agree with the noun: human plural → ـهم.

B1Negation

Choosing the Negation Particle

اخْتِيارُ أَداةِ النَّفْيِ

By B1 you know several negators; the skill now is CHOOSING the right one by tense and meaning. Quick map: لا + present (indicative) = general 'does not' (لا أَشْرَبُ); ما + past = simple 'did not' (ما ذَهَبَ); لَمْ + jussive = 'did not' (the preferred MSA past negation: لَمْ يَذْهَبْ); لَنْ + subjunctive = 'will not' (لَنْ أَذْهَبَ); لَيْسَ = 'is not' for present nominal sentences (لَيْسَ مَوْجُودًا); لا النَّاهِية + jussive = 'don't!' (لا تَذْهَبْ). Each negator selects a specific verb form, so picking the negator also fixes the mood/tense of the verb. Master the table and the agreement between particle and verb form.

Key rule

Pick the negator by tense/mood: لا+present, ما/لَمْ+past (لَمْ takes the jussive), لَنْ+future (subjunctive), لَيْسَ for present nominal, لا النَّاهِية+jussive for prohibition.

Examples

لَمْ يَذْهَبْ إِلَى الْعَمَلِ أَمْسِ.
لَمْ يَذْهَبُ إِلَى الْعَمَلِ أَمْسِ.
لَمْ takes the jussive: يَذْهَبْ (sukūn), not the indicative يَذْهَبُ.
لَنْ أَنْسَى هَذَا الْيَوْمَ.
لَنْ أَنْسَ هَذَا الْيَوْمَ.
لَنْ + subjunctive; the defective verb keeps its alif (أَنْسَى), not the jussive أَنْسَ.
لا أُحِبُّ الْقَهْوَةَ.
لَمْ أُحِبُّ الْقَهْوَةَ.
For a general present fact use لا + indicative, not لَمْ (which negates the past).

Common mistakes

Using the indicative after لَمْ
لَمْ يَكْتُبُ الرِّسَالَةَ
لَمْ يَكْتُبِ الرِّسَالَةَ
لَمْ governs the jussive; the ending is sukūn (here a helping kasra before the article).
Using لَمْ for a general present fact
لَمْ أُحِبُّ الرِّيَاضَةَ
لا أُحِبُّ الرِّيَاضَةَ
لَمْ negates the past; a habitual present uses لا + indicative.

B1Negation

Categorical Negation: lā an-Nāfiya lil-Jins

لا النّافِيَةُ لِلْجِنْسِ

لا النَّافِية لِلْجِنْس ('lā of categorical negation') denies the existence of an ENTIRE class — 'there is no … at all / none whatsoever'. It works like إِنَّ but in reverse meaning: it makes the following noun (its ism) ACCUSATIVE, but when that noun is a single indefinite word directly attached, it is built (mabnī) on the fatḥa WITHOUT tanwīn: لا رَجُلَ فِي الْبَيْتِ (there is no man in the house at all); لا شَكَّ (there is no doubt). The predicate stays nominative. The most famous example is لا إِلَهَ إِلّا اللهُ. The key signs: لا directly + indefinite singular noun with a bare fatḥa (no tanwīn).

Key rule

لا an-nāfiya lil-jins denies a whole class: لا + indefinite singular noun is built on a bare fatḥa with NO tanwīn (لا رَجُلَ فِي الْبَيْتِ); a muḍāf ism is manṣūb with tanwīn.

Examples

لا رَجُلَ فِي الْبَيْتِ.
لا رَجُلٌ فِي الْبَيْتِ.
Categorical لا builds the single ism on a bare fatḥa with no tanwīn: رَجُلَ.
لا شَكَّ فِي صِدْقِهِ.
لا شَكٌّ فِي صِدْقِهِ.
The set phrase لا شَكَّ has a bare fatḥa, not tanwīn ḍamm.
لا طَالِبَ عِلْمٍ كَسُولٌ.
لا طَالِبَ عِلْمٍ كَسُولًا.
The khabar كَسُول is nominative; the muḍāf ism طَالِبَ is manṣūb (here mabnī-pattern + iḍāfa).

Common mistakes

Putting tanwīn on a single ism of categorical لا
لا رَجُلٌ فِي الْبَيْتِ
لا رَجُلَ فِي الْبَيْتِ
A single attached ism is mabnī on a bare fatḥa with NO tanwīn.
Leaving the ism nominative (ordinary negation reading)
لا شَكٌّ فِي ذَلِكَ
لا شَكَّ فِي ذَلِكَ
Categorical negation builds the noun on the fatḥa.

B1Verb forms

Form V (tafaʿʿala)

الْوَزْنُ الْخَامِسُ (تَفَعَّلَ)

Form V is built by prefixing تَـ to Form II (which already doubles the middle root letter): تَفَعَّلَ. Its core meaning is the REFLEXIVE or the RESULT of Form II — what Form II does TO something, Form V is that thing happening to itself. So عَلَّمَ (II) 'he taught' → تَعَلَّمَ (V) 'he learned' (taught himself); كَسَّرَ (II) 'he smashed' → تَكَسَّرَ (V) 'it got smashed'; طَوَّرَ 'he developed (something)' → تَطَوَّرَ 'it developed'. In the present the prefix has a fatḥa and the doubled letter keeps a fatḥa too: يَتَعَلَّمُ 'he learns'. The verbal noun follows the pattern تَفَعُّل: تَعَلُّم 'learning', تَطَوُّر 'development'. Most Form V verbs are intransitive — they describe a state you fall into, not something you do to an object.

Key rule

Form V prefixes تَـ to Form II (تَفَعَّلَ) and is the reflexive or result of Form II; it is usually intransitive, its present is يَتَفَعَّلُ (fatḥa prefix) and its maṣdar is تَفَعُّل.

Examples

يَتَعَلَّمُ الطُّلَّابُ اللُّغَةَ الْعَرَبِيَّةَ بِسُرْعَةٍ.
يُعَلَّمُ الطُّلَّابُ اللُّغَةَ الْعَرَبِيَّةَ بِسُرْعَةٍ.
Form V يَتَعَلَّمُ 'learn' (fatḥa prefix) is what the students do; يُعَلَّمُ is a Form II passive 'are taught' and does not fit the active subject الطُّلَّابُ here.
تَطَوَّرَتِ الْمَدِينَةُ كَثِيرًا فِي السَّنَوَاتِ الْأَخِيرَةِ.
طَوَّرَتِ الْمَدِينَةُ كَثِيرًا فِي السَّنَوَاتِ الْأَخِيرَةِ.
The city itself developed (intransitive) → Form V تَطَوَّرَتْ; Form II طَوَّرَتْ would mean 'developed something' and needs a direct object.
تَغَيَّرَ الطَّقْسُ فَجْأَةً بَعْدَ الظُّهْرِ.
غَيَّرَ الطَّقْسُ فَجْأَةً بَعْدَ الظُّهْرِ.
'The weather changed (by itself)' is the resultative Form V تَغَيَّرَ; Form II غَيَّرَ 'changed something' is transitive and leaves the sentence without an object.

Common mistakes

Using a ḍamma prefix (Form II shape) on a Form V present
هُوَ يُتَعَلَّمُ الْعَرَبِيَّةَ.
هُوَ يَتَعَلَّمُ الْعَرَبِيَّةَ.
Form V takes a fatḥa on the present prefix: يَتَعَلَّمُ, never the Form II ḍamma يُـ.
Giving a clearly intransitive Form V verb a direct object
تَطَوَّرَتِ الشَّرِكَةُ مُنْتَجَاتِهَا.
طَوَّرَتِ الشَّرِكَةُ مُنْتَجَاتِهَا.
تَطَوَّرَ 'to develop (oneself)' is intransitive; to take the object مُنْتَجَاتِ you need the causative Form II طَوَّرَ.

B1Verb forms

Form VI (tafāʿala)

الْوَزْنُ السَّادِسُ (تَفَاعَلَ)

Form VI is built by prefixing تَـ to Form III (the form with a long ā): تَفَاعَلَ. Its core meaning is RECIPROCAL or MUTUAL — two or more parties doing something to EACH OTHER. So كَاتَبَ (III) 'he corresponded with' → تَكَاتَبَ (VI) 'they wrote to one another'; سَاعَدَ → تَسَاعَدَ 'they helped each other'; عَاوَنَ → تَعَاوَنَ 'they cooperated'. Because it needs at least two participants, the subject is usually plural or dual. A second meaning is 'pretending' — تَمَارَضَ 'to pretend to be ill'. In the present the prefix has a fatḥa and the long ā stays: يَتَعَاوَنُونَ 'they cooperate'. The verbal noun follows تَفَاعُل: تَعَاوُن 'cooperation', تَبَادُل 'exchange'. Form VI verbs are normally intransitive.

Key rule

Form VI prefixes تَـ to Form III (تَفَاعَلَ) and is reciprocal/mutual, so it needs a plural or dual subject; it is intransitive, its present is يَتَفَاعَلُ (fatḥa prefix) and its maṣdar is تَفَاعُل.

Examples

يَتَعَاوَنُ الطُّلَّابُ فِي إِنْجَازِ الْمَشْرُوعِ.
يُعَاوِنُ الطُّلَّابُ فِي إِنْجَازِ الْمَشْرُوعِ.
Mutual action among the students → reciprocal Form VI يَتَعَاوَنُ; Form III يُعَاوِنُ 'assists (someone)' would need a separate object being helped.
تَرَاسَلَ الصَّدِيقَانِ طَوَالَ الصَّيْفِ.
رَاسَلَ الصَّدِيقَانِ طَوَالَ الصَّيْفِ.
'The two friends wrote to each other' is reciprocal Form VI تَرَاسَلَ; Form III رَاسَلَ 'corresponded with' expects an object (the person written to).
تَصَالَحَ الْجَارَانِ بَعْدَ خِلَافٍ طَوِيلٍ.
صَالَحَ الْجَارَانِ بَعْدَ خِلَافٍ طَوِيلٍ.
The two neighbours made peace WITH EACH OTHER → Form VI تَصَالَحَ; Form III صَالَحَ 'reconciled with (someone)' is transitive and leaves out the mutual sense.

Common mistakes

Using a ḍamma prefix (Form III shape) on a Form VI present
هُمْ يُتَعَاوَنُونَ دَائِمًا.
هُمْ يَتَعَاوَنُونَ دَائِمًا.
Form VI takes a fatḥa on the present prefix: يَتَعَاوَنُونَ, never the Form III ḍamma يُـ.
Giving a reciprocal Form VI verb a single subject as if it were transitive
تَصَالَحَ خَالِدٌ جَارَهُ.
تَصَالَحَ خَالِدٌ مَعَ جَارِهِ.
Form VI تَصَالَحَ is intransitive and mutual; the other party is joined with مَعَ, not made a direct object.

B1Verb forms

Form VII (infaʿala)

الْوَزْنُ السَّابِعُ (اِنْفَعَلَ)

Form VII is built by prefixing اِنْـ to the root: اِنْفَعَلَ. Its meaning is the PASSIVE or middle-voice RESULT of Form I — something undergoing the Form I action, with no agent mentioned. So كَسَرَ (I) 'he broke (it)' → اِنْكَسَرَ (VII) 'it broke / got broken'; فَتَحَ 'he opened' → اِنْفَتَحَ 'it opened (by itself)'; قَطَعَ 'he cut' → اِنْقَطَعَ 'it was cut off / stopped'. Form VII verbs are always intransitive — they take no direct object. In the present the اِنْـ becomes نْـ after the prefix vowel: يَنْكَسِرُ 'it breaks'. The starting hamza is a hamzat al-waṣl (elidable), so it drops after a preceding vowel. The verbal noun follows اِنْفِعَال: اِنْكِسَار 'breaking', اِنْقِطَاع 'interruption'.

Key rule

Form VII prefixes اِنْـ (اِنْفَعَلَ) and is the agentless passive/result of Form I; it is always intransitive, its present is يَنْفَعِلُ, and its maṣdar is اِنْفِعَال.

Examples

اِنْكَسَرَ الزُّجَاجُ عِنْدَمَا سَقَطَ.
كَسَرَ الزُّجَاجُ عِنْدَمَا سَقَطَ.
The glass broke by itself (no agent) → Form VII اِنْكَسَرَ; Form I كَسَرَ 'broke (something)' is transitive and needs a doer and an object.
اِنْفَتَحَ الْبَابُ بِسَبَبِ الرِّيحِ.
اِنْفَتَحَ الْبَابَ بِسَبَبِ الرِّيحِ.
الْبَابُ is the subject of the intransitive Form VII اِنْفَتَحَ, so it is nominative الْبَابُ, never accusative الْبَابَ.
اِنْقَطَعَ الِاتِّصَالُ فَجْأَةً أَثْنَاءَ الْمُكَالَمَةِ.
قَطَعَ الِاتِّصَالُ فَجْأَةً أَثْنَاءَ الْمُكَالَمَةِ.
'The connection was cut off (by itself)' is Form VII اِنْقَطَعَ; transitive Form I قَطَعَ 'cut' would require someone doing the cutting.

Common mistakes

Giving a Form VII verb a direct object
اِنْكَسَرَ الْوَلَدُ النَّافِذَةَ.
كَسَرَ الْوَلَدُ النَّافِذَةَ.
Form VII اِنْكَسَرَ is intransitive ('got broken'); to break something with an agent use the transitive Form I كَسَرَ.
Using a ḍamma present prefix
الْبَابُ يُنْفَتِحُ بِبُطْءٍ.
الْبَابُ يَنْفَتِحُ بِبُطْءٍ.
Form VII keeps a fatḥa on the present prefix: يَنْفَتِحُ, not يُنْفَتِحُ.

B1Verb forms

Form VIII (iftaʿala)

الْوَزْنُ الثَّامِنُ (اِفْتَعَلَ)

Form VIII inserts a تـ AFTER the first root letter and prefixes a (waṣl) hamza: اِفْتَعَلَ. Its meanings cluster around the REFLEXIVE / middle voice — doing something for or to oneself — and it often becomes simply a new transitive verb. So جَمَعَ (I) 'he gathered' → اِجْتَمَعَ (VIII) 'he/they gathered (intr.), met'; قَرَبَ → اِقْتَرَبَ 'he drew near'; سَمِعَ (I) → اِسْتَمَعَ (VIII) 'he listened'; شَرَكَ → اِشْتَرَكَ 'he participated'. A key complication is that the infixed تـ ASSIMILATES to certain first letters: ز → اِزْدَ (اِزْدَحَمَ), د/ذ → اِدّ (اِدَّعَى), ص/ض/ط → اِطَّ (اِصْطَبَرَ → اِصْطَلَحَ). In the present the hamza drops: يَجْتَمِعُ. The verbal noun follows اِفْتِعَال: اِجْتِمَاع 'meeting', اِشْتِرَاك 'participation'.

Key rule

Form VIII infixes تـ after the first radical (اِفْتَعَلَ) with a reflexive/middle sense; the تـ assimilates after certain letters (و/ي→اِتَّ, ز→اِزْدَ, د/ذ→اِدّ, ص/ض/ط→اِطَّ), the present is يَفْتَعِلُ and the maṣdar اِفْتِعَال.

Examples

يَجْتَمِعُ الْمُدِيرُونَ كُلَّ أُسْبُوعٍ.
يُجْتَمِعُ الْمُدِيرُونَ كُلَّ أُسْبُوعٍ.
The Form VIII present prefix is a fatḥa: يَجْتَمِعُ 'they meet'; the ḍamma prefix يُجْـ does not belong to Form VIII.
اِتَّصَلَ بِي صَدِيقِي مَسَاءَ أَمْسِ.
اِوْتَصَلَ بِي صَدِيقِي مَسَاءَ أَمْسِ.
From وَصَلَ, the initial wāw assimilates into the تـ of Form VIII: اِتَّصَلَ 'contacted', not the unassimilated اِوْتَصَلَ.
اِزْدَحَمَ الشَّارِعُ بِالسَّيَّارَاتِ.
اِزْتَحَمَ الشَّارِعُ بِالسَّيَّارَاتِ.
From زَحَمَ, the تـ of Form VIII turns into دـ after ز: اِزْدَحَمَ 'was crowded', not اِزْتَحَمَ.

Common mistakes

Leaving the infixed تـ unassimilated after و/ي
اِوْتَصَلْتُ بِالطَّبِيبِ.
اِتَّصَلْتُ بِالطَّبِيبِ.
In Form VIII of وَصَلَ the wāw merges into the تـ as a šadda: اِتَّصَلَ, not اِوْتَصَلَ.
Keeping a plain تـ after ز instead of changing it to د
اِزْتَادَ عَدَدُ الطُّلَّابِ.
اِزْدَادَ عَدَدُ الطُّلَّابِ.
After ز the Form VIII تـ becomes دـ: اِزْدَادَ 'increased', the standard اِزْدَ- shape.

B1Verb forms

Form X (istafʿala)

الْوَزْنُ الْعَاشِرُ (اِسْتَفْعَلَ)

Form X is built by prefixing اِسْتَـ to the root: اِسْتَفْعَلَ. Its core meanings are SEEKING / ASKING FOR ('to ask for X'), CONSIDERING ('to find/deem something X'), and sometimes becoming. So غَفَرَ (I) 'he forgave' → اِسْتَغْفَرَ (X) 'he asked for forgiveness'; خَدَمَ 'he served' → اِسْتَخْدَمَ 'he used / put into service'; حَسَنَ → اِسْتَحْسَنَ 'he found (something) good'; عَدَّ → اِسْتَعَدَّ 'he got ready'. In the present the hamza drops and the prefix is سْتَـ: يَسْتَخْدِمُ 'he uses'. Form X verbs are usually transitive. The verbal noun follows اِسْتِفْعَال: اِسْتِخْدَام 'use', اِسْتِعْدَاد 'readiness/preparation'. The initial hamza is hamzat al-waṣl, so it drops after a preceding vowel.

Key rule

Form X prefixes اِسْتَـ (اِسْتَفْعَلَ) and means seeking/asking for, deeming/finding, or a lexicalised transitive action; its present is يَسْتَفْعِلُ and its maṣdar اِسْتِفْعَال (اِسْتِخْدَام، اِسْتِعْدَاد).

Examples

نَسْتَخْدِمُ الْحَاسُوبَ فِي الْعَمَلِ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ.
نُسْتَخْدِمُ الْحَاسُوبَ فِي الْعَمَلِ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ.
The Form X present prefix is a fatḥa: نَسْتَخْدِمُ 'we use'; the ḍamma prefix نُسْـ does not belong to Form X.
اِسْتَأْذَنْتُ الْمُدِيرَ قَبْلَ أَنْ أَخْرُجَ.
أَذِنْتُ الْمُدِيرَ قَبْلَ أَنْ أَخْرُجَ.
'I asked the manager's permission' is the requestative Form X اِسْتَأْذَنْتُ; Form I أَذِنْتُ means 'I granted permission', the opposite role.
اِسْتَقْبَلَ الرَّئِيسُ الضُّيُوفَ فِي الْقَصْرِ.
قَبِلَ الرَّئِيسُ الضُّيُوفَ فِي الْقَصْرِ.
Form X اِسْتَقْبَلَ 'received/welcomed' fits hosting guests; Form I قَبِلَ merely means 'accepted', a different action.

Common mistakes

Using a ḍamma present prefix
أَنَا أُسْتَخْدِمُ الْهَاتِفَ كَثِيرًا.
أَنَا أَسْتَخْدِمُ الْهَاتِفَ كَثِيرًا.
Form X keeps a fatḥa on the present prefix: أَسْتَخْدِمُ, not أُسْتَخْدِمُ.
Confusing Form X 'seek/ask for' with the Form I base verb
أَذِنْتُ مِنَ الْمُعَلِّمِ بِالْخُرُوجِ. (meaning 'I asked permission')
اِسْتَأْذَنْتُ الْمُعَلِّمَ فِي الْخُرُوجِ.
Form X اِسْتَأْذَنَ = 'to ask permission'; Form I أَذِنَ = 'to grant permission'. The اِسْتَـ flips the role to the seeker.

B1Verb forms

Mapping Form to Meaning

دَلَالَاتُ الْأَوْزَانِ

Once you know the ten forms, you can often PREDICT what a verb means just from its pattern and root. The most useful rules of thumb: Form I = the bare action (كَسَرَ 'broke'). Form II/IV = make someone/something do it, the causative (كَسَّرَ، أَكْسَبَ). Form III = do it with/to another party (كَاتَبَ 'corresponded with'). Form V = the reflexive/result of II (تَعَلَّمَ 'learned'). Form VI = do it to each other, reciprocal (تَكَاتَبَ 'wrote to one another'). Form VII = it happens by itself, the passive of I (اِنْكَسَرَ 'got broken'). Form VIII = a middle/reflexive new verb (اِجْتَمَعَ 'met'). Form X = seek/ask for/consider (اِسْتَغْفَرَ 'sought forgiveness'). These are tendencies, not laws — but they let you guess thousands of verbs.

Key rule

The derived forms carry typical meanings (II/IV causative, III associative, V reflexive-of-II, VI reciprocal, VII agentless-passive, VIII middle, X requestative/estimative) — strong tendencies that let you predict meaning and choose the right form, though some verbs are lexicalised.

Examples

مِنَ الْجَذْرِ (ع-ل-م): عَلِمَ (عَرَفَ)، عَلَّمَ (جَعَلَهُ يَعْلَمُ)، تَعَلَّمَ (عَلَّمَ نَفْسَهُ)، اِسْتَعْلَمَ (طَلَبَ الْعِلْمَ).
مِنَ الْجَذْرِ (ع-ل-م): عَلِمَ، عَلَّمَ، تَعَلَّمَ، اِسْتَعْلَمَ كُلُّهَا بِمَعْنًى وَاحِدٍ.
One root gives a spread of meanings via the forms (know → cause-to-know → learn → seek-knowledge); claiming they all mean the same thing misses the point of the map.
كَسَرَ الْوَلَدُ الزُّجَاجَ فَانْكَسَرَ.
كَسَرَ الْوَلَدُ الزُّجَاجَ فَكَسَرَ.
The agentless result of transitive Form I كَسَرَ is the Form VII اِنْكَسَرَ 'it got broken'; repeating Form I leaves the 'by itself' result unexpressed.
أَجْلَسَ الْأَبُ طِفْلَهُ عَلَى الْكُرْسِيِّ ثُمَّ جَلَسَ هُوَ بِجَانِبِهِ.
جَلَسَ الْأَبُ طِفْلَهُ عَلَى الْكُرْسِيِّ ثُمَّ جَلَسَ هُوَ بِجَانِبِهِ.
To 'seat' someone you need the causative Form IV أَجْلَسَ; intransitive Form I جَلَسَ 'sat' cannot take طِفْلَهُ as an object.

Common mistakes

Treating the form meanings as absolute rather than typical
اِسْتَطَاعَ تَعْنِي حَتْمًا (طَلَبَ الطَّاقَةَ).
اِسْتَطَاعَ تَعْنِي (قَدَرَ)، وَهِيَ مُعْجَمِيَّةٌ لَا تَتْبَعُ مَعْنَى الطَّلَبِ.
Form X usually means 'seek', but اِسْتَطَاعَ is lexicalised as 'be able'; the map predicts, it does not dictate.
Choosing a causative II/IV when the intransitive I (or vice versa) is needed
جَلَسَ الْأَبُ ابْنَهُ. (meaning 'seated his son')
أَجْلَسَ الْأَبُ ابْنَهُ.
To make someone sit you need a causative form (IV أَجْلَسَ); the bare Form I جَلَسَ cannot take an object.

B1Derivation

Maṣdar Patterns by Verb Form

مَصَادِرُ الْأَوْزَانِ

Every derived verb form has a PREDICTABLE verbal-noun (maṣdar) pattern, so once you know the form you can usually build the maṣdar automatically. The reliable ones are: Form II → تَفْعِيل (عَلَّمَ → تَعْلِيم 'teaching'). Form III → مُفَاعَلَة (سَاعَدَ → مُسَاعَدَة 'help'). Form IV → إِفْعَال (أَرْسَلَ → إِرْسَال 'sending'). Form V → تَفَعُّل (تَعَلَّمَ → تَعَلُّم 'learning'). Form VI → تَفَاعُل (تَعَاوَنَ → تَعَاوُن 'cooperation'). Form VII → اِنْفِعَال (اِنْكَسَرَ → اِنْكِسَار 'breaking'). Form VIII → اِفْتِعَال (اِجْتَمَعَ → اِجْتِمَاع 'meeting'). Form X → اِسْتِفْعَال (اِسْتَخْدَمَ → اِسْتِخْدَام 'use'). Only Form I has many unpredictable maṣdar shapes you must learn word by word — the derived forms are regular.

Key rule

Each derived form has a fixed maṣdar template (II تَفْعِيل, III مُفَاعَلَة, IV إِفْعَال, V تَفَعُّل, VI تَفَاعُل, VII اِنْفِعَال, VIII اِفْتِعَال, X اِسْتِفْعَال); only Form I maṣdars are irregular and learned individually.

Examples

التَّدْرِيسُ مِهْنَةٌ شَرِيفَةٌ.
التَّدْرُسُ مِهْنَةٌ شَرِيفَةٌ.
The Form II maṣdar of دَرَّسَ is تَدْرِيس (pattern تَفْعِيل); تَدْرُس is not a valid verbal-noun shape.
تَتَطَلَّبُ الْمُقَابَلَةُ تَحْضِيرًا جَيِّدًا.
تَتَطَلَّبُ الْمُقَابِلُ تَحْضِيرًا جَيِّدًا.
The Form III maṣdar of قَابَلَ is مُقَابَلَة (مُفَاعَلَة) with tāʾ marbūṭa; مُقَابِل is the active participle, not the verbal noun.
اِسْتَغْرَقَ إِرْسَالُ الطَّرْدِ يَوْمَيْنِ.
اِسْتَغْرَقَ رَسْلُ الطَّرْدِ يَوْمَيْنِ.
The Form IV maṣdar of أَرْسَلَ is إِفْعَال = إِرْسَال 'sending'; رَسْل is not the correct verbal noun.

Common mistakes

Using the Form V maṣdar where Form II is meant (or vice versa)
أُحِبُّ التَّعَلُّمَ لِلْأَطْفَالِ. (meaning 'teaching children')
أُحِبُّ تَعْلِيمَ الْأَطْفَالِ.
تَعْلِيم (تَفْعِيل) is the Form II maṣdar 'teaching'; تَعَلُّم (تَفَعُّل) is the Form V 'learning'.
Forming the Form IV maṣdar on the Form I shape
تَمَّ رَسْلُ الْبَرِيدِ.
تَمَّ إِرْسَالُ الْبَرِيدِ.
Form IV أَرْسَلَ has the maṣdar إِفْعَال = إِرْسَال, not the Form I shape رَسْل.

B1Derivation

Participles of Derived Forms

اسْمَا الْفَاعِلِ وَالْمَفْعُولِ فِي الْمَزِيدِ

You already know the Form I participles كَاتِب (active) and مَكْتُوب (passive). For the DERIVED forms (II–X) the rule is much simpler and totally regular: take the present-tense verb, drop the prefix يُـ, and put مُـ in front. The active participle keeps the vowel of the present (kasra), the passive switches it to fatḥa. So عَلَّمَ / يُعَلِّمُ → مُعَلِّم 'teacher' and مُعَلَّم 'taught'; اِسْتَخْدَمَ / يَسْتَخْدِمُ → مُسْتَخْدِم 'user' and مُسْتَخْدَم 'used'. The only difference between active and passive is one vowel on the second-to-last letter: مُـ…ـِـ for the doer, مُـ…ـَـ for the thing done. Hundreds of everyday words follow this: مُدِير 'manager', مُمْكِن 'possible', مُسْتَشْفَى 'hospital'.

Key rule

For Forms II–X, take the present-tense verb, replace the يُـ/تُـ prefix with مُـ, and keep kasra for the active participle (the doer) but fatḥa for the passive participle (the thing done): يُعَلِّمُ → مُعَلِّم / مُعَلَّم.

Examples

هَذَا مُعَلِّمٌ مُجْتَهِدٌ.
هَذَا عَالِمٌ مُجْتَهِدٌ. (intending 'teacher')
Form II عَلَّمَ 'taught' gives the participle مُعَلِّم 'teacher'; عَالِم is the Form I participle and means 'a scholar', not a school teacher.
اللُّغَةُ الْعَرَبِيَّةُ تُدَرَّسُ هُنَا، فَهِيَ مَادَّةٌ مُدَرَّسَةٌ.
اللُّغَةُ الْعَرَبِيَّةُ تُدَرَّسُ هُنَا، فَهِيَ مَادَّةٌ مُدَرِّسَةٌ.
The subject is 'taught', so the passive participle مُدَرَّسَة (fatḥa) is needed; مُدَرِّسَة (kasra) means 'a (female) teacher'.
أَنَا مُسْتَخْدِمٌ جَدِيدٌ لِهَذَا الْبَرْنَامَجِ.
أَنَا مُسْتَخْدَمٌ جَدِيدٌ لِهَذَا الْبَرْنَامَجِ.
The user (the doer) is مُسْتَخْدِم with kasra; مُسْتَخْدَم with fatḥa means 'used/employed (thing)'.

Common mistakes

Confusing the active (kasra) and passive (fatḥa) participle
أَنَا مُسْتَخْدَمٌ هَذَا الْهَاتِفَ.
أَنَا مُسْتَخْدِمٌ لِهَذَا الْهَاتِفِ.
The doer/user is مُسْتَخْدِم with kasra; مُسْتَخْدَم with fatḥa means the thing that is used.
Using the Form I pattern فَاعِل for a derived verb
هُوَ عَالِمٌ فِي الْمَدْرَسَةِ. (intending 'teacher')
هُوَ مُعَلِّمٌ فِي الْمَدْرَسَةِ.
عَلَّمَ is Form II, so its participle is مُعَلِّم (mīm prefix), not the Form I عَالِم.

B1Derivation

The Comparative (Afʿal + min)

اسْمُ التَّفْضِيلِ (الْمُقَارَنَةُ)

To compare two things ('bigger than', 'more beautiful than') Arabic uses ONE special pattern, أَفْعَل, built from the adjective's three root letters, plus مِنْ 'than'. So كَبِير 'big' → أَكْبَر، جَمِيل 'beautiful' → أَجْمَل، قَدِيم 'old' → أَقْدَم. The sentence is: هَذَا الْبَيْتُ أَكْبَرُ مِنْ بَيْتِي 'This house is bigger than my house'. The key surprise for learners: the أَفْعَل comparative does NOT change for gender or number — مَرْيَمُ أَطْوَلُ مِنْ أَخِيهَا 'Maryam is taller than her brother' keeps أَطْوَل even though Maryam is feminine. The noun after مِنْ is in the genitive (kasra). For long adjectives that have no simple root (مُجْتَهِد, مُمْتِع), you say أَكْثَر … 'more …' + the maṣdar in the accusative.

Key rule

Form the comparative on the invariable pattern أَفْعَل + مِنْ + genitive ('bigger than'); it never agrees in gender or number, and for adjectives that don't fit أَفْعَل use أَكْثَر + maṣdar in the accusative.

Examples

أَخِي أَطْوَلُ مِنِّي.
أَخِي أَطْوَلٌ مِنِّي.
The elative أَطْوَل is a diptote and takes a bare ḍamma with NO tanwīn: أَطْوَلُ, not أَطْوَلٌ.
هَذِهِ الْمَدِينَةُ أَكْبَرُ مِنْ مَدِينَتِي.
هَذِهِ الْمَدِينَةُ كَبِيرَةٌ مِنْ مَدِينَتِي.
Comparison needs the elative أَكْبَر + مِنْ; the plain adjective كَبِيرَة cannot take مِنْ.
مَرْيَمُ أَجْمَلُ مِنْ أُخْتِهَا.
مَرْيَمُ جَمْلَى مِنْ أُخْتِهَا.
The comparative is invariable أَفْعَل (أَجْمَل) even for a feminine subject; there is no feminine comparative form here.

Common mistakes

Adding tanwīn to the diptote elative
هُوَ أَكْبَرٌ مِنِّي.
هُوَ أَكْبَرُ مِنِّي.
أَفْعَل elatives are diptotes: a single ḍamma/fatḥa with no tanwīn.
Making the comparative agree in gender/number
هِيَ أَكْبَرَةٌ مِنْ أَخِيهَا.
هِيَ أَكْبَرُ مِنْ أَخِيهَا.
In the أَفْعَلُ مِنْ comparative the elative is invariable; it does not take a feminine ending.

B1Derivation

The Superlative

اسْمُ التَّفْضِيلِ (التَّفْضِيلُ الْمُطْلَقُ)

The superlative ('the biggest', 'the best') uses the SAME أَفْعَل word as the comparative, but in one of two structures. (1) As the FIRST term of an iḍāfa, indefinite + a genitive plural: أَكْبَرُ مَدِينَةٍ 'the biggest city', أَجْمَلُ بَيْتٍ 'the most beautiful house', أَطْوَلُ الطُّلَّابِ 'the tallest of the students'. Here أَفْعَل stays masculine singular. (2) With the definite article الـ, agreeing with its noun like a normal adjective: الْمَدِينَةُ الْكُبْرَى 'the biggest city', الْكِتَابُ الْأَفْضَلُ 'the best book', الطَّالِبَةُ الْفُضْلَى. The feminine of أَفْعَل is فُعْلَى (أَكْبَر → كُبْرَى، أَصْغَر → صُغْرَى، أَفْضَل → فُضْلَى). So: use the iḍāfa structure with the bare أَفْعَل, or the definite agreeing structure where the feminine becomes فُعْلَى.

Key rule

Build the superlative from the same أَفْعَل: either as a bare elative heading an iḍāfa (أَكْبَرُ مَدِينَةٍ / أَطْوَلُ الطُّلَّابِ, invariable), or with الـ agreeing with its noun — with the feminine on the pattern فُعْلَى (الْمَدِينَةُ الْكُبْرَى).

Examples

الْقَاهِرَةُ أَكْبَرُ مَدِينَةٍ فِي مِصْرَ.
الْقَاهِرَةُ أَكْبَرُ مَدِينَةُ فِي مِصْرَ.
أَكْبَر heads an iḍāfa, so the second term مَدِينَة is genitive indefinite (مَدِينَةٍ), not nominative.
هُوَ أَطْوَلُ الطُّلَّابِ.
هُوَ أَطْوَلُ الطُّلَّابُ.
The muḍāf ilayhi is genitive: الطُّلَّابِ (kasra), not nominative.
مَرْيَمُ أَذْكَى الطَّالِبَاتِ.
مَرْيَمُ أَذْكَى الطَّالِبَاتُ.
In the iḍāfa superlative the elative stays masculine singular (أَذْكَى) and the genitive plural keeps kasra: الطَّالِبَاتِ.

Common mistakes

Putting the iḍāfa second term in the nominative
هُوَ أَطْوَلُ الطُّلَّابُ.
هُوَ أَطْوَلُ الطُّلَّابِ.
The muḍāf ilayhi after the elative must be genitive: الطُّلَّابِ.
Making the iḍāfa-superlative elative feminine/plural
هِيَ أَجْمَلَى الْبَنَاتِ.
هِيَ أَجْمَلُ الْبَنَاتِ.
As muḍāf the elative is invariably masculine singular أَجْمَل; the feminine فُعْلَى is only for the definite agreeing structure.

B1Derivation

Nouns of Place & Time (Mafʿal)

اسْمُ الْمَكَانِ وَاسْمُ الزَّمَانِ

Arabic builds 'the place where X happens' and 'the time when X happens' from a verb root with a مَـ prefix on the pattern مَفْعَل or مَفْعِل. Hundreds of common nouns are exactly this: from كَتَبَ 'to write' → مَكْتَب 'office/desk'; from لَعِبَ 'to play' → مَلْعَب 'playground/stadium'; from دَرَسَ 'to study' → مَدْرَسَة 'school'; from وَعَدَ 'to promise' → مَوْعِد 'appointment (time)'. The same pattern names a TIME: مَوْلِد 'time of birth', مَغْرِب 'sunset (time/place of setting)'. The vowel on the middle letter is usually fatḥa (مَفْعَل) but kasra (مَفْعِل) when the present-tense verb has kasra (يَجْلِسُ → مَجْلِس). A feminine ة is often added: مَكْتَبَة 'library', مَدْرَسَة 'school'. Recognising this pattern unlocks the meaning of many everyday words.

Key rule

Build the noun of place/time from a root with مَـ on the pattern مَفْعَل (default) or مَفْعِل (when the present has middle kasra or the verb is initial-wāw), often + ة: مَكْتَب، مَدْرَسَة، مَوْعِد، مَلْعَب.

Examples

أَعْمَلُ فِي مَكْتَبٍ كَبِيرٍ.
أَعْمَلُ فِي مَكْتُوبٍ كَبِيرٍ.
The place of writing/working is مَكْتَب (noun of place); مَكْتُوب is the passive participle 'a written thing/letter'.
يَلْعَبُ الْأَطْفَالُ فِي الْمَلْعَبِ.
يَلْعَبُ الْأَطْفَالُ فِي الْمِلْعَبِ.
The noun of place is مَفْعَل with a مَـ prefix (مَلْعَب), not the مِـ prefix of an instrument (which would be مِلْعَب).
عِنْدِي مَوْعِدٌ مَعَ الطَّبِيبِ غَدًا.
عِنْدِي مَوْعَدٌ مَعَ الطَّبِيبِ غَدًا.
From the initial-wāw verb وَعَدَ/يَعِدُ the pattern is مَفْعِل with kasra: مَوْعِد, not مَوْعَد.

Common mistakes

Confusing the noun of place with the passive participle
أَعْمَلُ فِي مَكْتُوبٍ.
أَعْمَلُ فِي مَكْتَبٍ.
The place is مَكْتَب (مَفْعَل); مَكْتُوب is 'a written thing/letter'.
Using مِـ (instrument) instead of مَـ (place)
الْأَطْفَالُ فِي الْمِلْعَبِ.
الْأَطْفَالُ فِي الْمَلْعَبِ.
The noun of place takes مَـ with fatḥa (مَلْعَب); the مِـ prefix forms instruments.

B1Derivation

Noun of Instrument (Mifʿal/Mifʿāl/Mifʿala)

اسْمُ الْآلَةِ

Arabic names the TOOL used to do an action from the verb root with a مِـ prefix (kasra). There are three main patterns: مِفْعَال (مِفْتَاح 'key', مِنْشَار 'saw'), مِفْعَل (مِبْرَد 'file', مِقَصّ 'scissors'), and مِفْعَلَة (مِكْنَسَة 'broom', مِغْسَلَة 'sink'). The key to remember: the instrument prefix is مِـ with KASRA, which separates it from the place noun مَـ with fatḥa (مَلْعَب 'playground' vs مِلْعَب — not a tool). So from فَتَحَ 'to open' → مِفْتَاح 'key'; from كَنَسَ 'to sweep' → مِكْنَسَة 'broom'; from قَصَّ 'to cut' → مِقَصّ 'scissors'. Many everyday tools and appliances follow these patterns, and modern words too (مِجْهَر 'microscope', مِصْعَد 'lift').

Key rule

Form the noun of instrument with a مِـ (kasra) prefix on مِفْعَال، مِفْعَل، or مِفْعَلَة (مِفْتَاح، مِقَصّ، مِكْنَسَة); the kasra مِـ distinguishes a tool from the fatḥa مَـ of a noun of place.

Examples

أَيْنَ مِفْتَاحُ السَّيَّارَةِ؟
أَيْنَ مَفْتَاحُ السَّيَّارَةِ؟
The instrument prefix is مِـ with kasra: مِفْتَاح; مَفْتَاح with fatḥa is wrong for the tool.
اِسْتَخْدَمْتُ الْمِكْنَسَةَ لِتَنْظِيفِ الْغُرْفَةِ.
اِسْتَخْدَمْتُ الْمَكْنَسَةَ لِتَنْظِيفِ الْغُرْفَةِ.
The tool 'broom' is مِكْنَسَة (مِفْعَلَة) with kasra, not مَكْنَسَة.
قَصَصْتُ الْوَرَقَ بِالْمِقَصِّ.
قَصَصْتُ الْوَرَقَ بِالْمَقَصِّ.
From the geminate root قَصَّ the instrument is مِقَصّ with kasra prefix.

Common mistakes

Using the place prefix مَـ instead of the instrument مِـ
أَيْنَ مَفْتَاحُ الْبَابِ؟
أَيْنَ مِفْتَاحُ الْبَابِ؟
Instruments take the kasra prefix مِـ: مِفْتَاح.
Wrong instrument pattern (مِفْعَل for مِفْعَال or vice versa)
قَطَعْتُ الْخَشَبَ بِالْمِنْشَرِ.
قَطَعْتُ الْخَشَبَ بِالْمِنْشَارِ.
'Saw' is on the مِفْعَال pattern: مِنْشَار (with long ā).

B1Derivation

Intensive Forms (Ṣīghat al-Mubālagha)

صِيَغُ الْمُبَالَغَةِ

Beyond the ordinary 'doer' (كَاتِب 'writer'), Arabic has special INTENSIVE patterns for someone who does an action a LOT, habitually, or as a profession. The most common is فَعَّال (doubled middle letter): from كَذَبَ 'to lie' → كَذَّاب 'a habitual liar'; from خَبَزَ 'to bake' → خَبَّاز 'a baker'; from عَمِلَ → عَمَّال (workers). This فَعَّال pattern names many TRADES (نَجَّار 'carpenter', حَدَّاد 'blacksmith', بَوَّاب 'doorman'). Other intensive patterns are فَعُول (شَكُور 'very thankful', صَبُور 'very patient'), مِفْعَال (مِعْطَاء 'very giving', مِكْثَار 'who talks a lot'), فَعِيل (رَحِيم 'most merciful'), and فَعِل (حَذِر 'very cautious'). These behave like adjectives/nouns and agree in gender and number (كَذَّاب → كَذَّابَة).

Key rule

Intensive forms exaggerate the doer with patterns like فَعَّال (habitual/professional: كَذَّاب، خَبَّاز), فَعُول (صَبُور), مِفْعَال (مِعْطَاء) and فَعِيل (رَحِيم); فَعَّال also forms most trade names and contrasts with the plain participle فَاعِل.

Examples

هُوَ كَذَّابٌ لَا يَقُولُ الصِّدْقَ أَبَدًا.
هُوَ كَاذِبٌ لَا يَقُولُ الصِّدْقَ أَبَدًا.
For a HABITUAL liar the intensive كَذَّاب is right; كَاذِب is just 'lying (now)/a liar (once)'.
يَعْمَلُ أَبِي خَبَّازًا فِي السُّوقِ.
يَعْمَلُ أَبِي خَابِزًا فِي السُّوقِ.
The TRADE 'baker' is the فَعَّال intensive خَبَّاز; خَابِز (plain participle) is not the profession name.
إِنَّهَا امْرَأَةٌ صَبُورٌ جِدًّا.
إِنَّهَا امْرَأَةٌ صَبُورَةٌ جِدًّا.
The فَعُول intensive صَبُور is used for both genders without ة: امْرَأَةٌ صَبُورٌ.

Common mistakes

Using the plain participle for a habitual/professional meaning
أَخِي خَابِزٌ فِي مَخْبَزٍ.
أَخِي خَبَّازٌ فِي مَخْبَزٍ.
Professions and habits use the intensive فَعَّال: خَبَّاز, not the participle خَابِز.
Adding ة to a فَعُول intensive for a feminine subject
هِيَ صَبُورَةٌ.
هِيَ صَبُورٌ.
The فَعُول pattern (صَبُور، شَكُور) is used for both genders without ة.

B1Verb mood

Indicative / Subjunctive / Jussive Overview

إِعْرابُ المُضارِعِ (الرَّفْعُ والنَّصْبُ والجَزْمُ)

Unlike the past tense, the Arabic present-tense verb (al-muḍāriʿ) changes its ending depending on what comes before it. There are three moods. The indicative (marfūʿ) is the default — it ends in a ḍamma (-u), as in يَكْتُبُ 'he writes'. The subjunctive (manṣūb) is triggered by particles like أَنْ, لَنْ, لِـ, حَتَّى, كَيْ and ends in a fatḥa (-a), as in لَنْ يَكْتُبَ 'he will not write'. The jussive (majzūm) is triggered by لَمْ, the negative imperative لا, the conditional, and ends in a sukūn (no vowel) or drops a final letter, as in لَمْ يَكْتُبْ 'he did not write'. Learn to recognise the trigger word and you will know which ending to use.

Key rule

The present verb is indicative (-u) by default, subjunctive (-a) after أَنْ/لَنْ/لِـ/حَتَّى/كَيْ, and jussive (sukūn) after لَمْ/لا-prohibitive/conditional.

Examples

هُوَ يَدْرُسُ العَرَبِيَّةَ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ.
هُوَ يَدْرُسَ العَرَبِيَّةَ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ.
A plain statement with no governing particle is indicative, so the ending is ḍamma: يَدْرُسُ, not the subjunctive يَدْرُسَ.
أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَدْرُسَ الطِّبَّ.
أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَدْرُسُ الطِّبَّ.
After أَنْ the verb is subjunctive, so the ending must be fatḥa: أَدْرُسَ, not the indicative أَدْرُسُ.
لَنْ نَنْسَى هَذَا اليَوْمَ.
لَنْ نَنْسَى هَذَا اليَوْمُ.
لَنْ governs the subjunctive (here the weak verb keeps its alif maqṣūra); the object هَذَا اليَوْمَ stays accusative, not nominative.

Common mistakes

Leaving the indicative ending after a subjunctive particle
أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَذْهَبُ.
أُرِيدُ أَنْ أَذْهَبَ.
أَنْ is one of the particles of naṣb; the following verb must take fatḥa, not the default ḍamma.
Using indicative ḍamma after لَمْ instead of jussive
لَمْ يَفْهَمُ السُّؤالَ.
لَمْ يَفْهَمِ السُّؤالَ.
لَمْ is a particle of jazm; the strong verb takes sukūn (read with a linking vowel before al-).

B1Verb mood

The Five Verbs (al-Afʿāl al-Khamsa)

الأَفْعالُ الخَمْسَةُ

Five present-tense conjugations carry a special ending: the two duals (تَفْعَلانِ، يَفْعَلانِ), the two masculine plurals (تَفْعَلونَ، يَفْعَلونَ) and the second-person feminine singular (تَفْعَلينَ). These are called 'the Five Verbs' (al-afʿāl al-khamsa). In the indicative they keep a final نِ: يَكْتُبونَ 'they write'. But in the subjunctive (after أَنْ، لَنْ، لِـ…) and in the jussive (after لَمْ، لا of prohibition…) that نون is dropped, leaving the long vowel + alif: أَنْ يَكْتُبوا 'that they write', لَمْ يَكْتُبوا 'they did not write'. So for these forms the mood is shown by keeping or dropping the نون, not by a short vowel.

Key rule

For the dual, masc.-plural and 2nd-fem.-singular forms, the nūn stays in the indicative and is dropped (نون → ا) in the subjunctive and jussive.

Examples

الطُّلّابُ يَكْتُبونَ الواجِبَ.
الطُّلّابُ يَكْتُبوا الواجِبَ.
A plain statement is indicative, so the nūn is kept: يَكْتُبونَ, not the bare يَكْتُبوا.
أُريدُ أَنْ تَكْتُبا الرِّسالَةَ.
أُريدُ أَنْ تَكْتُبانِ الرِّسالَةَ.
After أَنْ the dual drops its nūn: تَكْتُبانِ → تَكْتُبا.
لَنْ يَلْعَبوا في المَطَرِ.
لَنْ يَلْعَبونَ في المَطَرِ.
لَنْ governs the subjunctive, so the masc.-plural nūn is deleted: يَلْعَبونَ → يَلْعَبوا.

Common mistakes

Dropping the nūn in a plain statement
الطُّلّابُ يَدْرُسوا كَثيرًا.
الطُّلّابُ يَدْرُسونَ كَثيرًا.
With no naṣb/jazm particle the verb is indicative and must keep the nūn.
Keeping the nūn after a subjunctive particle
أُريدُ أَنْ يَأْكُلونَ.
أُريدُ أَنْ يَأْكُلوا.
أَنْ is a naṣb particle; the Five Verbs mark the subjunctive by deleting the nūn.

B1Verb tenses

Doubled (Geminate) Verbs

الفِعْلُ المُضَعَّفُ

A doubled (or geminate) verb is one whose second and third root letters are the same, such as م-د-د in مَدَّ 'he stretched' or ر-د-د in رَدَّ 'he replied'. When the two identical letters meet with no vowel between them, they merge into one letter with a shadda: مَدَدَ → مَدَّ. The merging happens whenever the second radical would have a vowel and the third would be vowelless, which covers the third-person past and most of the present (يَمُدُّ، يَرُدُّ). But when a vowelless suffix follows — مَدَدْتُ 'I stretched', or the jussive لَمْ يَمْدُدْ — the two letters separate again and you write both. So learn one rule: merge when you can, split when a sukūn-bearing suffix forces it.

Key rule

Merge the two identical radicals into one with a shadda when R3 is vowelless; split them again (مَدَدْتُ، لَمْ يَمْدُدْ) when a sukūn-bearing suffix or the optional jussive forces it.

Examples

رَدَّ الطّالِبُ عَلَى السُّؤالِ.
رَدَدَ الطّالِبُ عَلَى السُّؤالِ.
In the 3rd-person past the identical radicals merge with a shadda: رَدَّ, not the unmerged رَدَدَ.
رَدَدْتُ عَلَى الرِّسالَةِ أَمْسِ.
رَدَّتُ عَلَى الرِّسالَةِ أَمْسِ.
A sukūn-bearing suffix (ـْتُ) blocks merging, so the radicals split: رَدَدْتُ, not رَدَّتُ.
هُوَ يُحِبُّ القِراءَةَ.
هُوَ يُحْبِبُ القِراءَةَ.
Form IV أَحَبَّ merges in the present: يُحِبُّ with a shadda, not the split يُحْبِبُ.

Common mistakes

Merging the radicals before a sukūn suffix
عَدَّتُ النُّقودَ.
عَدَدْتُ النُّقودَ.
The ـْتُ suffix is vowelless, so idghām is blocked and both radicals appear: عَدَدْتُ.
Splitting the radicals in the 3rd-person past where they should merge
حَلَلَ المُشْكِلَةَ.
حَلَّ المُشْكِلَةَ.
With a vowel-initial context the geminate merges with a shadda: حَلَّ.

B1Verb tenses

Hamzated Verbs

الفِعْلُ المَهْموزُ

A hamzated verb (al-fiʿl al-mahmūz) has a hamza as one of its three root letters. The hamza can be the first radical, as in أَكَلَ 'he ate' and أَخَذَ 'he took'; the middle radical, as in سَأَلَ 'he asked'; or the last radical, as in قَرَأَ 'he read'. The conjugation is regular — these are not weak verbs — but the SPELLING of the hamza changes its 'seat' (carrier letter) depending on the surrounding vowels: it may sit on an alif (أ/إ), a wāw (ؤ), a yāʾ (ئ), or stand on the line (ء). Two famous irregularities: the imperative of أَكَلَ is كُلْ (not اُؤْكُلْ), and the past of أَخَذَ gives the imperative خُذْ. Learn the verb's conjugation normally, then apply the hamza-seat rules to spell it.

Key rule

Hamzated verbs conjugate regularly, but spell the hamza on the seat matching the stronger neighbouring vowel (kasra→ئ, ḍamma→ؤ, fatḥa→أ); remember the irregular imperatives كُلْ، خُذْ، مُرْ.

Examples

قَرَأْتُ الكِتابَ كُلَّهُ.
قَرَأتُ الكِتابَ كُلَّهُ.
When the final-radical hamza is vowelless before ـْتُ it sits on an alif: قَرَأْتُ, with the seat written.
هُمْ قَرَؤُوا القِصَّةَ.
هُمْ قَرَأوا القِصَّةَ.
Before the plural ḍamma + wāw the hamza takes a wāw-seat: قَرَؤُوا, not the alif-seat.
كُلْ طَعامَكَ يا وَلَدي.
اُؤْكُلْ طَعامَكَ يا وَلَدي.
The imperative of أَكَلَ is the irregular كُلْ; the regular-looking اُؤْكُلْ is wrong.

Common mistakes

Writing a regular imperative for أَكَلَ / أَخَذَ
اُؤْكُلْ بِسُرْعَةٍ.
كُلْ بِسُرْعَةٍ.
These verbs have irregular hamza-less imperatives: كُلْ، خُذْ، مُرْ.
Failing to merge the double hamza in the 1st-person present
أَأْخُذُ الكِتابَ.
آخُذُ الكِتابَ.
أَ + أْ at the start of the present merges into a madda: آخُذُ.

B1Verb tenses

Weak Verbs Across Tenses

تَصْريفُ الأَفْعالِ المُعْتَلَّةِ

Weak verbs (al-afʿāl al-muʿtalla) contain a weak letter — و or ي — among their root letters, and that letter shifts, lengthens or disappears as you conjugate. You already met them one type at a time; now you conjugate them fully through past and present. Hollow verbs (middle-weak), like قالَ → يَقولُ and نامَ → يَنامُ, have a long vowel that SHORTENS before a sukūn suffix (قُلْتُ، نِمْتُ) and in the jussive (لَمْ يَقُلْ، لَمْ يَنَمْ). Defective verbs (final-weak), like مَشَى → يَمْشي، دَعا → يَدْعو، نَسِيَ → يَنْسَى, lose their final weak letter before some endings and in the jussive (لَمْ يَمْشِ، لَمْ يَدْعُ). The key habit: watch what the suffix does to the weak letter.

Key rule

In hollow verbs the long medial vowel shortens before a sukūn suffix and in the jussive (قُلْتُ، لَمْ يَقُلْ); in defective verbs the final weak letter drops in the jussive and before vowel-suffixes (لَمْ يَمْشِ، رَمَوْا).

Examples

قُلْتُ الحَقيقَةَ كامِلَةً.
قالْتُ الحَقيقَةَ كامِلَةً.
Before the sukūn suffix ـْتُ a hollow verb shortens its long vowel: قالَ → قُلْتُ, not قالْتُ.
لَمْ يَقُلْ شَيْئًا.
لَمْ يَقولُ شَيْئًا.
In the jussive the hollow verb's long ū is dropped: يَقولُ → لَمْ يَقُلْ.
نِمْتُ مُبَكِّرًا أَمْسِ.
نَمْتُ مُبَكِّرًا أَمْسِ.
The a-type hollow نامَ shortens to a kasra before the sukūn suffix: نِمْتُ, not نَمْتُ.

Common mistakes

Keeping the hollow verb's long vowel before a sukūn suffix
قالْتُ لَهُ الخَبَرَ.
قُلْتُ لَهُ الخَبَرَ.
Hollow verbs shorten the medial long vowel before a consonant-initial suffix: قُلْتُ.
Using the indicative of a hollow verb after لَمْ
لَمْ يَزورُ جَدَّهُ.
لَمْ يَزُرْ جَدَّهُ.
The jussive drops the long vowel: يَزورُ → لَمْ يَزُرْ.

B1Verb mood

The Emphatic Nūn (Nūn al-Tawkīd)

نونُ التَّوْكيدِ

The emphatic nūn (nūn al-tawkīd) is a suffix you attach to a verb to make a promise or threat sound strong and certain — like English 'I will most certainly do it.' It comes in two strengths: the heavy نون with a shadda (ـَنَّ) and the light نون with a sukūn (ـَنْ). It attaches mainly to the imperative and to the future/present after the emphatic لـ: لَأَكْتُبَنَّ الرِّسالَةَ 'I will definitely write the letter!', اُكْتُبَنَّ! 'Write, for sure!'. Before it, the verb's final vowel becomes a fatḥa, and you very often see it after a swearing or promising لـ. It is more formal/literary, but it appears in speeches, oaths, the Qur'an, and emphatic MSA.

Key rule

Attach the heavy ـَنَّ or light ـَنْ to a verb (with a preceding fatḥa) for strong emphasis, typically after the emphatic لـ: لَأَكْتُبَنَّ، اُكْتُبَنَّ.

Examples

وَاللهِ لَأَدْرُسَنَّ بِجِدٍّ هَذا العامَ.
وَاللهِ لَأَدْرُسُ بِجِدٍّ هَذا العامَ.
An emphatic oath with لـ normally takes نون al-tawkīd and a preceding fatḥa: لَأَدْرُسَنَّ, not the plain لَأَدْرُسُ.
اُكْتُبَنَّ الواجِبَ قَبْلَ الغَدِ!
اُكْتُبَنُّ الواجِبَ قَبْلَ الغَدِ!
Before the heavy nūn the verb's vowel is fatḥa: اُكْتُبَنَّ, not a ḍamma اُكْتُبَنُّ.
لَتَنْدَمَنَّ عَلَى ما فَعَلْتَ.
لَتَنْدَمُنَّ عَلَى ما فَعَلْتَ.
A warning/threat takes the emphatic لـ + نون al-tawkīd with a fatḥa: لَتَنْدَمَنَّ.

Common mistakes

Using a ḍamma instead of fatḥa before the emphatic nūn
لَأَكْتُبُنَّ الرِّسالَةَ.
لَأَكْتُبَنَّ الرِّسالَةَ.
The verb's ending becomes a fatḥa before نون al-tawkīd: لَأَكْتُبَنَّ.
Dropping the emphatic لـ where the oath requires it
وَاللهِ أَفْعَلَنَّ ذَلِكَ.
وَاللهِ لَأَفْعَلَنَّ ذَلِكَ.
An oath answer normally carries the emphatic lām before the verb: لَأَفْعَلَنَّ.

B1Verb usage

The Passive Voice (Intro)

المَبْنِيُّ لِلْمَجْهولِ

Arabic builds the passive (al-mabnī li-l-majhūl, 'built for the unknown') NOT with a helping verb but by changing the INTERNAL vowels of the verb. For a Form I verb you take the active stem and re-vowel it: in the past, the first letter takes a ḍamma and the one before the last takes a kasra — كَتَبَ ('he wrote') → كُتِبَ ('it was written'). In the present, the prefix takes a ḍamma and the letter before the last takes a fatḥa — يَكْتُبُ ('he writes') → يُكْتَبُ ('it is written'). The doer (the agent) is left UNSAID — that is the whole point of the passive. What was the object now becomes the grammatical subject, called nāʾib al-fāʿil ('deputy of the doer'), and it goes into the nominative.

Key rule

Form the passive by re-voweling the verb (كُتِبَ / يُكْتَبُ), drop the agent, and put the old object in the nominative as nāʾib al-fāʿil.

Examples

كُتِبَتِ الرِّسالَةُ بِالعَرَبِيَّةِ.
كَتَبَتِ الرِّسالَةُ بِالعَرَبِيَّةِ.
'The letter was written' needs the passive vowels كُتِبَتْ (ḍamma–kasra); كَتَبَتْ is the active 'she wrote', which would make الرِّسالة the doer.
يُدَرَّسُ التّاريخُ في هَذِهِ المَدْرَسَةِ.
يُدَرَّسُ التّاريخَ في هَذِهِ المَدْرَسَةِ.
In the passive التّاريخ is the nāʾib al-fāʿil and must be NOMINATIVE (التّاريخُ); the accusative التّاريخَ wrongly treats it as a remaining object.
فُتِحَ البابُ في الصَّباحِ.
فَتَحَ البابُ في الصَّباحِ.
'The door was opened' is فُتِحَ (passive ḍamma–kasra); فَتَحَ البابُ would mean 'the door opened (something)', which is nonsense here.

Common mistakes

Keeping the active vowels and only relying on context
فَتَحَ البابُ تِلْقائِيًّا.
فُتِحَ البابُ تِلْقائِيًّا.
The passive is signalled ONLY by the internal vowels; without ḍamma–kasra (فُتِحَ) the sentence is still active.
Leaving the promoted noun in the accusative
كُتِبَ المَقالَ بِسُرْعَةٍ.
كُتِبَ المَقالُ بِسُرْعَةٍ.
Once the verb is passive, the old object becomes nāʾib al-fāʿil and is nominative: المَقالُ.

B1Verb usage

Passive of Derived Forms

المَبْنِيُّ لِلْمَجْهولِ في المَزيدِ

The passive rule for the derived forms (II–X) is even more regular than for Form I, and it follows one principle in two halves of the verb. In the PAST, vowel EVERY letter before the last with a ḍamma, and put a kasra on the letter just before the last: دَرَّسَ → دُرِّسَ, أَرْسَلَ → أُرْسِلَ, اِسْتَقْبَلَ → اُسْتُقْبِلَ. In the PRESENT, the prefix takes a ḍamma and the letter before the last takes a fatḥa, exactly like Form I: يُدَرِّسُ → يُدَرَّسُ, يُرْسِلُ → يُرْسَلُ, يَسْتَقْبِلُ → يُسْتَقْبَلُ. So 'before-last kasra (past) / before-last fatḥa (present)' is the whole story; the rest of the prefixed letters just become ḍamma. As always, the agent is dropped and the object becomes a nominative nāʾib al-fāʿil.

Key rule

Derived-form passive: PAST = ḍamma on every prefixed letter + kasra before the last radical (أُرْسِلَ، دُرِّسَ); PRESENT = ḍamma prefix + fatḥa before the last (يُرْسَلُ، يُدَرَّسُ).

Examples

أُرْسِلَتِ الرَّسائِلُ صَباحَ اليَوْمِ.
أَرْسَلَتِ الرَّسائِلُ صَباحَ اليَوْمِ.
Form IV passive past is أُرْسِلَ (ḍamma–kasra); أَرْسَلَ is the active 'she sent', making الرَّسائِل the doer.
يُدَرَّسُ الطُّلّابُ النَّحْوَ.
يُدَرِّسُ الطُّلّابُ النَّحْوَ.
Form II present passive is يُدَرَّسُ (fatḥa before the last letter); يُدَرِّسُ (kasra) is the active 'he teaches'.
اُسْتُقْبِلَ الضُّيوفُ في المَطارِ.
اِسْتَقْبَلَ الضُّيوفُ في المَطارِ.
Form X past passive is اُسْتُقْبِلَ; the active اِسْتَقْبَلَ would make الضّيوف the receivers, not the received.

Common mistakes

Using the active before-last vowel in the present passive
يُدَرِّسُ التّاريخُ في المَدارِسِ.
يُدَرَّسُ التّاريخُ في المَدارِسِ.
The present passive always has fatḥa before the last radical: يُدَرَّسُ, not the active kasra يُدَرِّسُ.
Forgetting the ḍamma–kasra of the past passive
أَرْسَلَتِ الطُّرودُ.
أُرْسِلَتِ الطُّرودُ.
Form IV past passive is أُرْسِلَ (ḍamma on the hamza, kasra on the sīn).

B1Verb usage

kāna and Sisters: Full Use

كانَ وأَخَواتُها (مُوَسَّعٌ)

At A2 you met كانَ ('was') and a couple of its 'sisters'. Now you meet the full family and use them freely. These verbs enter a nominal sentence (subject + predicate) and change its endings: the subject (now called اسْم كانَ) STAYS nominative, but the predicate (now خَبَر كانَ) becomes ACCUSATIVE. The most useful sisters are: صارَ / أَصْبَحَ ('became'), ظَلَّ / بَقِيَ ('kept on, remained'), باتَ ('became / spent the night'), ما زالَ / لا يَزالُ ('still is'), and ما دامَ ('as long as'). So الجَوُّ بارِدٌ ('the weather is cold') becomes أَصْبَحَ الجَوُّ بارِدًا ('the weather became cold') — note بارِدًا is now accusative. These verbs let you place a state in the past, mark a change, or say something is still true.

Key rule

kāna and its sisters keep the subject nominative (ism) but make the predicate ACCUSATIVE (khabar): أَصْبَحَ الجَوُّ بارِدًا, ما زالَ الطّالِبُ مُجْتَهِدًا.

Examples

أَصْبَحَ الجَوُّ بارِدًا.
أَصْبَحَ الجَوُّ بارِدٌ.
After أَصْبَحَ the predicate is khabar and must be accusative: بارِدًا, not the nominative بارِدٌ.
ما زالَ الطّالِبُ مُجْتَهِدًا.
ما زالَ الطّالِبُ مُجْتَهِدٌ.
ما زالَ is a sister of kāna; the predicate مُجْتَهِد becomes accusative مُجْتَهِدًا.
ظَلَّ الأَطْفالُ نائِمينَ حَتّى الظُّهْرِ.
ظَلَّ الأَطْفالُ نائِمونَ حَتّى الظُّهْرِ.
ظَلَّ raises the subject and makes the plural predicate accusative: نائِمينَ (sound masc. plural accusative), not نائِمونَ.

Common mistakes

Leaving the predicate in the nominative after a sister of kāna
أَصْبَحَ الطَّقْسُ حارٌّ.
أَصْبَحَ الطَّقْسُ حارًّا.
The khabar of أَصْبَحَ must be accusative: حارًّا.
Using ما زالَ without keeping the accusative predicate
ما زالَ الجُرْحُ مُؤْلِمٌ.
ما زالَ الجُرْحُ مُؤْلِمًا.
ما زالَ behaves like kāna; the predicate مُؤْلِم becomes accusative مُؤْلِمًا.

B1Verb usage

Verbs of Approximation: kāda etc.

كادَ وأَخَواتُها

Arabic expresses 'almost', 'is about to' and 'began to' with a special family called أَفْعالُ المُقارَبَةِ والشُّروعِ ('verbs of approximation and beginning'). Like kāna, they take a subject, but their PREDICATE is a present-tense verb. (1) Approximation — كادَ and أَوْشَكَ mean 'almost / nearly': كادَ يَقَعُ ('he almost fell'). (2) Hope — عَسى means 'perhaps, may': عَسى أَنْ يَنْجَحَ ('he may succeed'). (3) Beginning (الشُّروع) — بَدَأَ، شَرَعَ، أَخَذَ، جَعَلَ mean 'began / set about doing': بَدَأَ يَكْتُبُ ('he began to write'). A key rule: the verbs of BEGINNING are NEVER followed by أَنْ — you go straight to the present verb (بَدَأَ يَدْرُسُ, not بَدَأَ أَنْ يَدْرُسَ). كادَ usually also drops أَنْ, while أَوْشَكَ and عَسى often keep it.

Key rule

Verbs of approximation/beginning take a subject + a PRESENT-tense verb as predicate; verbs of beginning (بَدَأَ، شَرَعَ، أَخَذَ) never use أَنْ, while عَسى/أَوْشَكَ usually keep it.

Examples

كادَ الطِّفْلُ يَقَعُ.
كادَ الطِّفْلُ أَنْ يَقَعَ.
كادَ ('almost') is normally followed by a bare present verb without أَنْ: كادَ يَقَعُ.
بَدَأَ المَطَرُ يَنْزِلُ بِغَزارَةٍ.
بَدَأَ المَطَرُ أَنْ يَنْزِلَ بِغَزارَةٍ.
Verbs of beginning never take أَنْ; the predicate is a bare present verb: بَدَأَ يَنْزِلُ.
أَخَذَ الطُّلّابُ يَكْتُبونَ المُلاحَظاتِ.
أَخَذَ الطُّلّابُ يَكْتُبونَ المُلاحَظاتُ.
أَخَذَ here means 'began to'; the object المُلاحَظات is accusative (المُلاحَظاتِ as sound fem. plural acc.), not nominative.

Common mistakes

Putting أَنْ after a verb of beginning
بَدَأَ يَدْرُسُ الطّالِبُ أَنْ يَكْتُبَ.
بَدَأَ الطّالِبُ يَكْتُبُ.
بَدَأَ، شَرَعَ، أَخَذَ are never followed by أَنْ; the predicate is a bare present verb.
Adding أَنْ after كادَ
كادَ أَنْ يَنامَ.
كادَ يَنامُ.
كادَ ('almost') is normally directly followed by the present verb without أَنْ.

B1Verb usage

Impersonal & Modal Expressions

التَّعْبيرُ عَنِ الإِلْزامِ والإِمْكانِ (يَجِبُ/يُمْكِنُ/يَنْبَغي أَنْ)

Arabic has no one-word modals like English 'must' or 'can'. Instead it uses fixed IMPERSONAL verbs in the 'he' form (3rd-person masculine singular) followed by أَنْ + a subjunctive verb. The three core ones are: يَجِبُ أَنْ ('must, have to' — obligation), يُمْكِنُ أَنْ ('can, may' — possibility), and يَنْبَغي أَنْ ('should, ought to' — advice). They stay frozen in the يَـ form no matter who does the action — the real subject appears inside the أَنْ-clause: يَجِبُ أَنْ أَذْهَبَ ('I must go'), يَجِبُ أَنْ تَذْهَبَ ('you must go'). The verb after أَنْ is always SUBJUNCTIVE (fatḥa or dropped nūn). To negate, you negate the inner verb (يَجِبُ أَلّا تَتَأَخَّرَ — 'you mustn't be late').

Key rule

Use a frozen 3rd-person verb (يَجِبُ / يُمْكِنُ / يَنْبَغي) + أَنْ + a SUBJUNCTIVE verb whose subject is the real actor; negate the inner verb with أَلّا.

Examples

يَجِبُ أَنْ تَدْرُسَ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ.
يَجِبُ أَنْ تَدْرُسُ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ.
After أَنْ the verb is subjunctive: تَدْرُسَ (fatḥa), not the indicative تَدْرُسُ.
يُمْكِنُ أَنْ نَلْتَقِيَ غَدًا.
يُمْكِنونَ أَنْ نَلْتَقِيَ غَدًا.
يُمْكِنُ is frozen in the singular 'he' form; it does not take a plural ending — the actor shows in نَلْتَقِيَ.
يَنْبَغي أَنْ نَحْتَرِمَ الآخَرينَ.
يَنْبَغي نَحْتَرِمُ الآخَرينَ.
These modal frames require أَنْ before the verb: يَنْبَغي أَنْ نَحْتَرِمَ.

Common mistakes

Indicative instead of subjunctive after أَنْ
يَجِبُ أَنْ تَذْهَبُ.
يَجِبُ أَنْ تَذْهَبَ.
أَنْ governs the subjunctive: تَذْهَبَ (fatḥa).
Conjugating the frozen modal for the subject
يَجِبونَ أَنْ يَدْرُسوا.
يَجِبُ أَنْ يَدْرُسوا.
يَجِبُ stays in the singular 'he' form; the plurality is shown only in the inner verb يَدْرُسوا.

B1Verb usage

Necessity & Permission Frames

أَفْعالُ الوُجوبِ والجَوازِ (لا بُدَّ أَنْ، مِنَ المُمْكِنِ أَنْ)

Besides the single-verb modals (يَجِبُ، يُمْكِنُ), Arabic has NOMINAL frames that express the same ideas with a noun or phrase + أَنْ. The most useful: لا بُدَّ أَنْ / لا بُدَّ مِنْ أَنْ ('there is no escape that' = 'must, inevitably'); مِنَ الضَّروريِّ أَنْ ('it is necessary that'); مِنَ المُمْكِنِ أَنْ ('it is possible that = can/may'); مِنَ الأَفْضَلِ أَنْ ('it is better that = had better'); مِنَ المُمْنوعِ أَنْ ('it is forbidden that'). The pattern is مِنَ + adjective (genitive) + أَنْ + subjunctive verb: مِنَ الضَّروريِّ أَنْ تَنامَ مُبَكِّرًا ('you need to sleep early'). After مِنْ the adjective is in the GENITIVE (kasra). As always, the verb after أَنْ is subjunctive, and the real actor is the inner verb's subject.

Key rule

Express necessity/possibility with nominal frames — لا بُدَّ أَنْ، عَلَيْكَ أَنْ، and مِنَ + genitive adjective + أَنْ (مِنَ الضَّروريِّ/المُمْكِنِ أَنْ) — each followed by a subjunctive verb.

Examples

لا بُدَّ أَنْ نَعْمَلَ بِجِدٍّ.
لا بُدَّ أَنْ نَعْمَلُ بِجِدٍّ.
After أَنْ the verb is subjunctive: نَعْمَلَ (fatḥa), not the indicative نَعْمَلُ.
مِنَ الضَّروريِّ أَنْ تَحْجِزَ مُبَكِّرًا.
مِنَ الضَّروريُّ أَنْ تَحْجِزَ مُبَكِّرًا.
مِنْ governs the genitive, so the adjective is الضَّروريِّ (kasra), not the nominative الضَّروريُّ.
عَلَيْكَ أَنْ تَحْتَرِمَ القَوانينَ.
عَلَيْكَ تَحْتَرِمُ القَوانينَ.
The عَلى-frame still needs أَنْ + subjunctive: عَلَيْكَ أَنْ تَحْتَرِمَ.

Common mistakes

Nominative adjective after مِنْ
مِنَ الضَّروريُّ أَنْ تَأْتِيَ.
مِنَ الضَّروريِّ أَنْ تَأْتِيَ.
مِنْ is a preposition and puts the following adjective in the genitive: الضَّروريِّ.
Dropping أَنْ in the عَلى-frame
عَلَيْكَ تَدْرُسُ كَثيرًا.
عَلَيْكَ أَنْ تَدْرُسَ كَثيرًا.
عَلى + person ('must') still requires أَنْ + subjunctive: عَلَيْكَ أَنْ تَدْرُسَ.

B1Verb usage

Tense Sequence in Narration

تَتابُعُ الأَزْمِنَةِ في السَّرْدِ

Telling a story in Arabic means weaving together a few tools you already know. (1) The PAST (al-māḍī) carries the main events in order: ذَهَبَ، رَأى، أَكَلَ. (2) كانَ + a PRESENT verb sets the BACKGROUND — what was going on, repeated or ongoing: كانَ المَطَرُ يَنْزِلُ ('the rain was falling'), كُنّا نَلْعَبُ ('we were playing / used to play'). (3) قَدْ + past marks an event as already COMPLETED before another, like a 'had done': كانَ قَدْ غادَرَ ('he had (already) left'). (4) Linking words keep the order clear: ثُمَّ ('then'), بَعْدَ أَنْ ('after'), عِنْدَما / لَمّا ('when'), فَـ ('and so'). The skill is choosing the past for the foreground events and كانَ + present for the scene around them.

Key rule

Narrate with the past for sequenced events, كانَ + present for ongoing/habitual background, and كانَ قَدْ + past for 'had done', linked by ثُمَّ / عِنْدَما / بَعْدَ أَنْ.

Examples

دَخَلْتُ الغُرْفَةَ، ثُمَّ جَلَسْتُ.
أَدْخُلُ الغُرْفَةَ، ثُمَّ جَلَسْتُ.
Sequenced past events both stay in the past: دَخَلْتُ ... جَلَسْتُ, not a present verb أَدْخُلُ mixed in.
كانَ المَطَرُ يَنْزِلُ عِنْدَما خَرَجْنا.
المَطَرُ يَنْزِلُ عِنْدَما خَرَجْنا.
Background action in the past needs كانَ + present: كانَ يَنْزِلُ ('was falling'); a bare present يَنْزِلُ shifts it to the present.
عِنْدَما وَصَلْتُ، كانَ القِطارُ قَدْ غادَرَ.
عِنْدَما وَصَلْتُ، القِطارُ قَدْ غادَرَ.
'Had already left' = كانَ قَدْ + past; without كانَ the anteriority ('before I arrived') is lost.

Common mistakes

Using the bare present for background instead of كانَ + present
النّاسُ يَنْتَظِرونَ عِنْدَما وَصَلْتُ.
كانَ النّاسُ يَنْتَظِرونَ عِنْدَما وَصَلْتُ.
Ongoing past action requires كانَ + present: كانَ يَنْتَظِرونَ ('were waiting').
Using كانَ + PAST for a habit instead of كانَ + present
كُنْتُ ذَهَبْتُ إِلى المَدْرَسَةِ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ.
كُنْتُ أَذْهَبُ إِلى المَدْرَسَةِ كُلَّ يَوْمٍ.
'Used to go' = كانَ + present: كُنْتُ أَذْهَبُ.

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B1 Arabic Grammar — 66 Topics & Common Mistakes

The Deputy Subject (Nāʾib al-Fāʿil)

The Five Nouns (al-Asmāʾ al-Khamsa)

Diptotes (Mamnūʿ min al-Ṣarf)

Case Endings of Dual & Sound Plurals

The Cognate Accusative (Mafʿūl Muṭlaq)

The Accusative of Purpose (Mafʿūl li-Ajlih)

The Accusative of Accompaniment (Mafʿūl Maʿah)

The Circumstantial Accusative (Ḥāl)

The Accusative of Specification (Tamyīz)

Unreal / Adjectival Iḍāfa

Counterfactual Conditional with law

The Conditional & Its Two Jussives

Conditional Nouns (man, mā, mahmā)

Time Subordinators

Result & Purpose Clauses

Concession Connectors

Coordination & Its Case Agreement (ʿAṭf al-Nasaq)

Hundreds, Thousands & Compound Numbers

Ordinal Numbers: Full System

Duration: mundhu / li-

Tamyīz after kam

Centuries & Numeric Reading

MSA vs Dialect Register

Formal Letters & Emails

Common Idiomatic Frames

Medial Hamza Seats

Final Hamza Seats

The Distinguishing Alif (Alif al-Tafrīq)

Exception with illā

Exception with ghayr / siwā

inna and Sisters: Full Use

The Emphatic Lām after inna

Compound (Phrasal) Prepositions

Relatives without the Article: man & mā

Fronting for Emphasis (Taqdīm)

kam: Interrogative vs Exclamatory

Apposition (Badal)

Emphasis (Tawkīd)

Choosing the Negation Particle

Categorical Negation: lā an-Nāfiya lil-Jins

Form V (tafaʿʿala)

Form VI (tafāʿala)

Form VII (infaʿala)

Form VIII (iftaʿala)

Form X (istafʿala)

Mapping Form to Meaning

Maṣdar Patterns by Verb Form

Participles of Derived Forms

The Comparative (Afʿal + min)

The Superlative

Nouns of Place & Time (Mafʿal)

Noun of Instrument (Mifʿal/Mifʿāl/Mifʿala)

Intensive Forms (Ṣīghat al-Mubālagha)

Indicative / Subjunctive / Jussive Overview

The Five Verbs (al-Afʿāl al-Khamsa)

Doubled (Geminate) Verbs

Hamzated Verbs

Weak Verbs Across Tenses

The Emphatic Nūn (Nūn al-Tawkīd)

The Passive Voice (Intro)

Passive of Derived Forms

kāna and Sisters: Full Use

Verbs of Approximation: kāda etc.

Impersonal & Modal Expressions

Necessity & Permission Frames

Tense Sequence in Narration