Lenguia | B2 Estonian Grammar: 58 Topics & Examples

The ABESSIVE case (ilmaütlev), ending in -ta, means 'WITHOUT' something: raha -> rahata (without money), sõna -> sõnata (without a word), magamine -> magamata (without sleeping). It is built on the GENITIVE stem, exactly like the other late cases: raha (gen) + ta = rahata; töö (gen töö) + ta = tööta (without work / jobless). You can use the abessive on its own (Ta lahkus sõnata = He left without a word) or reinforce it with the preposition ILMA: ilma rahata (without money). The ma-infinitive abessive form (the -mata form, magamata 'without sleeping') belongs here too. Estonian has no separate negative-comitative word like English 'without' that takes a noun directly - the meaning is carried by the case ending -ta itself.

Key rule

The abessive (-ta) means 'without' and attaches to the GENITIVE stem (rahata, tööta); the verbal -mata form means 'without doing' (ütlemata); the optional ilma keeps the -ta ending (ilma rahata), and a modifying adjective stays in the genitive (suure rahata).

Examples

Ma jõin kohvi ilma suhkruta.
Ma jõin kohvi ilma suhkur.
After ilma the noun still takes the abessive ending -ta; suhkur -> suhkruta (genitive stem suhkru-).
Ta lahkus sõnata.
Ta lahkus sõna.
'Without a word' is the abessive sõnata, not the bare nominative/genitive sõna.
Ma jäin tööta.
Ma jäin töötaks.
'Without work / jobless' is the abessive tööta; -ks would be the translative (becoming), a different case.

Common mistakes

Dropping -ta after ilma
Ma tulin ilma raha.
Ma tulin ilma rahata.
Even with the preposition ilma, the noun keeps the abessive ending -ta in standard Estonian.
Confusing abessive -ta with comitative -ga
Ta tuli autota, sest tal oli auto.
Ta tuli autoga, sest tal oli auto.
-ta = without, -ga = with; choosing the wrong one reverses the meaning.

B2Cases

Comitative (-ga) - Full Range

Kaasaütlev kääne (-ga) - täielik kasutus

The COMITATIVE case (kaasaütlev), ending in -GA, is one of Estonian's most frequent cases and covers a wide range of meanings: (1) ACCOMPANIMENT 'with (a person)': sõbraga (with a friend), perega (with the family); (2) INSTRUMENT / means 'with, by': noaga (with a knife), bussiga (by bus), pliiatsiga (with a pencil); (3) MANNER 'with (an emotion/quality)': rõõmuga (with joy), kannatlikkusega (with patience), suure huviga (with great interest). It is built on the GENITIVE stem: sõber -> sõbra -> sõbraga; auto -> auto -> autoga. Note that for the INSTRUMENT of transport Estonian uses the comitative (sõidan bussiga = I go by bus), while a 'vehicle as a place you sit on/in' can use a locative - so bussiga (by bus, means) contrasts with bussis (in the bus, location). A modifying adjective in the comitative stays in the GENITIVE: suure rõõmuga.

Key rule

The comitative (-ga) on the genitive stem covers accompaniment (sõbraga), instrument/means (noaga, bussiga), and manner (rõõmuga); Estonian uses the COMITATIVE, not the adessive, for instruments, and a modifying adjective stays in the genitive (suure rõõmuga).

Examples

Ma lõikan leiba noaga.
Ma lõikan leiba noal.
The instrument is the comitative noaga (with a knife); the adessive noal is not the instrument case in Estonian.
Ma sõidan tööle bussiga.
Ma sõidan tööle bussis.
For the means of travel use the comitative bussiga (by bus); bussis would mean 'in the bus' (location).
Ta vastas naeratusega.
Ta vastas naeratuses.
Manner ('with a smile') is the comitative naeratusega; the inessive naeratuses ('in a smile') is wrong.

Common mistakes

Using the adessive (-l) for an instrument
Ma kirjutan pastakal.
Ma kirjutan pastakaga.
Estonian marks the instrument with the comitative -ga; the adessive is location/time/possessor, not means.
Confusing means (-ga) and place (-s) for vehicles
Ma lähen koju rongis.
Ma lähen koju rongiga.
'By train' (means of travel) is the comitative rongiga; rongis = 'in the train' (where you are).

B2Cases

Terminative (-ni) - Spatial, Temporal & Degree Limits

Rajav kääne (-ni) - täielik kasutus

The TERMINATIVE case (rajav), ending in -NI, marks a LIMIT or END-POINT - 'up to / until / as far as'. It works in three dimensions: (1) SPATIAL 'as far as': põlvedeni (up to the knees), Tartuni (as far as Tartu), kaelani vees (in water up to the neck); (2) TEMPORAL 'until': õhtuni (until evening), kella viieni (until five o'clock), lõpuni (to the end); (3) DEGREE 'to the point of': surmani väsinud (dead tired, lit. tired to death), viimseni (down to the last one). It is built on the GENITIVE stem: õhtu -> õhtuni, lõpp (gen lõpu) -> lõpuni. The terminative pairs naturally with the elative -st in 'from X to Y' phrases: hommikust õhtuni (from morning till evening), Tallinnast Tartuni (from Tallinn to Tartu). A modifying adjective stays in the GENITIVE: viimase minutini (until the last minute).

Key rule

The terminative (-ni) on the genitive stem marks the end-point 'up to / until / as far as' in space (Tartuni), time (õhtuni) and degree (surmani väsinud); it pairs with the elative for 'from X to Y' (hommikust õhtuni), and a modifying adjective stays in the genitive (viimase minutini).

Examples

Ma töötasin õhtuni.
Ma töötasin õhtu.
'Until evening' is the terminative õhtuni; the bare nominative/genitive õhtu cannot express the time-limit.
Vesi ulatus kaelani.
Vesi ulatus kaelas.
'Up to the neck' is the terminative kaelani; the inessive kaelas ('in the neck') is wrong.
Pidu kestis hommikust õhtuni.
Pidu kestis hommikuni õhtuni.
'From X to Y' pairs the elative (hommikust) with the terminative (õhtuni), not two terminatives.

Common mistakes

Using a locative instead of the terminative for a limit
Vesi oli kaelas.
Vesi ulatus kaelani.
'Up to the neck' marks an extent reached and needs the terminative -ni, not the inessive -s.
Pairing terminative with terminative in 'from-to'
hommikuni õhtuni
hommikust õhtuni
The start of an extent is the elative (-st) and the end is the terminative (-ni).

B2Cases

Essive (-na) - Role, Temporary State & Time

Olev kääne (-na) - täielik kasutus

The ESSIVE case (olev), ending in -NA, expresses being IN A ROLE, STATE or CAPACITY - 'as / when (being)': õpetajana (as a teacher), lapsena (as a child / when I was a child), esimehena (as chairman). It is built on the GENITIVE stem: õpetaja -> õpetajana, laps (gen lapse) -> lapsena, noor (gen noore) -> noorena. Three main uses: (1) ROLE / capacity 'as': Ta töötab arstina (She works as a doctor); (2) TEMPORARY STATE 'while/when being': Noorena reisisin palju (When young I travelled a lot); (3) TIME 'as / during' a stage of life or period: lapsena (in childhood), õpilasena (as a student). Compare the essive (a state you are IN) with the translative -ks (becoming / a change INTO that state): saab õpetajaks ('becomes a teacher') vs töötab õpetajana ('works as a teacher'). A modifying adjective stays in the GENITIVE: hea sõbrana (as a good friend).

Key rule

The essive (-na) on the genitive stem expresses being in a role or state 'as / when being' (õpetajana, lapsena, noorena); contrast it with the translative -ks which marks BECOMING/change (saab õpetajaks vs töötab õpetajana), and keep a modifying adjective in the genitive (hea õpetajana).

Examples

Ta töötab arstina.
Ta töötab arstiks.
An ongoing role 'works as a doctor' is the essive arstina; the translative arstiks would mean 'becomes a doctor'.
Lapsena elasin maal.
Lapseks elasin maal.
'As a child / in childhood' is the essive lapsena (state); the translative lapseks ('into a child') is wrong here.
Ta saab järgmisel aastal õpetajaks.
Ta saab järgmisel aastal õpetajana.
Becoming/change of state takes the translative õpetajaks; the essive õpetajana would mean an existing role.

Common mistakes

Using the translative -ks for an ongoing role
Ta töötab õpetajaks.
Ta töötab õpetajana.
An ongoing role/state is the essive -na; -ks (translative) marks becoming or a resulting role.
Using the essive -na for becoming/change
Ta saab arstina.
Ta saab arstiks.
Becoming or a change of state needs the translative -ks, not the essive.

B2Agreement

Cases Where Only the Head Inflects

Käänded, kus käändub vaid põhisõna

In most Estonian cases, an adjective AGREES with its noun in both case and number: suur maja -> suures majas (in the big house), suurel laual (on the big table). But in the FOUR 'late' cases - TERMINATIVE (-ni), ESSIVE (-na), ABESSIVE (-ta) and COMITATIVE (-ga) - this breaks: the adjective and any other modifier stay in the GENITIVE, and ONLY THE HEAD noun takes the case ending. So: suure majani (up to the big house), noore õpetajana (as a young teacher), suure rahata (without much money), parima sõbraga (with the best friend). The agreement endings -ni/-na/-ta/-ga appear once, on the noun only. This also applies to numerals and demonstratives in these cases: selle suure majani (up to this big house). Remember the four cases with the mnemonic: -ni, -na, -ta, -ga = genitive modifier + ending on the head.

Key rule

In the four late cases terminative (-ni), essive (-na), abessive (-ta) and comitative (-ga), the modifier stays in the GENITIVE and only the head noun takes the ending (suure majani, hea sõbrana, suure rahata, parima sõbraga); all other cases - including the translative -ks - show full agreement.

Examples

Me sõitsime suure jõeni.
Me sõitsime suureni jõeni.
Terminative: the adjective stays genitive (suure); only the head jõgi takes -ni.
Ta töötab hea õpetajana.
Ta töötab heana õpetajana.
Essive: the adjective stays genitive (hea); only õpetaja takes -na.
Ma jäin suure rahata.
Ma jäin suureta rahata.
Abessive: the adjective stays genitive (suure); only raha takes -ta.

Common mistakes

Inflecting the adjective in the comitative
Ma sõidan kiirega rongiga.
Ma sõidan kiire rongiga.
In -ga the modifier stays genitive; only the head takes the ending.
Inflecting the adjective in the essive
Heana sõbrana ma aitan.
Hea sõbrana ma aitan.
In -na the modifier stays genitive (hea).

B2Cases

Idiomatic Locative Uses

Idiomaatilised kohakäänded

Beyond literal place ('in/on/from'), Estonian uses the locative cases in many FROZEN, FIGURATIVE expressions where the meaning is not predictable from 'where'. The adessive (-l) and other locatives appear in fixed phrases about states, activities and conditions: töö on käsil (the work is in progress, lit. 'on hand'), olen jalul (I am up / on my feet), olen abielus (I am married, lit. 'in marriage'), õppida peast (to learn by heart, lit. 'from the head'), tulla meelde (to come to mind), olla heas tujus (to be in a good mood), pidada silmas (to keep in mind, lit. 'to hold in the eye'). These cannot be translated case-by-case; they must be learned as units. The key skill at B2 is recognising that a locative case here is IDIOMATIC, not literal, and choosing the right frozen case (käsil not *käes for 'in progress', peast not *peaga for 'by heart').

Key rule

Many high-frequency Estonian expressions freeze a locative case figuratively (töö on käsil, olen abielus, õppida peast, tulla meelde, pidada silmas); the case is lexically fixed and non-literal, so learn these as whole chunks rather than deriving them from 'where'.

Examples

Töö on praegu käsil.
Töö on praegu käes.
'In progress' is the frozen adessive käsil; käes (inessive) means 'in hand / being held', a different idiom.
Ma õppisin luuletuse peast.
Ma õppisin luuletuse peaga.
'By heart' is the elative peast ('from the head'); peaga (comitative) would mean 'with the head'.
Ta on juba kümme aastat abielus.
Ta on juba kümme aastat abielul.
'Married' is the inessive abielus ('in marriage'); the adessive abielul is not idiomatic here.

Common mistakes

Choosing the literal locative over the frozen one
Töö on käes.
Töö on käsil.
'In progress' is the fixed adessive käsil; käes means 'held/in hand'.
Using the comitative for 'by heart'
Õppisin selle peaga.
Õppisin selle peast.
'By heart' is the frozen elative peast; peaga means 'with the head'.

B2Cases

Short Plural & i-Plural Forms

Lühike mitmus ja i-mitmus

Besides the regular plural built with -te-/-de- (raamatutes, lastele), Estonian has a SHORTER plural - the i-PLURAL (i-mitmus) - used in several cases, especially the partitive plural and in many fixed/idiomatic forms. Compare the regular partitive plural raamatuid with i-plural shapes like suuri (big ones), häid (good ones), käsi (hands), jalgu (legs/feet). The i-plural marks the plural with -i- (often fused into the stem) instead of the long -te-/-de- element. It is the normal partitive plural for many word types (suuri maju, häid sõpru, väikseid lapsi) and appears in frozen directional/idiomatic forms (kätte 'into the hand', jalgu 'underfoot', silmi 'eyes'). At B2 the goal is to RECOGNISE the i-plural as a plural form (not a singular), to use the i-plural partitive correctly after numbers-of-the-type and quantifiers, and to choose between the long plural and the short i-plural where both exist.

Key rule

Estonian's short i-plural (i-mitmus) marks the plural with -i- instead of -te-/-de- and is the normal PARTITIVE PLURAL for many words (suuri maju, häid sõpru, lapsi, käsi); recognise it as plural, use it after quantifiers, and agree the adjective (häid raamatuid).

Examples

Mul on palju häid sõpru.
Mul on palju head sõbrad.
After palju the partial plural object is the i-plural partitive häid sõpru, not the nominative plural head sõbrad.
Ostsin turult värskeid õunu.
Ostsin turult värsked õunad.
The partial plural object is the i-plural partitive värskeid õunu; the adjective agrees in the i-plural (värskeid).
Linnas on palju suuri maju.
Linnas on palju suured majad.
After palju the i-plural partitive suuri maju is required, not the nominative plural.

Common mistakes

Using the nominative plural as a partial plural object
Mul on palju head sõbrad.
Mul on palju häid sõpru.
A partial/quantified plural object takes the i-plural partitive (häid sõpru), not the nominative plural.
Not agreeing the adjective in the i-plural
Ostsin värsked õunu.
Ostsin värskeid õunu.
The adjective must also be in the i-plural partitive: värskeid õunu.

B2Cases

Genitive Attributes - Advanced

Omastav täiend - laiendus

Estonian uses the GENITIVE for noun-modifies-noun attributes ('the children's book' = laste raamat) and for many MEASURE and TIME phrases. At B2 you handle LAYERED genitive chains (mu venna naise auto = my brother's wife's car) and the heavier patterns: (1) GENITIVE OF MEASURE / quantity: kahe meetri pikkune (two metres long), viie aasta jooksul (in the course of five years), kahe nädala pärast (in two weeks); (2) GENITIVE OF TIME with postpositions: kella kahe ajal (around two o'clock), kolme tunni jooksul (within three hours), eelmise nädala lõpus (at the end of last week); (3) descriptive genitive attributes: tähtsa tähtsusega... (better: suure tähtsusega küsimus = a question of great importance). The modifier noun precedes its head in the genitive, and within a genitive chain every preceding link is genitive. Numbers and adjectives inside these phrases also go genitive: kahe pika nädala pärast (after two long weeks).

Key rule

The genitive marks noun-on-noun attributes and stacks in chains (mu venna naise auto); measure and time phrases put the number+noun in the GENITIVE before the head/postposition (kahe meetri pikkune, kahe nädala pärast), with every modifier (numeral, adjective) also genitive (kahe pika nädala pärast).

Examples

See on mu venna naise auto.
See on mu vend naine auto.
Each link in the chain is genitive and precedes the next: venna -> naise -> auto.
Tulen kahe nädala pärast.
Tulen kaks nädalat pärast.
Before the postposition pärast the time span is genitive (kahe nädala); kaks nädalat (partitive) is the duration-object form, not used here.
Ta on kahe meetri pikkune.
Ta on kaks meetrit pikkune.
In the genitive-of-measure pattern the number+noun is genitive (kahe meetri), modifying pikkune.

Common mistakes

Using the partitive (counting form) before a postposition
Tulen kaks nädalat pärast.
Tulen kahe nädala pärast.
Before pärast/jooksul/ajal the time span is a genitive attribute (kahe nädala), not the partitive counting form.
Partitive in the genitive-of-measure pattern
Ta on kaks meetrit pikkune.
Ta on kahe meetri pikkune.
The measure modifier is genitive (kahe meetri) before pikkune/raskune/vanune.

B2Connectors

Clitics -gi/-ki — Scope & Placement (Advanced)

Liited -gi/-ki — ulatus ja paigutus

The clitic -gi/-ki attaches to the END of a word and means 'too / even / also'. The form depends on the preceding sound: use -gi after a vowel or l, m, n, r, v, j — temagi, mulgi, sealgi — and -ki after a voiceless k, p, t, s, h AND after a word-final b, d, g (which are devoiced) — kakski, sedagi, lapsedki, aitasidki. The crucial advanced point is SCOPE: -gi marks the exact word it sits on as the focused element, so its position changes the meaning. Temagi tuli = 'he too came (besides others)', but Ta tuligi = 'he actually did come (as expected)'. Under negation -gi/-ki turns into a negative-polarity 'not even / not a single': ükski (not a single one), keegi → ei tule kedagi, midagi → ei näe midagi.

Key rule

Write -ki after a voiceless k/p/t/s/h AND after a word-final b/d/g (which are devoiced); write -gi after a vowel or l/m/n/r/v/j; the clitic focuses exactly the word it attaches to, so move it to shift the 'too/even' focus, and under negation it builds emphatic negatives (ükski … ei, ei … midagi/kedagi).

Examples

Temagi tuli peole.
Tema gi tuli peole.
-gi is an enclitic written solid onto the host word; after the vowel of tema it is -gi, never spaced.
Kakski õpilast jäi haigeks.
Kaksgi õpilast jäi haigeks.
After the voiceless s of kaks the clitic must be -ki, not -gi.
Ükski pood ei olnud lahti.
Üksgi pood ei olnud lahti.
After the voiceless s of üks the form is -ki; ükski is the standard negative-polarity 'not a single'.

Common mistakes

Choosing -gi after a voiceless consonant
Sedaki ma ei teadnud.
Sedagi ma ei teadnud.
seda ends in a vowel, so the clitic is -gi; -ki is only after k/p/t/s/h.
Choosing -ki after a voiced sound
Temaki helistas mulle.
Temagi helistas mulle.
After the vowel of tema the form is -gi; -ki would require a preceding voiceless obstruent.

B2Connectors

Modal Particles ju, ka, küll, ikka

Rõhumäärsõnad ju, ka, küll, ikka

Estonian uses small pragmatic particles that add attitude rather than new information. ju appeals to shared knowledge: Sa ju tead = 'you DO know (as we both know)'. ka means 'also/too' and usually stands before the word it adds: Mina tulen ka. küll softens or insists depending on context: Küll ta tuleb = 'he'll come, don't worry'; Tule küll! = 'do come!'. ikka means 'still / anyway / of course': Ma ikka lähen = 'I'm going anyway'. These particles are unstressed, sit inside the clause (often right after the verb or the focused word), and are very common in natural speech. Leaving them out is grammatical but makes Estonian sound flat and foreign.

Key rule

ju = 'as you know / after all' (normally middle-field; fronted Ju shifts to 'I suppose'), ka = 'too' (before the added word), küll = reassurance/intensity/concession (a particle outside the V2 count, so Küll ta tuleb), ikka(gi) = 'still/anyway'; they sit in the clause middle and stay unstressed.

Examples

Sa ju tead, kus ma elan.
Sa juba tead, kus ma elan.
For the 'as you know' appeal, use the middle-field particle ju, not juba ('already'), which changes the meaning. (Fronted Ju sa tead is grammatical too but means 'I suppose you know'.)
Ka mina tahan kohvi.
Mina ka kah tahan kohvi.
ka means 'too'; doubling it (with the nonstandard variant kah) is wrong. Note both Ka mina tahan kohvi and Mina tahan ka kohvi are correct — pre-posed ka focuses the subject ('I too'), post-posed ka adds a lighter 'also'.
Küll ta veel tuleb.
Homme ta veel tuleb.
küll is a particle that does NOT count for V2, so the subject stays before the verb (Küll ta tuleb). A genuine fronted constituent like Homme DOES trigger V2 and must invert: Homme tuleb ta veel, not *Homme ta tuleb.

Common mistakes

Using juba ('already') for the 'as you know' particle ju
Ma juba ütlesin sulle, ära unusta.
Ma ju ütlesin sulle, ära unusta.
The shared-knowledge appeal 'I DID tell you' is the middle-field particle ju, not juba ('already'). Note that clause-initial Ju is also valid, but means 'presumably'.
Using kui instead of reassuring küll
Kui ta saab hakkama, ära muretse.
Küll ta saab hakkama, ära muretse.
Confident reassurance 'he'll manage, don't worry' is the particle küll (Küll ta saab hakkama); kui ('if/when') opens a conditional clause and does not reassure.

B2Connectors

Epistemic Particles vist, ehk, äkki, vahest

Tõenäosusmäärsõnad vist, ehk, äkki, vahest

These particles mark how sure the speaker is. vist = 'probably / I think so' (fairly confident guess): Ta on vist kodus = 'he's probably home'. vahest and ehk = 'perhaps / maybe' (lower confidence); ehk also softens suggestions: Ehk läheme jalutama? äkki = 'maybe / what if' and is the typical way to make a tentative proposal or sudden idea: Äkki me sööme välja? = 'what if we eat out?'. They sit in the middle of the clause, usually after the verb or the subject. As sentence adverbials they do not themselves count as a fronted constituent: in colloquial use a clause-opening äkki/võib-olla/ehk commonly keeps the subject before the verb (Äkki me läheme kinno?), though inversion is equally available (Äkki läheme me kinno?), and a genuine fronted constituent still forces V2 (Äkki on ilm parem). Estonian prefers these particles plus the indicative over the conditional alone for everyday hedging, so they are essential for sounding polite and natural.

Key rule

Grade certainty with vist (probably / I think), ehk·vahest·võib-olla (perhaps), and äkki (maybe / what if, for tentative proposals); place them in the clause middle, and note that a clause-opening äkki/võib-olla/ehk is a sentence adverbial that does NOT force inversion (Äkki me läheme? is fine, as is Äkki läheme me?) — true V2 with the verb second applies when a real constituent is fronted (Äkki on ilm parem); pair them with the indicative for everyday hedging.

Examples

Ta on vist juba koju läinud.
Vist ta on juba koju läinud.
vist normally sits in the middle field after the verb; fronting it is marked and clumsy here.
Äkki me läheme homme kinno?
Äkki me läheme kinno homme me?
äkki may open a tentative proposal; as a sentence adverbial it keeps the ordinary subject-before-verb order (me läheme) and you do not repeat or strand the subject.
Ehk sa saaksid mind aidata?
Kui sa saaksid mind aidata?
As a softened request 'could you perhaps' Estonian uses ehk + conditional; bare kui would start a conditional clause, not a polite question.

Common mistakes

Fronting vist unnaturally
Vist ta tuleb hiljem.
Ta tuleb vist hiljem.
vist belongs in the middle field after the finite verb, not at the clause front.
Stranding too many constituents before the verb
Äkki homme ilm on parem.
Äkki on homme ilm parem. / Äkki on ilm homme parem.
äkki is a sentence adverbial and does not itself open a V2 slot, but you cannot pile up homme + ilm before the verb — bring the finite verb on forward (Äkki on …).

B2Connectors

Focus Particles ainult, isegi, just, koguni

Fookusmäärsõnad ainult, isegi, just, koguni

Focus particles point at one element of the sentence and say something about it relative to alternatives. ainult / vaid = 'only': Ma jõin ainult vett = 'I drank only water (nothing else)'. isegi = 'even': Isegi õpetaja ei teadnud = 'even the teacher didn't know'. just = 'exactly / just': Just sina mind aitasidki = 'it was exactly you who helped me'. koguni = 'even / as much as' (surprise at a high degree): Ta ootas koguni kaks tundi = 'he waited as much as two hours'. The particle stands DIRECTLY before the word it focuses, and moving it changes the meaning: Ainult Mart luges raamatu (only Mart, no one else) vs Mart luges ainult raamatu (only the book, nothing else).

Key rule

Put the focus particle (ainult/vaid 'only', isegi 'even', just 'exactly', koguni 'as much as') immediately before the constituent it singles out; its position determines the meaning, and under negation isegi yields 'not even'.

Examples

Ma jõin ainult vett.
Ma ainult jõin vett.
To mean 'only water (nothing else)', ainult must stand before vett; before jõin it would (oddly) restrict the action 'only drank'.
Isegi õpetaja ei teadnud vastust.
Õpetaja isegi ei teadnud vastust.
'Even the teacher' focuses the subject, so isegi precedes õpetaja; placed after, the focus drifts to the verb.
Just sina aitasid mind kõige rohkem.
Sina just aitasid mind kõige rohkem.
Identifying 'it was exactly you' puts just before sina; after sina it reads as temporal 'just (now)'.

Common mistakes

Misplacing ainult so it focuses the wrong constituent
Ma ainult ostsin piima.
Ma ostsin ainult piima.
To mean 'only milk', ainult goes before piima; before the verb it restricts the action ('only bought').
Putting isegi after its focus
Lapsed isegi said aru.
Isegi lapsed said aru.
'Even the children' focuses the subject, so isegi must precede lapsed.

B2Connectors

Negative-Polarity Items (mitte kunagi, üldse, sugugi)

Eitust tugevdavad sõnad

Some words exist mainly to STRENGTHEN a negation and need a negator (ei or the imperative ära) somewhere in the clause. üldse = 'at all': Ma ei tea üldse = 'I don't know at all'. sugugi = 'not in the least': See pole sugugi raske. (mitte) kunagi = 'never': Ma ei tee seda kunagi / Ma ei tee seda mitte kunagi (stronger). mitte + a focus = constituent negation 'not (this one)': Mitte täna; Mitte mina. Remember Estonian's negation core: ei is INVARIANT (it never conjugates) and stands before the connegative verb (ei tea, ei lähe), while these particles add emphasis. Negated indefinites go partitive: ei näe midagi, ei tunne kedagi.

Key rule

Negative-polarity words (üldse, sugugi, (mitte) kunagi, midagi/kedagi) require a negator — the invariant ei + connegative verb, or ära in commands; negate single constituents with mitte (never on a finite verb), put negated indefinites in the partitive, and stack negatives as Estonian normally does.

Examples

Ma ei saa sellest üldse aru.
Ma saan sellest üldse aru.
üldse 'at all' is an NPI and needs a negator (ei) in the clause; without ei it is ungrammatical.
See pole sugugi raske.
See on sugugi raske.
sugugi 'in the least' is licensed only by negation (pole = ei ole); the affirmative is impossible.
Ma ei tee seda mitte kunagi.
Ma ei tee seda mitte kunagi mitte.
mitte kunagi already gives emphatic 'never'; a trailing extra mitte is wrong.

Common mistakes

Using an NPI without any negator
Ma tean üldse, kus ta on.
Ma ei tea üldse, kus ta on.
üldse is a negative-polarity item and requires ei (or another negator) in the clause.
Conjugating ei
Ma en tea seda kunagi.
Ma ei tea seda kunagi.
ei is invariant and never takes personal endings; it is the same for all persons.

B2Connectors

Two-Part Connectors — Advanced (mitte ainult… vaid ka; kas… või)

Korrelatiivsed sidesõnad — laiendus

Correlative (two-part) connectors come in matched pairs that frame two parallel elements. nii … kui ka = 'both … and': nii õpilased kui ka õpetajad. kas … või = 'either … or': Kas sa tuled või jääd? ei … ega = 'neither … nor' (note both halves are negative): Ma ei söö ega joo. The advanced step is mitte ainult … vaid ka = 'not only … but also': Ta ei ole mitte ainult tark, vaid ka töökas. Two rules matter: keep the two framed parts grammatically parallel (same case/form), and watch verb agreement — with nii … kui ka joining two singular subjects the verb is usually plural. Also place a comma before vaid and before the second half of these pairs as the rule requires.

Key rule

Match the pair correctly (nii … kui ka 'both…and', kas … või 'either…or', ei … ega 'neither…nor', mitte ainult … vaid ka 'not only…but also'), keep the two framed parts grammatically parallel, take a plural verb with nii…kui ka subjects, and put a comma before vaid.

Examples

Nii õpilased kui ka õpetajad olid rahul.
Nii õpilased ja õpetajad olid rahul.
The 'both…and' frame is nii … kui ka; ja cannot replace kui ka inside this correlative.
Nii Mart kui ka Mari tulevad peole.
Nii Mart kui ka Mari tuleb peole.
Two subjects joined by nii…kui ka take a plural verb (tulevad), not singular tuleb.
Kas sa tuled või jääd koju?
Kas sa tuled ja jääd koju?
The alternative frame is kas … või; ja ('and') destroys the either/or meaning.

Common mistakes

Using ja inside nii … kui ka
Nii vanad ja noored tulid kohale.
Nii vanad kui ka noored tulid kohale.
The correlative requires kui ka as the second marker, not ja.
Singular verb with a nii…kui ka joint subject
Nii ema kui ka isa töötab.
Nii ema kui ka isa töötavad.
Two subjects framed by nii…kui ka take a plural verb.

B2Connectors

Response & Discourse Particles (no, noh, ahah, eks ole)

Vestluspartiklid no, noh, ahah, eks ole

Spoken Estonian runs on small response and discourse particles that manage the conversation rather than add facts. no / noh = a soft opener or hesitation 'well…': No mis sa arvad?; Noh, eks näis. ahah / ahaa = 'oh, I see' (taking in new information). aa = 'ah' (sudden realisation). eks = 'right? / isn't it?' — the tag eks ole? (often shortened to eksole / eks) seeks agreement: Sa tuled ka, eks ole? mhmh / jah-jah = backchannels showing you're listening. njah = a doubtful 'well, sort of'. These belong to kõnekeel (spoken register): they make speech sound fluent and engaged, but you avoid them in formal writing. They typically sit at the very start of a turn (no, noh, ahah) or as a tag at the end (eks ole?).

Key rule

Use spoken-register discourse particles to manage talk, not to add content: no/noh open or fill a turn ('well…'), ahah/aa signal uptake ('I see/ah'), and the tag eks (ole)? invites agreement — keep all of them in speech and informal messages, out of formal writing.

Examples

No mis me nüüd teeme?
Ei mis me nüüd teeme?
Turn-opening no 'well' starts the turn; it is not the negator ei ('no').
Noh, eks me näe, kuidas läheb.
Noh, ega me näe, kuidas läheb.
noh is a soft filler and eks here means 'well/we'll see'; ega (negative coordinator) does not fit this affirmative idiom.
Ahah, nüüd ma saan aru!
Jah, nüüd ma saan aru ahah!
ahah 'oh, I see' belongs turn-initially as the uptake signal, not tacked on at the end.

Common mistakes

Reading no as English 'no'
No, ma ei taha.
Ei, ma ei taha. / No ma ei tea, ehk hiljem.
Estonian no is a soft filler 'well', not a refusal; refusal is ei.
Using kas as a confirmation tag
Sa aitad mind, kas ole?
Sa aitad mind, eks ole?
The agreement-seeking tag is eks ole?; kas introduces a full yes/no question, not a tag.

B2Connectors

Text-Structuring Connectors (esiteks, teiseks, kokkuvõttes)

Teksti liigendavad sidesõnad

When you write an essay or give a structured argument, sequencing connectors guide the reader. Enumeration: esiteks (firstly), teiseks (secondly), kolmandaks (thirdly). Adding a point: lisaks, peale selle (in addition). Concluding: lõpetuseks / lõpuks (finally), kokkuvõttes / kokkuvõtteks (in summary). Examples: näiteks (for example). Result/transition: seega, järelikult (therefore). These connective adverbs usually stand at the start of the sentence — and because they fill the first slot, Estonian's V2 rule pushes the verb to second position: Esiteks on see odavam (not 'Esiteks see on…'). A comma is normally NOT placed after a single-word connective adverb like esiteks/seega, unlike English 'Firstly,'. Use them in writing and formal speech to make texts feel organised.

Key rule

Signpost structured text with connective adverbs — esiteks/teiseks/kolmandaks (sequence), lisaks/samuti (addition), näiteks (example), seega/järelikult (result), kokkuvõttes/lõpetuseks (conclusion) — placed clause-initially, after which V2 forces the verb to second position (Esiteks on see odavam); a single-word connective takes no following comma.

Examples

Esiteks on see lahendus odavam.
Esiteks see on odavam.
A fronted connective adverb triggers V2: the verb on comes second, before the subject see.
Seega peame otsuse kohe tegema.
Seega me peame otsuse kohe tegema.
After fronted seega, V2 puts peame second; the subject (me) is omitted or follows, not placed before the verb.
Lisaks tuleb arvestada ka ajaga.
Lisaks, tuleb arvestada ka ajaga.
A single-word connective adverb like lisaks takes no comma after it in Estonian (unlike English 'In addition,').

Common mistakes

Keeping SV order after a fronted connective
Esiteks see on odavam.
Esiteks on see odavam.
A clause-initial connective adverb triggers V2; the finite verb must be second.
Subject before the verb after seega/järelikult
Seega me peame otsustama.
Seega peame otsustama. / Seega peame me otsustama.
V2 keeps the verb second after the fronted connective; SVO order is wrong here.

B2Participles

The des-Converb - Full Use

Des-vorm - täielik kasutus

The des-converb (gerund) describes an action happening AT THE SAME TIME as the main verb - 'while doing', 'by doing'. You build it from the da-infinitive: take the da-infinitive (teha, joosta, lugeda, olla), drop the -a/-da ending and add -des: tehes, joostes, lugedes, olles. The crucial rule is the SHARED SUBJECT: the doer of the -des action must be the SAME as the subject of the main clause. 'Süües vaatan telekat' = 'While eating I watch TV' (I eat, I watch). It expresses simultaneity (while), manner (by), or accompanying circumstance. There is NO personal ending and NO possessive suffix on it (unlike Finnish) - the form is invariable.

Key rule

The des-converb = da-infinitive minus -a plus -des (teha -> tehes); it means 'while/by doing', is invariable, and its subject must match the main-clause subject.

Examples

Süües vaatan telekat.
Süüa vaatan telekat.
The converb is süües (da-inf süüa + -des), not the bare da-infinitive.
Koju kõndides mõtlesin sinust.
Koju kõndimas mõtlesin sinust.
Simultaneity 'while walking' is -des, not the mas-form.
Ta teenis raha tööd tehes.
Ta teenis raha tööd tegema.
'By working' is the des-converb tehes, not the ma-infinitive.

Common mistakes

Using the bare da-infinitive instead of -des
Teha tööd kuulan muusikat.
Tööd tehes kuulan muusikat.
Simultaneity needs the converb tehes, not the da-infinitive teha.
Confusing -des with the mas-form
Kõndimas mõtlesin.
Kõndides mõtlesin.
-mas marks being in the act/location; -des marks 'while doing' simultaneity with the main verb.

B2Participles

The nud-Participial Clause (anterior)

Nud-lauselühend

The nud-lauselühend uses the active past participle (-nud: jõudnud, lõpetanud, söönud) to compress a clause meaning 'HAVING done something' - an action FINISHED BEFORE the main verb. 'Koju jõudnud, istusin kohe arvuti taha' = 'Having arrived home, I sat down at the computer right away.' Like the des-converb, it normally shares its subject with the main clause: the one who 'arrived home' is the same 'I' who sat down. It replaces a kui- or pärast seda kui-clause (after I had...). The -nud form is invariable here - it does not agree, take a personal ending or change for number.

Key rule

The nud-lauselühend uses the -nud participle alone to mean 'having done X' (completed before the main verb), with a subject shared with the main clause: 'Koju jõudnud, helistasin emale.'

Examples

Koju jõudnud, istusin kohe arvuti taha.
Koju jõudes istusin kohe arvuti taha.
Anteriority 'having arrived' is the -nud clause; -des would wrongly mean 'while arriving'.
Töö lõpetanud, läksin koju.
Töö lõpetama, läksin koju.
The anterior clause uses the past participle lõpetanud, not the ma-infinitive.
Kogu raamatu läbi lugenud, panin selle riiulile.
Kogu raamatut läbi lugenud, panin selle riiulile.
A completed total object is genitive (raamatu), not partitive (raamatut).

Common mistakes

Using -des (simultaneous) for an anterior action
Süües läksin magama.
Söönud, läksin magama.
Eating happened before sleeping, so the anterior -nud clause is needed, not simultaneous -des.
Different subject in the nud-clause
Koju jõudnud, ootas mind ema.
Kui ma koju jõudsin, ootas mind ema.
The -nud clause shares the main subject; if they differ, use a finite kui-clause.

B2Participles

The tud-Participial Clause (passive anterior)

Tud-lauselühend

The tud-lauselühend uses the passive past participle (-tud/-dud: lõpetatud, tehtud, kirjutatud) to compress a PASSIVE, agentless 'once X had been done' clause. 'Töö lõpetatud, läksin koju' = 'The work (being) finished, I went home.' Unlike the active -nud clause, the tud-clause has its OWN noun - the thing that was done to - which usually stands in the nominative before the participle (töö lõpetatud, uksed suletud). It is an absolute construction: it does not need to share its subject with the main clause, because the doer is left unexpressed. This is a written, somewhat formal pattern.

Key rule

The tud-lauselühend = affected noun (nominative) + passive past participle (-tud), meaning 'with X done / once X had been done'; it is absolute and need not share the main-clause subject.

Examples

Töö lõpetatud, läksin koju.
Töö lõpetanud, läksin koju.
The work was done TO (passive) -> -tud; -nud would mean the work itself actively finished something.
Uksed suletud, lahkus viimane töötaja.
Uksi suletud, lahkus viimane töötaja.
The affected noun stands in the nominative (uksed), not the partitive (uksi).
Kõik ettevalmistused tehtud, võis pidu alata.
Kõik ettevalmistused teinud, võis pidu alata.
Preparations were made (passive) -> tehtud, not the active teinud.

Common mistakes

Using the active -nud for a passive event
Töö lõpetanud, läksin koju (when the work was finished by others).
Töö lõpetatud, läksin koju.
If the doer is suppressed and you mean 'the work having been finished', use the passive -tud.
Putting the affected noun in the partitive or genitive
Tööd lõpetatud, läksin koju.
Töö lõpetatud, läksin koju.
In the absolute tud-clause the affected noun stands in the nominative.

B2Participles

Extended Participial Attributes

Laiendatud kesksõnatäiend

A participle used as an adjective can carry its OWN complements, forming a whole phrase that sits BEFORE the noun: 'eile ilmunud raamat' = 'the book published yesterday' (literally 'yesterday-published book'). English puts such phrases after the noun ('the book published yesterday'); Estonian puts the whole expanded participle phrase before it. The participle can be active (-v, -nud) or passive (-tav, -tud), and its complements - adverbs, objects, place phrases - line up in front of it: 'mu sõbra poolt soovitatud film' = 'the film recommended by my friend'. The head noun's case is matched by the participle and any agreeing words.

Key rule

An extended participial attribute fronts the whole participle phrase before the noun - [complements + participle] + NOUN: 'eile ilmunud raamat', 'mu sõbra soovitatud film'.

Examples

Eile ilmunud raamat on juba läbi müüdud.
Raamat eile ilmunud on juba läbi müüdud.
The whole participial phrase (eile ilmunud) stands BEFORE the noun, not after it.
Mu sõbra soovitatud film oli suurepärane.
Film mu sõbra soovitatud oli suurepärane.
Estonian fronts the attribute; English-style post-nominal order is wrong.
Mullu Tallinnas avatud muuseum meeldib turistidele.
Muuseum mullu Tallinnas avatud meeldib turistidele.
All complements (mullu, Tallinnas) precede the participle, which precedes the noun.

Common mistakes

Placing the participle phrase after the noun (English order)
Raamat eile ilmunud on hea.
Eile ilmunud raamat on hea.
Estonian fronts the entire participial attribute before the head noun.
Using active -nud for a passive meaning
Hoolikalt kirjutanud kiri.
Hoolikalt kirjutatud kiri.
If the noun is the thing acted upon, use the passive participle (kirjutatud).

B2Participles

Agent in Passive Participle Phrases

Tegija umbisikulises tarindis

When a -tud participle is used as an attribute and you want to name WHO did it, the agent goes in the GENITIVE right before the participle: 'autori kirjutatud raamat' = 'the book written by the author' (literally 'the author's written book'). This is the normal Estonian way to say 'written by X' inside a noun phrase - the genitive agent + the -tud participle + the noun, all before the head. It contrasts with the full impersonal sentence, where an agent is usually NOT expressed at all (or with the heavier 'X-i poolt'). In the attribute, the clean genitive agent is preferred: 'lapse joonistatud pilt', 'meistri ehitatud maja'.

Key rule

Name the agent of a -tud attribute in the genitive right before the participle: 'autori kirjutatud raamat' = the book written by the author (preferred over 'autori poolt kirjutatud').

Examples

Autori kirjutatud raamat võitis auhinna.
Autor kirjutatud raamat võitis auhinna.
The agent is genitive (autori), not nominative (autor).
Lapse joonistatud pilt riputati seinale.
Laps joonistatud pilt riputati seinale.
Genitive agent lapse, not the nominative laps.
Kuulsa arhitekti projekteeritud hoone on linna sümbol.
Kuulsa arhitekti projekteerinud hoone on linna sümbol.
The building was designed (passive) -> projekteeritud, not the active projekteerinud.

Common mistakes

Nominative instead of genitive agent
Autor kirjutatud raamat.
Autori kirjutatud raamat.
The agent of a -tud attribute stands in the genitive (autori).
Using active -nud instead of passive -tud
Lapse joonistanud pilt.
Lapse joonistatud pilt.
The picture is acted upon, so the passive participle joonistatud is required.

B2Participles

The ma-Form Series - Systematic Review

Ma-vormide süsteem

Estonian's ma-infinitive (tegema) has a family of four 'oblique' forms, each built by adding a case ending to the ma-stem (tege-): -mas (inessive, 'in the act of / off doing somewhere'), -mast (elative, 'from doing'), -maks (translative, 'in order to do'), -mata (abessive, 'without doing'). This tag reviews all four together as a paradigm: tegemas / tegemast / tegemaks / tegemata. They line up with motion and purpose: you go 'tegema' (to do), are 'tegemas' (doing/at it), come back 'tegemast' (from doing), do something 'tegemaks' (so as to do), or leave it 'tegemata' (undone, without doing). Choosing the right one depends on the direction or relation you mean.

Key rule

The ma-form series adds a case ending to the ma-stem: -mas (in the act), -mast (from doing), -maks (in order to do), -mata (without doing) - chosen by the direction or relation you mean.

Examples

Ma käin igal hommikul ujumas.
Ma käin igal hommikul ujuma.
'Being at the activity' uses -mas; the plain ma-infinitive ujuma follows minema (going to).
Tulin just poest leiba ostmast.
Tulin just poest leiba ostmas.
'Coming FROM doing' is -mast (elative), not -mas (inessive).
Arst keelas tal suitsetamast.
Arst keelas tal suitsetama.
keelama (forbid from) governs the -mast form.

Common mistakes

Plain ma-infinitive instead of -mas after käima/olema
Ma käin ujuma.
Ma käin ujumas.
'Being at the activity' takes -mas; the bare ma-infinitive follows minema (lähen ujuma).
Confusing -mas (at) with -mast (from)
Tulin ujumas.
Tulin ujumast.
Returning FROM an activity is the elative -mast, not the inessive -mas.

B2Participles

da-Infinitive - Advanced Syntax

Da-infinitiivi süntaks

Beyond following verbs like tahan (teha), the da-infinitive has its own advanced uses. (1) As a SUBJECT: 'Suitsetada on kahjulik' = 'To smoke is harmful' - the infinitive is the subject of the sentence. (2) In the 'on + da-infinitive' pattern meaning 'there is to do / one must do': 'Mul on veel palju teha' = 'I still have a lot to do'; 'Siin pole midagi karta' = 'There's nothing to fear here'. (3) After certain adjectives and in evaluative sentences: 'Seda on raske seletada' = 'This is hard to explain'. The da-infinitive keeps its verb government (its object case stays the same), and in the on-pattern it often carries a necessity/availability meaning.

Key rule

The da-infinitive can be the subject ('Suitsetada on kahjulik'), pair with olema for availability/necessity ('Mul on palju teha', 'Pole midagi karta'), and follow evaluative adjectives ('Seda on raske seletada').

Examples

Suitsetada on kahjulik.
Suitsetama on kahjulik.
The infinitive subject is the da-infinitive suitsetada, not the ma-infinitive suitsetama.
Mul on veel palju teha.
Mul on veel palju tegema.
The on + infinitive availability pattern uses the da-infinitive teha, not tegema.
Siin pole midagi karta.
Siin pole midagi kartma.
'Nothing to fear' uses the da-infinitive karta + partitive midagi.

Common mistakes

ma-infinitive instead of da-infinitive as subject
Suitsetama on kahjulik.
Suitsetada on kahjulik.
The infinitival subject is the da-infinitive (suitsetada).
ma-infinitive in the on + infinitive pattern
Mul on palju tegema.
Mul on palju teha.
The availability/necessity 'on + infinitive' takes the da-infinitive (teha).

B2Participles

The -v Participle in Quotative Complements

V-kesksõna kaudkõnes

The present active participle (-v: olev, tegev, teadev) appears in compact reported-speech complements after verbs of saying, thinking and claiming. Instead of a full et-clause, you can use 'object + -v/-vat participle': 'Arvan teda olevat õnnelik' = 'I think him to be happy' (= 'Arvan, et ta on õnnelik'). With the reflexive 'end/ennast' it expresses a claim about oneself: 'Ta väitis end olevat haige' = 'He claimed to be ill'. The participle here often takes the -vat form (the quotative-linked partitive participle): olevat, tegevat. It is a formal, written alternative to the et-clause and links closely to the quotative mood (-vat).

Key rule

Report a claim compactly with VERB + logical subject (object/partitive form) + the -vat participle: 'Arvan teda olevat õnnelik' / 'Ta väitis end olevat haige' (= et-clause; formal, quotative-linked).

Examples

Arvan teda olevat õnnelik.
Arvan ta olevat õnnelik.
The logical subject is the object form teda, not the nominative ta.
Ta väitis end olevat haige.
Ta väitis end olema haige.
The complement uses the participle olevat, not the ma-infinitive olema.
Pean seda õigeks, kuid arvan teid eksivat.
Pean seda õigeks, kuid arvan teie eksivat.
The logical subject takes the object form (teid), not the nominative/genitive teie.

Common mistakes

Nominative logical subject
Arvan ta olevat haige.
Arvan teda olevat haige.
The logical subject of the complement takes the object/partitive form (teda).
ma-infinitive instead of the -vat participle
Ta väitis end olema haige.
Ta väitis end olevat haige.
The quotative complement uses the present participle olevat, not the ma-infinitive olema.

B2Register

Spoken Estonian — Full Features (ma/sa/ta, pole, dropped -d, mis vs mida)

Kõnekeel — täielik ülevaade

At B2 you should be able to both understand and consciously control the full range of spoken Estonian (kõnekeel). Native speech compresses the language in systematic ways: the short pronouns ma, sa, ta, me, te, nad are the default (the long mina/sina/tema only for emphasis); ei ole becomes pole, and the bare ole is often dropped (ma pole = ma ei ole); the 2nd-person -d is clipped (sa tule for sa tuled, kas sa näe?); the partitive question word mida is often replaced by mis (Mis sa teed? for Mida sa teed?); and demonstrative see does duty for 'it'. Fillers such as nagu, noh, ee, semantically empty, glue speech together. There are also colloquial verb forms (saa for saad, tea for tead) and reduced endings. None of this is incorrect — it is the natural register of conversation. Your B2 task is to recognise all of it instantly when listening, to use the most common features fluently when speaking informally, and to switch cleanly back to the full written standard (kirjakeel) when the situation calls for it.

Key rule

Default to compressed spoken forms in conversation (ma/sa/ta, pole, clipped -d, colloquial mis for mida, fillers) but restore the full written standard — full endings, obligatory mida, no fillers, long pronouns only for contrast — whenever you write.

Examples

Mis sa teed täna õhtul?
Mida sa teed täna õhtul? (öelduna kiires kõnes sõbrale)
In casual speech the colloquial mis is natural for the object; the written-standard mida is not wrong but sounds bookish in fast friendly talk (the reverse holds in writing).
Kirjandis: Mida sa sellega mõtled?
Kirjandis: Mis sa sellega mõtled?
In writing the partial/definite object question word must be mida; the colloquial mis is a spoken feature only.
Mul pole täna aega.
Mul ei ole pole täna aega.
pole already IS ei ole; doubling them is an error in any register.

Common mistakes

Writing colloquial mis where the standard needs mida
Palun selgita, mis sa mõtled.
Palun selgita, mida sa mõtled.
A definite/partial object question word is mida in the written standard; mis for the object is a spoken-only feature.
Clipping the 2sg -d in writing
Kas sa näe seda?
Kas sa näed seda?
Dropping -d (näe for näed) is fast-speech phonology; written Estonian keeps the full 2sg ending.

B2Register

Business & Academic Register (nominalisation, impersonal, formulae)

Ametlik ja akadeemiline keel

Formal Estonian — used in reports, official letters, academic writing and administration — has its own recognisable style. It prefers NOMINALISATION (turning verbs into nouns: otsustama → otsuse tegemine 'making a decision', kasutama → kasutamine 'usage'), the IMPERSONAL/passive voice to avoid naming a doer (uuringus leiti, et… 'the study found that…'; tehakse ettepanek 'a proposal is made'), and fixed FORMULAE (käesolevaga teatame 'we hereby inform', eeltoodust lähtuvalt 'based on the foregoing', seoses sellega 'in connection with this'). Sentences are longer, with more subordinate clauses and abstract vocabulary, often built on derivational suffixes like -mine, -us, -ndus. The danger is kantseliit — bureaucratic over-writing that piles up nominalisations and empty formulae until the text is heavy and unclear. Good formal Estonian uses these tools in moderation: enough to sound professional and objective, not so much that meaning drowns. At B2 you should recognise the register, produce a competent formal text, and know when officialese has gone too far.

Key rule

Formal Estonian relies on nominalisation (-mine/-us), the impersonal voice, and set formulae to sound objective and professional — but use them in moderation; stacking nominalisations and empty formulae produces unclear kantseliit, which good style avoids.

Examples

Uuringus analüüsiti kahesaja inimese vastuseid.
Uuringus mina analüüsisin kahesaja inimese vastuseid.
Academic register uses the impersonal analüüsiti to keep the agent out; the first-person mina analüüsisin is too personal for a formal report.
Eeltoodust lähtuvalt teeme ettepaneku projekt peatada.
Sellepärast me tahame, et projekt pannakse seisma.
Eeltoodust lähtuvalt and teeme ettepaneku are the formal register; the casual sellepärast me tahame is too colloquial for an official document.
Andmete kogumine toimus kolme kuu jooksul.
Me kogusime andmeid kolm kuud.
The nominalisation andmete kogumine toimus is the objective academic style; the personal me kogusime is fine in speech but informal for a methods section.

Common mistakes

Using first-person 'ma' in an objective academic text
Ma leidsin oma uurimuses, et tulemus on positiivne.
Uurimuses leiti, et tulemus on positiivne.
Academic Estonian defocuses the author with the impersonal leiti; first-person ma is too personal for objective reporting.
Over-stacking nominalisations into kantseliit
Toimus dokumentide menetlemise protsessi läbiviimine.
Dokumente menetleti. / Dokumendid menetleti läbi.
Piling up genitive nominalisations (menetlemise protsessi läbiviimine) is bureaucratic over-writing; a finite verb is clearer.

B2Register

Dialect Awareness (Võro, saarte murre — recognition)

Murrete tundmine

Standard Estonian (kirjakeel) is based mainly on the northern dialects, but Estonia has rich regional varieties you will meet in songs, place names, social media and older speakers. The biggest divide is between the northern Estonian group (most dialects, close to the standard) and the southern Estonian group, of which Võro (Võru/Võro keel) and Seto are so distinct that many consider them separate languages — they keep features standard Estonian lost, such as the q-sound (glottal stop, written q in Võro: poiss → poiss', the 'kõrisulghäälik'), different vowels (Võro tä for ta, ma instead of mina), and their own words (Võro kotus for standard koht 'place', kõnõlõma for rääkima 'to speak'). On the islands (saarte murre, Saaremaa/Hiiumaa) you hear ö where the standard has õ (söbrad for sõbrad), and a softer, sing-song intonation. The Mulgi area (south-west) and the north-eastern coast have their own marks too. At B2 the goal is RECOGNITION, not production: notice that a form is dialectal, link it to a region, and know it is not standard — so you keep writing and speaking the kirjakeel yourself.

Key rule

Recognise major regional varieties receptively — ö for õ marks the island dialect, the glottal stop/q and tä mark Võro/Seto (often counted a separate language), Mulgi clips word-endings — but keep producing standard Estonian (kirjakeel) yourself.

Examples

Saarlane võib öelda 'söber', kuid kirjakeeles on 'sõber'.
Saarlane võib öelda 'söber', seega kirjuta ka sina 'söber'.
The island ö-for-õ (söber) is recognisable dialect, but the standard written form is sõber; you should not adopt the dialect spelling yourself.
Võro keeles kasutatakse kõrisulghäälikut, mida kirjakeeles ei ole.
Võro keeles kasutatakse vokaalharmooniat, mida kirjakeeles ei ole.
Võro's distinctive feature is the glottal stop (q / kõrisulghäälik); vowel harmony is Finnish, not an Estonian dialect feature.
See laul on murdekeeles, mitte kirjakeeles.
See laul on valesti kirjutatud, sest see pole kirjakeel.
Dialect is a legitimate variety, not an error; calling a dialect text 'wrong' misunderstands the standard/dialect relationship.

Common mistakes

Adopting a dialect feature into your own standard writing
Mu parim söber elab Tallinnas.
Mu parim sõber elab Tallinnas.
söber (ö for õ) is the island dialect; the written standard is sõber, which is what a learner should produce.
Calling Võro vowel harmony (it has none — that is Finnish)
Võro keeles on vokaalharmoonia.
Võro keeles on kõrisulghäälik (q) ja rikkalik vokaalisüsteem.
Estonian and its dialects have no vowel harmony; Võro's hallmark is the glottal stop, not harmony.

B2Vocabulary usage

False Friends (with Finnish, Russian, German, English)

Petturlikud sõnad (valesõbrad)

False friends (valesõbrad / petturlikud sõnad) are words that look or sound the same as a word in another language but mean something different. They are a real trap, especially for Finnish speakers, because Estonian and Finnish are closely related and share thousands of cognates — many of which have drifted apart. Classic Finnish–Estonian pairs: Estonian linn means 'town/city', but Finnish linna means 'castle' (Finnish 'city' is kaupunki); Estonian halb means 'bad', while Finnish halpa means 'cheap'; Estonian hallitus means 'mould (fungus)', but Finnish hallitus means 'government'; Estonian raamat means 'book', Finnish raamattu means 'the Bible'; Estonian piim means 'milk', and Finnish piimä means 'sour milk/buttermilk'. There are also traps with Russian (Estonian plats 'square/plot' vs other senses), German, and English (Estonian aktuaalne means 'topical/current', not 'actual'; sümpaatne means 'likeable', not 'sympathetic'). At B2 you should know the most common false friends for the languages you already speak, so you do not produce comical or confusing errors.

Key rule

Treat look-alike words across Estonian and your other languages with suspicion — especially Estonian–Finnish pairs (linn 'town' ≠ linna 'castle', halb 'bad' ≠ halpa 'cheap', raamat 'book' ≠ raamattu 'Bible') and English ones (aktuaalne 'topical', sümpaatne 'likeable') — and check the Estonian meaning before using it.

Examples

Tallinn on suur linn.
Tallinn on suur loss. (mõeldes soome 'linna' peale)
Estonian linn means 'town/city'; the Finnish look-alike linna means 'castle' (loss in Estonian), a classic false-friend slip.
See toit on halb.
See toit on odav, kui tahan öelda 'halb'. (soome halpa)
Estonian halb = 'bad'; the Finnish halpa = 'cheap' (odav in Estonian), so confusing them inverts the meaning.
Seinal kasvab hallitus.
Riigi hallitus võttis vastu seaduse. (mõeldes 'valitsus' all)
Estonian hallitus = 'mould'; the Finnish hallitus = 'government', which in Estonian is valitsus.

Common mistakes

Using Finnish linna sense for Estonian linn
Me külastasime vana linna mäe otsas. (= castle)
Me külastasime vana lossi mäe otsas.
Estonian linn is 'town'; 'castle' is loss. The Finnish linna 'castle' misleads here.
Confusing halb (bad) with Finnish halpa (cheap)
See pood on väga halb, ma ostan siit alati. (= cheap)
See pood on väga odav, ma ostan siit alati.
halb means 'bad'; 'cheap' is odav. Praising a shop while calling it halb is contradictory.

B2Vocabulary usage

Derivation — Advanced Suffixes (-nik, -lane, -ndus, -stik)

Sõnatuletus — laiendus (-nik, -lane, -ndus, -stik)

Estonian builds new words very productively with derivational suffixes (tuletusliited). At B2, beyond the basic -ja (agent), -mine (action) and -us (state), you should control a richer set. -NIK forms a person associated with something: aed 'garden' → aednik 'gardener', amet 'office/profession' → ametnik 'official', kunst 'art' → kunstnik 'artist'. Note that -nik is lexically restricted, so it must be learned word by word; for 'scientist' the suffix is -lane, not -nik (teadlane, not *teadusnik). -LANE marks a person by origin, group or trait: Eesti → eestlane 'Estonian (person)', Tartu → tartlane 'Tartu resident', teadus → teadlane 'scientist', linn → linlane 'city-dweller'. -NDUS forms a field/branch/industry: maja → majandus 'economy', põld → põllumajandus 'agriculture', tööstus 'industry', kirjandus 'literature'. -STIK forms a collective/area made of many units: mägi → mäestik 'mountain range', saar → saarestik 'archipelago', täht → tähestik 'alphabet', sõna → sõnastik 'glossary'. Knowing these suffixes lets you both decode unfamiliar words and form natural new ones.

Key rule

Use Estonian's productive suffixes by function: -lane = a person by origin/group (eestlane, teadlane), -nik = a person tied to a thing/job (aednik, ametnik), -ndus = a field or industry (majandus, kirjandus), -stik = a collective set or terrain (mäestik, saarestik) — minding stem gradation.

Examples

Ta on tuntud teadlane.
Ta on tuntud teadusnik.
'Scientist' is teadlane (-lane, person by field); *teadusnik with -nik is not the standard formation.
Mu vanaisa on kirglik aednik.
Mu vanaisa on kirglik aedlane.
'Gardener' uses -nik (aednik, person tied to the aed); -lane would wrongly mark origin/group.
Eesti majandus kasvab.
Eesti majastik kasvab.
'Economy' is the field noun majandus (-ndus); -stik (collective terrain) gives the non-word *majastik.

Common mistakes

Using -nik instead of -lane for nationality/field persons
Ta on soomenik.
Ta on soomlane.
Persons by origin/nationality take -lane (soomlane); -nik marks a person tied to a thing/job, not an origin.
Using -lane for a job tied to a thing
Ta on aedlane.
Ta on aednik.
Job-by-object uses -nik (aednik); -lane would imply membership/origin.

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B2Vocabulary usage

Loanword Strata (German, Russian, Finnic, English)

Laensõnakihistused

Estonian vocabulary has built up in historical layers (laensõnakihistused), each reflecting who Estonians were in contact with. The oldest layers are GERMANIC and BALTIC borrowings from over two thousand years ago, plus shared FINNIC core words. The most visible layer is LOW/HIGH GERMAN, from centuries of Baltic-German rule: hundreds of everyday words like käärid 'scissors', vorst 'sausage', tool 'chair', köök 'kitchen', müür 'wall', proua 'lady', amet 'office/trade'. RUSSIAN borrowings came mainly through trade and the Soviet period: plats 'square/plot', kapsas 'cabbage', porgand 'carrot', putka 'booth', and many informal words. There are also SWEDISH-era words (especially on the coast), and a thin earlier FINNIC/Baltic stratum. The newest layer is ENGLISH/international vocabulary, growing fast: arvuti is a native coinage but words like staar 'star', bränd 'brand', smuuti 'smoothie' are recent. Recognising which stratum a word comes from helps you understand its register and spelling, and shows how Estonian, despite heavy borrowing, has kept a strong native core and actively coins its own words.

Key rule

Estonian vocabulary stacks in historical layers — an old Finnic/Baltic/Germanic core, a large stylistically-neutral Low/High German stratum (käärid, vorst, köök), Russian borrowings (plats, kapsas), and a fast-growing English/international layer — alongside a strong tradition of deliberate native coinage (arvuti, taristu).

Examples

Anna mulle käärid, palun.
Anna mulle skissorid, palun.
käärid (scissors) is a long-nativised German loan and the normal word; an English-based *skissorid is not Estonian.
Köögis on uus laud ja neli tooli.
Kitšenis on uus tehbel ja neli tšeeri.
köök, laud, tool are the established (German-stratum) words; inventing English calques is wrong.
Turul müüakse kapsast ja porgandit.
Turul müüakse kohlit ja karotit.
kapsas and porgand (Russian-stratum) are the everyday Estonian words; the made-up forms are not used.

Common mistakes

Inventing English calques for words that already have a German-stratum loan
Pane tšeer laua juurde.
Pane tool laua juurde.
'Chair' is the long-established tool (German stratum); a fresh English borrowing is unnecessary and non-standard.
Using the international form where Estonian has a native coinage
Ma ostsin uue kompuutri.
Ma ostsin uue arvuti.
arvuti is the standard Estonian coinage for 'computer'; *kompuuter is not used in the standard.

B2Vocabulary usage

Common Idioms (kassi saba alla, üle kivide ja kändude)

Kõnekäänud ja väljendid

Idioms (kõnekäänud / väljendid) are fixed phrases whose meaning you cannot work out from the individual words — they must be learned as wholes. Estonian has a rich stock. A few high-frequency ones: üle kivide ja kändude (literally 'over stones and stumps') = with great difficulty, badly/clumsily; läks kassi saba alla / läks vett vedama = it came to nothing, was wasted; panna käed rüppe = to give up / do nothing; võtta jalad selga / panna jalgadele tuld = to hurry off, take to one's heels; visata lusikas nurka (lit. 'throw the spoon in the corner') = to die / give up; ajada asju = to run errands / do business; pea on otsas (lit. 'the head is at its end') = to be exhausted/out of ideas; nina püsti / nina norus = stuck-up / downcast; jätta hüvasti = to say goodbye. Idioms carry register: most are colloquial and add colour to speech and informal writing. At B2 you should understand common idioms when you meet them, use a handful naturally, and recognise that you cannot translate them word-for-word from your own language.

Key rule

Learn idioms as fixed wholes — their meaning is not literal (üle kivide ja kändude = 'with difficulty', käed rüppe panema = 'to give up') — inflect the content words normally, respect their colloquial register, and never translate idioms word-for-word from your own language.

Examples

Eksam läks üle kivide ja kändude, aga sain läbi.
Eksam läks üle kivide ja puude, aga sain läbi.
The fixed idiom is üle kivide ja kändude (stones and stumps) = 'with great difficulty'; swapping in puud (trees) breaks the set phrase.
Kogu meie töö läks kassi saba alla.
Kogu meie töö läks koera saba alla.
The idiom is läks kassi saba alla = 'came to nothing'; replacing kass (cat) with koer (dog) is not an Estonian idiom.
Ära pane käed rüppe, hakka tegutsema!
Ära pane käed taskusse, hakka tegutsema! (mõeldes 'anna alla')
käed rüppe panema = 'to give up / sit idle'; käed taskusse panema is literal 'put hands in pockets', not the idiom.

Common mistakes

Translating an L1 idiom word-for-word
See maksab käe ja jala. (= 'an arm and a leg')
See maksab varanduse / meeletult palju.
The English idiom does not exist in Estonian; use a natural Estonian expression like maksab varanduse.
Altering a fixed component of an idiom
üle kivide ja okste
üle kivide ja kändude
Idioms are frozen; the second noun is kännud (stumps), not oksad (branches).

B2Orthography

Punctuation — Comma Rules (before et/kui/kes; lists; appositions)

Komareeglid

Estonian comma rules (komareeglid) are strict and largely grammatical, not based on pauses. The single most important rule: a comma ALWAYS separates a subordinate clause (kõrvallause) from the main clause, and is placed before the subordinator — et 'that', kui 'when/if', sest 'because', kuigi 'although', kes/mis 'who/which', kuna, et — even where English often omits it: Ma tean, et sa tuled (I know (that) you're coming). Commas also separate items in a LIST (õunad, pirnid ja banaanid — but no comma directly before ja/või when it simply joins the last two list items in a plain enumeration), separate COORDINATED main clauses joined by aga, vaid, kuid (Ta tuli, aga ei jäänud), set off APPOSITIONS and address (Mari, mu õde, elab Tartus; Tere, Mari!), and frame inserted/parenthetical phrases. A comma is NOT used between a simple subject and verb, and the rules around ja/ning/või require care. Because Estonian commas mark clause boundaries so reliably, mastering them makes your writing instantly more correct and readable.

Key rule

Estonian commas are grammatical: always put a comma at the boundary of a subordinate clause (before et/kui/sest/kuigi/kes/mis…) and before aga/kuid/vaid; separate list items but use no comma directly before the final ja/või; and set off appositions and direct address.

Examples

Ma tean, et sa tuled.
Ma tean et sa tuled.
A comma is obligatory before the subordinator et, even though English may omit 'that' and its comma.
Kui sajab, jään koju.
Kui sajab jään koju.
The subordinate kui-clause must be separated from the main clause by a comma.
Mees, kes seal seisab, on minu vend.
Mees kes seal seisab on minu vend.
A relative clause is set off by commas on both sides (before kes and after the clause).

Common mistakes

Omitting the comma before et
Ma loodan et kõik on korras.
Ma loodan, et kõik on korras.
Estonian always places a comma before the subordinator et, unlike English, which often drops 'that' and its comma.
No comma around a relative clause
Raamat mille ma ostsin on huvitav.
Raamat, mille ma ostsin, on huvitav.
A relative kõrvallause is set off by commas before mille and after the clause.

B2Syntax

Word Order for Emphasis & Information Structure

Sõnajärg ja infostruktuur

Because Estonian marks who-does-what with case endings, you can move words around to control emphasis without changing the meaning. The neutral order is theme first (the known thing you are talking about), then the verb, then the new information (the rheme) at the end — the heaviest stress falls on whatever stands at the end. To highlight a particular element you can FRONT it: 'Selle raamatu lugesin eile läbi' (THAT book I finished yesterday) puts the object first for contrast. The verb-second (V2) rule still applies in main clauses, so fronting something pushes the subject behind the verb. Think of it as a spotlight: front = topic/contrast, sentence-end = the most important new fact.

Key rule

Put given/topical material first and the most important new information last (end focus); front a constituent for contrast/topic, keeping the finite verb in second position.

Examples

Selle raamatu lugesin eile läbi.
Selle raamatu ma lugesin eile läbi.
Fronting the object for contrast triggers V2: the verb 'lugesin' is in slot 2 and the subject is dropped. Inserting 'ma' before the verb makes it slot 3 — colloquial, not the careful standard.
Ma andsin raamatu Mardile.
Ma andsin Mardile raamatu (meant as neutral 'I gave the book to Mart').
Neutral end focus puts the recipient last when the recipient is the new information; moving 'raamatu' to the end instead shifts the focus onto the book, so it is not interchangeable for a neutral reading.
Eesti keelt ma armastan.
Ma armastan eesti keelt ma.
Object-fronting for emphasis ('Estonian I love') keeps the verb second and the subject after it; the subject pronoun is never repeated at the end.

Common mistakes

Keeping the subject before the verb after fronting
Selle filmi ma nägin juba.
Selle filmi nägin juba.
Fronting a constituent triggers V2 in the main clause: the finite verb must be in slot 2 and the subject drops behind it or is omitted.
Putting given information at the end and new at the front
Mart andis selle raamatu (when 'Mart' is the new focus).
Selle raamatu andis Mart.
The most important new information takes end focus; the known object is fronted and the focal subject lands at the end.

B2Syntax

Advanced Existential Sentences (definiteness, locative-first order)

Olemasolulause — laiendus

Estonian existential sentences ('there is / there are') normally begin with the LOCATION, then 'olema', then the thing that exists: 'Laual on raamat' (There is a book on the table). At B2 the subtle part is the case of that thing. When the quantity is indefinite or the noun is a mass/plural without a clear boundary, the subject goes into the PARTITIVE: 'Toas on inimesi' (There are [some] people in the room), 'Külmkapis on piima' (There is [some] milk in the fridge). When it is a single bounded, more definite item, it stays NOMINATIVE: 'Laual on raamat'. Under negation the existential subject is always partitive: 'Laual ei ole raamatut' (There is no book on the table). So: location first, then olema, then nominative for a definite/single thing but partitive for indefinite quantity and always under negation.

Key rule

Existentials are location-first with 'olema'; the subject is nominative when definite/bounded but PARTITIVE when it is an indefinite quantity — and always partitive under negation (Laual ei ole raamatut).

Examples

Toas on inimesi.
Toas on inimesed.
An indefinite quantity of people takes the partitive plural subject 'inimesi'; the nominative plural 'inimesed' would mean a specific, known set.
Külmkapis on piima.
Külmkapis on piim.
An indefinite amount of a mass noun takes the partitive 'piima'; the nominative 'piim' reads as 'the (whole, definite) milk is in the fridge'.
Laual ei ole raamatut.
Laual ei ole raamat.
A negated existential subject is always partitive: 'raamatut', never the nominative 'raamat'.

Common mistakes

Nominative subject where indefinite quantity needs partitive
Toas on inimesed.
Toas on inimesi.
An unbounded/indefinite quantity in an existential takes the partitive subject; the nominative implies a specific known set.
Nominative subject under negation
Laual ei ole raamat.
Laual ei ole raamatut.
Negated existential subjects are obligatorily partitive, singular or plural.

B2Syntax

Advanced Negation (ei… vaid; mitte; pole kunagi; ükski)

Eitus — laiendus

Beyond simple 'ei + verb', Estonian has richer negation tools. (1) CONTRASTIVE 'ei … vaid': 'Ma ei taha kohvi, vaid teed' (I don't want coffee but tea) — 'vaid' (not 'aga') is the word for 'but rather'. (2) CONSTITUENT negation with 'mitte': to negate one word rather than the whole verb, put 'mitte' before it — 'Mitte mina ei teinud seda' (It wasn't ME who did it), 'mitte täna' (not today). (3) NEGATIVE PRONOUNS: 'keegi/miski' become 'no one/nothing' under negation — 'Ma ei näe kedagi' (I see no one); 'ükski' = 'not a single one' — 'Ükski neist ei tulnud'. (4) Reinforcers like 'kunagi' (ever→never), 'üldse' (at all), 'sugugi' (in the slightest) strengthen the negation. Estonian uses DOUBLE/multiple negation as standard: the verb stays negated AND the negative word appears too.

Key rule

Use 'vaid' (not 'aga') for 'not X but Y', 'mitte' to negate a single constituent, and keep both the negated verb AND the negative word (multiple negation): Ma ei näe kunagi kedagi.

Examples

Ma ei taha kohvi, vaid teed.
Ma ei taha kohvi, aga teed.
'not X but Y' = 'vaid'; 'aga' would mean 'but' as a clause contrast, not the corrective 'but rather'.
See ei ole sinu süü, vaid minu.
See ei ole sinu süü, vaid minu süü on.
'vaid' introduces only the corrected element ('minu'); you don't restate a full positive clause after it.
Ma ei näe kedagi.
Ma ei näe keegi.
Under negation the object indefinite is partitive 'kedagi' ('no one'); the nominative 'keegi' is the affirmative 'someone' subject form.

Common mistakes

Using 'aga' instead of 'vaid' for 'not X but Y'
Ma ei joo kohvi, aga teed.
Ma ei joo kohvi, vaid teed.
The corrective 'but (rather)' after a negation is 'vaid'; 'aga' is for clause-level contrast.
Nominative indefinite under negation
Ma ei näe keegi.
Ma ei näe kedagi.
A negated object indefinite is partitive ('kedagi' = no one); 'keegi' is the affirmative nominative.

B2Syntax

Complex Relative Clauses (kelle, mille, kus, kuhu as relativizers)

Liitrelatiivlaused

At B1 you learned simple relative clauses with 'kes' (who) and 'mis' (which). At B2 you relativize OBLIQUE roles — the relative word goes into whatever case the inside of the clause needs. For possession use the GENITIVE 'kelle/mille': 'mees, kelle auto siin on' (the man whose car is here). For a place where something happens use 'kus' (where) or 'kuhu' (to where): 'linn, kus ma sündisin' (the town where I was born), 'maja, kuhu me kolisime' (the house we moved into). For other cases, decline 'kes/mis': 'inimene, kellega ma rääkisin' (the person I talked WITH), 'raamat, millest ma rääkisin' (the book I talked ABOUT). The relative clause sits right after its noun, with a comma, and the relativizer takes the case its role demands.

Key rule

Put the relativizer into the case its role inside the clause requires — genitive 'kelle/mille' for possession, 'kus/kuhu/kust' for place, declined 'kes/mis' (with the adposition kept beside it) for other oblique roles.

Examples

mees, kelle auto siin on
mees, kes auto siin on
Possession needs the genitive relativizer 'kelle' (whose); nominative 'kes' would make 'the man who is the car here', which is nonsense.
linn, kus ma sündisin
linn, milles ma sündisin
For 'the town where', Estonian uses the locative relativizer 'kus'; 'milles' (inessive of mis) is clumsy and unidiomatic for a place name.
inimene, kellega ma rääkisin
inimene, kes ma rääkisin temaga
'with whom' is the comitative relativizer 'kellega'; you cannot leave 'kes' nominative and add a resumptive 'temaga'.

Common mistakes

Nominative 'kes/mis' where an oblique case is needed
inimene, kes ma rääkisin
inimene, kellega ma rääkisin
The relativizer must take the case its role demands; 'with whom' is the comitative 'kellega'.
Resumptive pronoun instead of declining the relativizer
raamat, mida ma rääkisin sellest
raamat, millest ma rääkisin
Estonian declines the relative word ('millest') rather than leaving it bare and adding a resumptive 'sellest'.

B2Syntax

Cleft & Focus Constructions (See on Mart, kes…)

Lõhutud lause

A cleft sentence splits one statement into two parts to spotlight one element, like English 'It is Mart who did it'. Estonian builds it with 'see on … , kes/mis …': 'See oli Mart, kes selle tegi' (It was Mart who did it), 'See on raha, mis loeb' (It's money that counts). The spotlighted element comes right after 'see on/oli', and a relative clause with 'kes' (people) or 'mis' (things) follows. You use a cleft when you want to single out exactly WHO or WHAT, often to correct or contrast ('It wasn't me — it was Mart who did it'). Estonian often achieves the same focus just by repositioning a word, so clefts are reserved for strong, explicit focus.

Key rule

Spotlight a constituent with 'see on/oli + [focus] + , + kes (people) / mis (things) + clause', matching the copula's tense and reserving the cleft for strong contrastive focus.

Examples

See oli Mart, kes selle tegi.
See oli Mart, mis selle tegi.
The focused element is a person, so the relativizer is 'kes', not 'mis'.
See on raha, mis loeb.
See on raha, kes loeb.
'raha' is a thing, so the relativizer is 'mis'; 'kes' is only for people.
See oli sinu nõuanne, mis mind aitas.
See on sinu nõuanne, mis mind aitas. (about a past event)
The copula must match the past time of the event: 'oli', not present 'on'.

Common mistakes

Using 'mis' for a person or 'kes' for a thing in the cleft
See oli Mart, mis selle tegi.
See oli Mart, kes selle tegi.
The relativizer follows the focused element: 'kes' for people, 'mis' for things.
Copula tense not matching the event
See on Mart, kes eile helistas.
See oli Mart, kes eile helistas.
'olema' in the cleft must match the time of the focused event; a past event takes 'oli'.

B2Syntax

Participial & Converb Clauses Replacing Subordination

Lauselühendid

Estonian can compress a whole subordinate clause into a short participial phrase called a lauselühend (clause-shortener). Instead of a full 'kui/kuna…' clause you use a non-finite form: the -des converb for simultaneous action ('Koju jõudes nägin valgust' = Arriving home, I saw a light), the -nud participle for an earlier action ('Töö lõpetanud, läksin koju' = Having finished the work, I went home), and the -tud participle for a passive completed state ('Töö lõpetatud, läksime koju'). The key rule: the SUBJECT of the shortened clause must be the SAME as the main clause's subject (with -des and -nud). These constructions are typical of careful, written Estonian and make your style more compact and sophisticated.

Key rule

Compress a same-subject subordinate clause into a participial phrase: -des for simultaneity, -nud for a prior active action, -tud for a completed passive state — keeping the implicit subject shared with the main clause.

Examples

Koju jõudes nägin valgust.
Koju jõudes uks oli lahti.
The -des converb's implicit subject must equal the main subject; 'nägin' (I) matches 'jõudes' (I arrived). In the wrong version the door (uks) cannot be the one arriving — a dangling converb.
Töö lõpetanud, läksin koju.
Töö lõpetades läksin koju.
For a PRIOR completed action use the -nud lauselühend ('lõpetanud'); the -des form 'lõpetades' would mean 'while finishing', i.e. simultaneous, not anterior.
Süües vaatan telekat.
Süüa vaatan telekat.
Simultaneity needs the -des converb 'süües'; the da-infinitive 'süüa' does not express 'while eating'.

Common mistakes

Dangling converb (different subjects)
Koju jõudes oli uks lahti.
Kui ma koju jõudsin, oli uks lahti.
The -des converb requires the same subject as the main clause; if the subjects differ, use a full finite clause instead.
Using -des for an anterior action
Töö lõpetades läksin koju.
Töö lõpetanud, läksin koju.
-des = simultaneous; a completed PRIOR action needs the -nud lauselühend.

B2Connectors

Concession — Advanced (ehkki, olgugi et, hoolimata sellest et)

Möönmine — laiendus

Concession means 'although / even though / despite' — admitting one fact while asserting something that goes against it. Beyond B1 'kuigi', B2 adds higher-register options: 'ehkki' (although, neutral-formal), 'olgugi et' (even though — literally 'be it that'), and 'hoolimata sellest, et …' (despite the fact that …). With a noun rather than a clause, use 'hoolimata + partitive' or 'vaatamata + allative' / 'millestki hoolimata'. The main clause may add a correlative 'siiski / ikkagi' (still, nevertheless): 'Ehkki ta oli väsinud, läks ta siiski tööle' (Although he was tired, he still went to work). These connectors raise the register of your writing; the comma rules follow the normal subordinate-clause pattern.

Key rule

Express concession with ehkki / olgugi et / hoolimata sellest et (clausal) or hoolimata + elative / vaatamata + allative (phrasal), often echoed by siiski/ikkagi in the main clause.

Examples

Ehkki sajab, lähen jalutama.
Ehkki sajab, aga lähen jalutama.
A concessive subordinator already links the clauses; you don't add 'aga' in the main clause. Use 'siiski' if you want a correlate, not 'aga'.
Olgugi et ta on noor, on ta väga kogenud.
Olgugi ta on noor, on ta väga kogenud.
'olgugi' requires the conjunction 'et': 'olgugi ET ta on noor'; dropping 'et' is ungrammatical.
Hoolimata sellest, et oli külm, käisime ujumas.
Hoolimata sellest et oli külm käisime ujumas.
A comma is required before 'et' and after the subordinate clause; 'hoolimata sellest, et …, …'.

Common mistakes

Adding 'aga' after a concessive subordinator
Kuigi ta on väsinud, aga ta töötab.
Kuigi ta on väsinud, töötab ta siiski.
The concessive already subordinates; the main clause uses 'siiski/ikkagi', not a second coordinator 'aga'.
Dropping 'et' after 'olgugi'
Olgugi ta on noor, …
Olgugi et ta on noor, …
'olgugi' must be followed by the conjunction 'et'.

B2Connectors

Discourse Markers (muide, igatahes, teatavasti, muuseas)

Sidususmäärsõnad

Discourse markers are little words and phrases that organise a text or signal your attitude rather than carry new facts — like English 'by the way', 'anyway', 'as is known'. Useful Estonian ones: 'muide' / 'muuseas' (by the way — introducing a side remark), 'igatahes' (anyway / in any case — returning to the main point), 'teatavasti' (as is known — presenting shared knowledge), 'tegelikult' (actually), 'pealegi' (besides / moreover), 'muuhulgas' (among other things). They usually stand near the FRONT of the sentence, set off by a comma, and they raise or colour the tone: 'Muide, kas sa kuulsid uudist?' (By the way, did you hear the news?). Choosing the right marker makes your speech and writing sound connected and natural.

Key rule

Use discourse markers (muide/muuseas = by the way, igatahes = anyway, teatavasti = as is known, tegelikult = actually, pealegi = besides) as comma-set-off parentheticals, usually sentence-initial, to manage flow and stance.

Examples

Muide, kas sa kuulsid uudist?
Muide kas sa kuulsid uudist?
A sentence-initial discourse marker is set off by a comma: 'Muide, …'.
Igatahes, lõpetame siinkohal.
Igatahes lõpetame siinkohal igatahes.
'igatahes' is used once, comma-separated at the front; it is not doubled at the end.
Teatavasti on Eesti pealinn Tallinn.
Teatavasti, on Eesti pealinn Tallinn.
When 'teatavasti' is integrated as a sentence adverb (not parenthetical), the V2 order holds ('Teatavasti on …') and no comma separates it; here it behaves like a fronted adverbial.

Common mistakes

No comma after a parenthetical discourse marker
Muide kas sa tuled?
Muide, kas sa tuled?
A parenthetical sentence opener like 'muide' is set off by a comma.
Doubling the marker
Igatahes lähen ma igatahes.
Igatahes lähen ma.
A discourse marker is used once per move; repeating it is redundant.

B2Connectors

Reformulation & Addition (teisisõnu, lisaks, pealegi, samuti)

Ümbersõnastus ja lisamine

These connectors let you ADD a further point or RESTATE something more clearly — essential for essays and explanations. For ADDITION: 'lisaks' / 'lisaks sellele' (in addition), 'samuti' (likewise / also), 'pealegi' (besides / what's more), 'peale selle' (apart from that), 'ühtlasi' (at the same time / also). For REFORMULATION: 'teisisõnu' (in other words), 'see tähendab' (that is / i.e.), 'ehk' (or / that is), 'täpsemalt (öeldes)' (more precisely). Many of these are connective adverbs, so when you put them at the FRONT, the verb stays in second position: 'Lisaks on see odavam' (In addition, it is cheaper). Choosing them well makes written Estonian flow logically from one idea to the next.

Key rule

Add points with lisaks / samuti / pealegi / peale selle and restate with teisisõnu / see tähendab / ehk / täpsemalt; as fronted connective adverbs they keep the verb in second position (Lisaks on see odavam).

Examples

Lisaks on see odavam.
Lisaks see on odavam.
'lisaks' is a connective adverb in slot 1, so V2 applies: the verb 'on' must be second; 'Lisaks see on' puts the verb third.
Ta oskab saksa keelt, samuti prantsuse keelt.
Ta oskab saksa keelt, samuti ta oskab prantsuse keelt.
'samuti' adds a parallel item compactly; spelling out a full repeated clause is clumsy and redundant after 'samuti'.
Teisisõnu, me tegime vea.
Teisisõnu me tegime vea teisisõnu.
'teisisõnu' (in other words) opens the reformulation once, comma-separated; it is not echoed at the end.

Common mistakes

Ignoring V2 after a fronted connective adverb
Lisaks see on odavam.
Lisaks on see odavam.
A connective adverb in slot 1 keeps the finite verb in second position.
Repeating a full clause after 'samuti'
Ta laulab, samuti ta tantsib.
Ta laulab, samuti tantsib.
'samuti' adds a parallel element compactly; the subject need not be repeated and V2 applies.

B2Verb tenses

Quotative / Oblique Mood — Present (-vat: tegevat, olevat)

Kaudne kõneviis — olevik

The quotative (kaudne kõneviis) is Estonia's evidential mood: it marks information you got from someone else and are NOT vouching for — 'is said to', 'reportedly', 'apparently'. You form the present quotative by adding -vat to the verb stem, and the SAME -vat form is used for every person: ma tegevat, sa tegevat, ta tegevat, me tegevat, nad tegevat. The stem is the present/da-stem of the verb: tegema → tegevat, lugema → lugevat, minema → minevat, tulema → tulevat, olema → olevat. Ta olevat haige = 'He's (apparently/supposedly) ill'. There are no personal endings at all — only -vat. Use it to report rumours, news, or claims while staying neutral about whether they are true.

Key rule

Present quotative = verb stem + -vat, IDENTICAL for every person (ma/sa/ta/me/te/nad tegevat); no personal endings. It marks reported, unverified information ('is said to'). Negation: ei + -vat (ta ei olevat kodus).

Examples

Ta olevat väga haige.
Ta olevad väga haige.
The quotative form is invariant -vat for all persons; there is no '*olevad' — only olevat.
Nad tegevat homme suure peo.
Nad tegevad homme suure peo.
Even with a plural subject the quotative stays -vat (tegevat); '*tegevad' is the indicative 3pl, not the quotative.
Naabrid kolivat järgmisel kuul ära.
Naabrid kolima järgmisel kuul ära.
The quotative needs the -vat form (kolivat), not the ma-infinitive kolima.

Common mistakes

Adding a personal ending to the quotative
Nad olevad kodus.
Nad olevat kodus.
The quotative is invariant -vat for all persons; '*olevad' is the indicative plural, not the quotative.
Using the indicative where a reported claim is meant
Ta ütles, et ta on haige (intended: he claims to be ill, unverified).
Ta ütles, et ta olevat haige.
To stay neutral about the truth of a reported claim, use the quotative olevat, not the asserting indicative on.

B2Verb tenses

Quotative — Past (olevat teinud / -nuvat)

Kaudne kõneviis — minevik

To report a PAST event as hearsay, Estonian uses the compound past quotative: the quotative of olema (olevat) plus the -nud participle. Ta olevat Eestis käinud = 'He's said to have been to Estonia'. Just like the present quotative, olevat is the same for every person, and the -nud participle never changes: ma/sa/ta/me/te/nad olevat teinud. There is also a one-word literary form ending in -nuvat (teinuvat, käinuvat), but the everyday and most common way to report the past is olevat + -nud. Negation keeps the invariant ei: ta ei olevat seda teinud = 'he supposedly didn't do it'.

Key rule

Past quotative = olevat + the -nud participle (Ta olevat käinud Eestis); olevat is invariant, the participle never agrees. A synthetic -nuvat form (teinuvat) exists but is literary/rare — produce the compound. Negation: ei olevat + -nud.

Examples

Ta olevat Eestis käinud.
Ta olevad Eestis käinud.
The auxiliary is the invariant quotative olevat; '*olevad' adds a non-existent plural ending to the quotative.
Nad olevat eile kohale jõudnud.
Nad olid eile kohale jõudnud (intended: reportedly arrived).
olid is the plain pluperfect (I assert it); the past quotative reports it as hearsay with olevat + -nud.
Ta olevat raamatu juba läbi lugenud.
Ta olevat raamatu juba läbi lugema.
The past quotative takes the -nud participle (lugenud), not the ma-infinitive lugema.

Common mistakes

Using the plain pluperfect instead of the past quotative
Ta oli Eestis käinud (intended: is said to have been).
Ta olevat Eestis käinud.
oli + -nud asserts the past event; to report it as hearsay use the quotative auxiliary olevat + -nud.
Adding a plural ending to olevat
Nad olevad saabunud.
Nad olevat saabunud.
The quotative auxiliary olevat is invariant for all persons and numbers.

B2Verb tenses

Quotative in Reported Speech & Hearsay

Kaudne kõneviis kaudkõnes

Beyond its form, the quotative is a DISCOURSE tool: it lets you report what someone said while signalling 'this is their claim, not mine'. In an et-clause after a verb of saying, you can choose the indicative (you stand behind the content) or the quotative (you distance yourself): Ta ütles, et ta on haige (and I believe it) vs Ta ütles, et ta olevat haige (so he claims). You can also drop the introducing clause and let -vat carry the whole 'reportedly': Ta olevat haige. It is the default register for gossip, second-hand news, and journalism that attributes claims it cannot verify (Minister olevat tagasi astumas). Use it whenever you want to pass information on without taking responsibility for its truth.

Key rule

Use the quotative to report someone's words/claims while signalling you don't vouch for them — in an et-clause (Ta väitis, et ta olevat süütu), frame-less (Ta olevat haige), or with kuuldavasti/X sõnul. Indicative = you endorse the content; quotative = you distance yourself.

Examples

Ta väitis, et ta olevat süütu.
Ta väitis, et ta on süütu (if the reporter is non-committal).
The quotative olevat marks the innocence as HIS claim; the indicative on would suggest the reporter endorses it.
Minister olevat tagasi astumas.
Minister on tagasi astumas (as an unverified rumour).
Frame-less -vat reports the unconfirmed news; the bare indicative asserts it as established fact.
Politsei andmetel olevat tegu õnnetusega.
Politsei andmetel on tegu õnnetusega (attributing yet asserting).
With an attributing 'X andmetel' the quotative keeps the claim as the source's, not the writer's own assertion.

Common mistakes

Using the indicative for a clearly distanced claim
Ta väitis, et ta on süütu (reporter is sceptical).
Ta väitis, et ta olevat süütu.
When you do NOT vouch for the embedded claim, the quotative marks it as the speaker's own assertion, not yours.
Mixing a hearsay adverb with a bald indicative
Kuuldavasti tuleb homme vihma.
Kuuldavasti tulevat homme vihma.
kuuldavasti/väidetavalt frame the statement as reported, so the verb is naturally the quotative -vat.

B2Verb tenses

Jussive Mood (3rd-person imperative: tehku, mingu)

Jussiiv — 3. isiku käsk (mingu, tehku)

The jussive (jussiiv) is the third-person imperative — a command, wish, or 'let him/her/them' aimed at someone who is NOT the addressee. You form it with -gu / -ku added to the same stem as the plural imperative: tegema → tehku, minema → mingu, tulema → tulgu, lugema → lugegu, olema → olgu. The same form covers both singular and plural third person: Mingu ta koju! ('Let him go home!') and Mingu nad koju! ('Let them go home!'). It also expresses wishes and resignation — Olgu nii! ('So be it!'), Saagu valgus! ('Let there be light!'). Negation uses ärgu: Ärgu ta tulgu! ('Don't let him come!'). It is distinct from the ordinary 2nd-person imperative (tule!, tulge!).

Key rule

Jussive = 3rd-person imperative, stem + -gu/-ku, one form for 3sg and 3pl (Mingu ta/nad koju!). It commands/wishes about a non-addressee ('let him…'); negation is ärgu + -gu/-ku. It is part of the imperative, NOT the concessive (möönev) mood.

Examples

Mingu nad kohe koju!
Mingud nad kohe koju!
The jussive form is mingu for both 3sg and 3pl; only the subject changes, so '*mingud' wrongly adds a plural ending.
Tehku ta töö enne lõunat ära.
Tehkugu ta töö enne lõunat ära.
The jussive of tegema is tehku (one -ku); '*tehkugu' doubles the marker.
Ärgu nad muretsegu.
Ära nad muretsegu.
The 3rd-person imperative negator is ärgu, not the 2sg ära.

Common mistakes

Using the 2nd-person imperative for a 3rd-person command
Tule ta koju! (intended: let him come home).
Tulgu ta koju!
Commands about a non-addressee use the jussive -gu/-ku (tulgu), not the 2sg imperative tule.
Using ära/ärge for the 3rd-person negative
Ära ta tulgu.
Ärgu ta tulgu.
The 3rd-person imperative is negated with ärgu, matching the jussive form.

B2Verb tenses

Imperative — Full Paradigm (incl. impersonal tehtagu)

Käskiv kõneviis — täisparadigma

This tag gathers ALL the persons of the imperative into one system. There is no 1sg. The forms are: 2sg tee! (bare stem), 1pl tehkem! ('let's do', formal — everyday speech uses teeme!), 2pl tehke!, 3sg/3pl (jussive) tehku!, and the IMPERSONAL imperative tehtagu! ('let it be done'). Negation runs through the matching ära-words: ära tee!, ärgem tehkem!, ärge tehke!, ärgu tehku!, ärgu tehtagu! The shared backbone is the strong stem teh-: tehke, tehkem, tehku, tehtagu. Knowing the whole grid lets you give commands, exhortations, third-person directives and impersonal instructions (e.g. in recipes, rules and official notices: Segatagu hoolikalt).

Key rule

Imperative grid (tegema): 2sg tee!, 1pl tehkem! (formal; everyday teeme!), 2pl tehke!, 3sg/3pl jussive tehku!, impersonal tehtagu!. Negation: ära/ärgem/ärge/ärgu + the same form (ära tee!, ärge tehke!, ärgu tehku!, ärgu tehtagu!). No 1sg.

Examples

Tehke see töö enne lõunat ära!
Teege see töö enne lõunat ära!
The 2pl imperative of tegema is tehke (strong stem teh- + -ke); '*teege' uses the wrong stem.
Tehkem koos tööd!
Tehkeme koos tööd!
The 1pl imperative is -gem/-kem (tehkem); '*tehkeme' confuses it with the indicative -me.
Tehku ta see ise ära.
Tehkem ta see ise ära.
A third-person command uses the jussive tehku, not the 1pl tehkem.

Common mistakes

Building the 2pl imperative on the wrong stem
teege, minege
tehke, minge
The imperative uses the strong stem (teh-, min-): tehke, minge.
Confusing 1pl imperative -gem with indicative -me
tehkeme, lähkeme
tehkem, mingem
The 1pl imperative ending is -gem/-kem (tehkem, mingem); -me is the indicative.

B2Verb tenses

Conditional Perfect — Nuanced Counterfactual (oleks teinud)

Tingiv minevik — varjundid

The conditional perfect (oleks teinud) talks about the unreal past — things that did NOT happen but could have. You build it with the conditional of olema (oleksin, oleksid, oleks…) plus the -nud participle: Oleksin tulnud, kui oleksin teadnud = 'I would have come if I had known'. At B2 the focus is its NUANCES of feeling: regret (Oleksin pidanud rohkem õppima — I should have studied more), reproach (Sa oleksid võinud helistada — you could have called), and missed chances (Me oleksime peaaegu kaotanud — we almost lost). Often it pairs with modal participles: oleks pidanud ('should have'), oleks võinud ('could have'), oleks tahtnud ('would have wanted'). The auxiliary oleks is invariant in the modal phrases; the -nud participle never agrees.

Key rule

Conditional perfect = oleks(in/id/...) + the -nud participle, for the UNREAL past (Oleksin tulnud, kui oleksin teadnud). At B2 it carries regret, reproach and missed-chance nuances, often via oleks pidanud / oleks võinud / oleks tahtnud + infinitive. Negation: ei oleks + -nud.

Examples

Oleksin tulnud, kui oleksin teadnud.
Tuleksin, kui teaksin (intended: would have come / had known).
Counterfactual PAST needs the conditional perfect (oleksin tulnud / oleksin teadnud); the present conditional refers to a hypothetical present/future.
Sa oleksid võinud mulle helistada.
Sa võiksid mulle helistada (as a reproach about the past).
Reproach about an unrealised past act uses oleksid võinud + infinitive; the present võiksid is advice for now.
Ma oleksin pidanud rohkem õppima.
Ma pidin rohkem õppima (intended: should have, but didn't).
'Should have' (unmet obligation) is oleksin pidanud + ma-infinitive; pidin states a real past necessity that was met.

Common mistakes

Using the present conditional for a past counterfactual
Tuleksin, kui teaksin (intended: would have come if I had known).
Oleksin tulnud, kui oleksin teadnud.
The unreal PAST requires the conditional perfect oleks + -nud in both clauses.
Using the indicative past for 'should/could have'
Ma pidin helistama (intended: I should have called, but didn't).
Ma oleksin pidanud helistama.
Unmet past obligation is oleks pidanud + ma-infinitive; the plain pidin states a real, fulfilled necessity.

B2Verb tenses

Impersonal Voice — Register & Style Choice

Umbisikulise tegumoe stiil

You already know HOW to form the impersonal (tehakse, tehti, on tehtud). This tag is about WHEN to choose it. The impersonal removes the doer: Eestis räägitakse eesti keelt ('Estonian is spoken in Estonia') — nobody specific is named. Use it when the agent is unknown, irrelevant, generic ('people in general'), or when you deliberately want to background or avoid naming who did something. It is the backbone of academic, official, and instructional writing (Uuringus leiti, et…; Palutakse mitte suitsetada), of signs and notices, and of generic statements. In speech, colloquial Estonian also uses it as a casual 'we' (Lähme, tehakse ära). The key skill is choosing the impersonal vs an active, agentful sentence depending on whether the doer matters.

Key rule

Choose the impersonal (tehakse/tehti/on tehtud) when the doer is unknown, irrelevant, generic, or deliberately backgrounded — the norm in academic, official and instructional writing and generic statements; choose the active when the specific agent matters. Don't over-stack it (kantseliit).

Examples

Eestis räägitakse eesti keelt.
Eestis räägib eesti keelt (3sg active with no subject).
A generic 'people speak' statement uses the impersonal räägitakse; a bare 3sg active leaves the sentence subjectless and ungrammatical.
Uuringus leiti, et tulemused on olulised.
Uuringus mina leidsin, et tulemused on olulised (in neutral academic prose).
Academic register backgrounds the researcher with the impersonal leiti; naming 'mina' is stylistically marked there.
Maja ehitati eelmisel aastal.
Maja ehitas eelmisel aastal (no agent, active form).
When the builder is irrelevant, the impersonal ehitati is correct; the active ehitas demands a subject.

Common mistakes

Using a subjectless active instead of the impersonal
Eestis räägib eesti keelt.
Eestis räägitakse eesti keelt.
A generic agentless statement needs the impersonal (räägitakse); a 3sg active requires an explicit subject.
Forcing an agent into the impersonal with poolt
Raamat kirjutati autori poolt.
Autor kirjutas raamatu. / Raamatu on kirjutanud autor.
The impersonal exists to drop the agent; if the agent matters, use the active — the 'X poolt' calque is clumsy, discouraged style.

B2Verb tenses

Tense & Mood Sequence in Complex Sentences

Aja- ja kõneviiside ühildumine

In a complex sentence the verbs in the main and subordinate clauses must fit together in time and mood. Estonian has NO rigid grammatical backshift like English 'sequence of tenses': you mostly keep the tense that matches the real time of each event. If the saying is past but the reported state is still true now, you may keep the present (Ta ütles, et ta elab Tartus = he said he lives in Tartu). For something that happened before the main past event, use the pluperfect (Ta ütles, et ta oli juba käinud). With reported speech you may also switch the embedded verb into the quotative (et ta olevat haige) to distance yourself. Counterfactual conditions keep BOTH clauses in the conditional. The skill is matching tense and mood to meaning across clauses.

Key rule

Estonian has no mechanical backshift: choose each clause's tense by the real time of its event, not by the main verb. Keep still-true content present (et ta elab Tartus), use the pluperfect for anterior events, keep both clauses' moods harmonised in conditionals, and optionally switch the embedded verb to the quotative to distance yourself.

Examples

Ta ütles, et ta elab Tartus.
Ta ütles, et ta elas Tartus (if he still lives there).
Estonian keeps the present for still-true content; the obligatory English backshift to 'elas' wrongly implies he no longer lives there.
Ta ütles, et ta oli juba kirja saatnud.
Ta ütles, et ta saatis juba kirja (intended: had already sent, before the saying).
An event anterior to the past main clause takes the pluperfect (oli saatnud), not the plain past.
Ta lubas, et ta tuleb homme.
Ta lubas, et ta tuli homme.
A later event uses the present-for-future (tuleb) with the future adverbial homme; the past tuli is contradictory.

Common mistakes

Applying English backshift to still-true content
Ta ütles, et ta elas Tartus (he still lives there).
Ta ütles, et ta elab Tartus.
Estonian has no mechanical backshift; keep the present for content that is still true.
Using the plain past for an anterior embedded event
Ta ütles, et ta saatis juba kirja (before the saying).
Ta ütles, et ta oli juba kirja saatnud.
An event before the past main clause takes the pluperfect (oli saatnud).

B2Verb tenses

Mood Overview — Indicative / Conditional / Imperative / Quotative (+ Jussive)

Kõneviiside ülevaade

Estonian has four moods (kõneviisid). The INDICATIVE (kindel kõneviis) states facts: ta teeb, ta tegi. The CONDITIONAL (tingiv kõneviis, -ks-) marks hypotheticals and politeness: ta teeks ('would do'), oleks teinud ('would have done'). The IMPERATIVE (käskiv kõneviis) gives commands: tee!, tehke!, and in the third person the JUSSIVE tehku! ('let him do'). The QUOTATIVE (kaudne kõneviis, -vat) reports unverified information: ta tegevat ('is said to do'). The jussive is part of the imperative — NOT the separate concessive (möönev kõneviis). The skill is choosing the right mood for your intent: assert a fact, suppose, command, or report hearsay. Each has its own marker: ∅/endings (indicative), -ks (conditional), -∅/-ge/-gu (imperative/jussive), -vat (quotative).

Key rule

Four moods by intent: INDICATIVE (kindel) asserts facts (teeb); CONDITIONAL (tingiv, -ks) supposes / is polite (teeks, oleks teinud); IMPERATIVE (käskiv) commands (tee!, tehke!) with the JUSSIVE for the 3rd person (tehku!); QUOTATIVE (kaudne, -vat) reports hearsay (tegevat). Negation is the invariant ei (imperative ära/ärgu). The jussive is part of the imperative, not the concessive.

Examples

Ta teeb seda iga päev. (kindel kõneviis)
Ta teeks seda iga päev (as a plain fact).
A real, habitual fact is the indicative teeb; the conditional teeks would wrongly mark it as hypothetical.
Ma teeksin seda, kui mul oleks aega. (tingiv kõneviis)
Ma teen seda, kui mul oleks aega.
A hypothetical needs the conditional teeksin to harmonise with the conditional oleks; the indicative teen clashes.
Tee see töö ära! (käskiv kõneviis)
Sa teed see töö ära! (statement as a command).
A direct command uses the imperative tee!; the indicative teed merely states what you do.

Common mistakes

Using the conditional for a plain fact
Ta teeks seda iga päev (as a habit).
Ta teeb seda iga päev.
Real, factual statements take the indicative; the conditional marks something hypothetical.
Using the indicative where a hypothetical is meant
Ma teen seda, kui mul oleks aega.
Ma teeksin seda, kui mul oleks aega.
A hypothetical main clause harmonises with the conditional kui-clause: teeksin + oleks.

B2Verb usage

Replacing a Finite Clause with an Infinitive or Participle

Kõrvallause asendamine infinitiivi või kesksõnaga

At B2 you learn to compress a full subordinate clause into a leaner infinitive or participial phrase. When the main verb and the subordinate verb share the SAME subject, Estonian usually prefers an infinitive over an 'et'-clause: 'Loodan, et tulen' becomes the tighter 'Loodan tulla'. With verbs like 'lootma', 'kavatsema', 'üritama', 'otsustama' you drop the 'et' and use the da-infinitive. Time, manner and cause clauses can shrink into a -des converb ('Koju minnes ostsin leiba' = 'On my way home I bought bread'). This is a register/style skill, not a new rule: the clause version is never wrong, but the condensed version sounds more native and is normal in writing.

Key rule

When the subordinate verb shares the main clause's subject, prefer a da-infinitive over an 'et'-clause (Loodan tulla, not Loodan, et tulen); shrink shared-subject time/manner clauses to a -des converb (Koju minnes …). Different subjects force the finite et-clause.

Examples

Loodan tulla õigeks ajaks.
Loodan, et tulen õigeks ajaks olla.
Same-subject 'lootma' takes the bare da-infinitive 'tulla'; no 'et', no extra verb.
Otsustasin ära minna.
Otsustasin, et ära minna.
After 'otsustama' with a shared subject the da-infinitive replaces the whole et-clause; 'et + da-infinitive' is wrong.
Koju minnes ostsin leiba.
Kui ma koju minnes ostsin leiba.
The -des converb already means 'while/when going'; you cannot keep 'kui ma' in front of it.

Common mistakes

Keeping 'et' before an infinitive
Otsustasin, et minna.
Otsustasin minna.
When the clause condenses to a da-infinitive, the conjunction 'et' is dropped entirely.
Forcing an infinitive across different subjects
Tahan sind aidata mind.
Tahan, et sa aitaksid mind.
An infinitive cannot have its own subject; differing subjects need a finite et-clause.

B2Verb usage

Perception Verbs and Their Complements (nägin teda tulemas)

Tajuverbid ja nende täiendid

Perception verbs — nägema (see), kuulma (hear), tundma (feel), märkama (notice) — describe what you witness someone doing. Estonian has two main patterns. (1) The mas-form: the perceived person goes in the PARTITIVE and the action is a mas-form: 'Nägin teda tulemas' (I saw him coming), 'Kuulsin sind laulmas' (I heard you singing). This stresses catching the action in progress. (2) The et-clause for a full reported observation: 'Nägin, et ta tuli' (I saw that he came / had come), 'Märkasin, et uks oli lahti'. Use the mas-form for live, ongoing perception and the et-clause when you report a fact or completed event. The object of perception is partitive (teda, sind, meest), never genitive.

Key rule

Live, ongoing perception = partitive object + mas-form (Kuulsin teda laulmas); a reported fact or completed/result event = et-clause (Nägin, et ta oli lahkunud). The perceived object is partitive, not genitive.

Examples

Nägin teda tulemas.
Nägin teda tulema.
Live perception of an ongoing action uses the inessive mas-form 'tulemas', not the bare ma-form 'tulema'.
Kuulsin lapsi õues mängimas.
Kuulsin lapsed õues mängimas.
The perceived object after a perception verb is partitive ('lapsi'), not nominative/total ('lapsed').
Märkasin, et uks oli lahti.
Märkasin uks olemas lahti.
A perceived STATE (the door being open) is reported with a finite et-clause, not a mas-form small clause.

Common mistakes

Bare ma-form instead of mas-form
Nägin teda tulema.
Nägin teda tulemas.
Live perception of an ongoing action requires the inessive mas-form (-mas).
Nominative/total object after perception verb
Kuulsin laulu lauljad laulmas.
Kuulsin lauljaid laulmas.
Perception verbs govern a partitive object, so the perceived noun is partitive 'lauljaid'.

B2Verb usage

Psychological and Seeming Predicates (tundub, paistab, näib)

Tundmust ja muljet väljendavad verbid

Verbs like 'tunduma' (seem/feel), 'paistma' (appear), 'näima' (seem) describe how something appears or feels. They have two main frames. (1) + TRANSLATIVE adjective: 'See tundub imelik' or 'See tundub imelikuks' — the impression is expressed; the plain nominative 'imelik' is the most common, the translative 'imelikuks' adds nuance. (2) + et-CLAUSE: 'Tundub, et ta on väsinud' (It seems that he is tired), 'Paistab, et hakkab sadama'. The experiencer can appear in the allative: 'Mulle tundub, et …' (It seems to me that …). With a personal subject and a state, the translative is common: 'Ta tundub õnnelik / õnnelikuna'. These predicates are key for hedging and expressing impressions at B2.

Key rule

Use 'tunduma/paistma/näima + nominative adjective' for impressions of things (See tundub imelik) and the impersonal 'Tundub/Paistab/Näib, et …' for whole-clause impressions; the experiencer goes in the ALLATIVE (Mulle tundub, et …), never the nominative.

Examples

See tundub imelik.
See tundub imelikku.
The predicative adjective with 'tunduma' is the nominative 'imelik'; '*imelikku' (partitive) is wrong here.
Mulle tundub, et ta valetab.
Ma tundun, et ta valetab.
The experiencer is the allative 'mulle'; 'tunduma' is not conjugated for a personal experiencer (no *'ma tundun').
Paistab, et hakkab sadama.
Paistab, et hakata sadama.
The et-clause after 'paistma' is finite ('hakkab'), not an infinitive ('hakata').

Common mistakes

Conjugating 'tunduma' for a personal experiencer
Ma tundun, et see on vale.
Mulle tundub, et see on vale.
The experiencer is the allative 'mulle'; the verb stays 3rd singular 'tundub'.
Partitive predicative adjective
See tundub head.
See tundub hea.
The predicative with seeming verbs is nominative 'hea', not partitive.

B2Verb usage

Impersonal and Weather Verbs (sajab, on vaja, läheb pimedaks)

Umbisikulised verbid ja seisundimuutused

Some Estonian predicates have NO subject at all — the verb just sits in the 3rd person singular. Weather verbs: 'Sajab' (it's raining), 'Sajab vihma / lund' (with a partitive 'rain/snow'), 'Tuiskab', 'Külmetab'. Necessity: 'On vaja minna' (it's necessary to go), 'Tuleb oodata' (one must wait). Change of state with 'minema/saama' + translative: 'Läheb pimedaks' (it's getting dark), 'Läheb külmaks' (it's getting cold), 'Sai külmaks'. Bodily/mental states with an allative experiencer: 'Mul on külm' (I'm cold), 'Mul hakkab igav'. The key point: do not invent a dummy subject like English 'it' — Estonian leaves the slot empty.

Key rule

Subjectless predicates take a bare 3rd-singular verb with NO dummy subject: weather 'Sajab vihma' (partitive), necessity 'On vaja / Tuleb + da-infinitive', change of state 'Läheb pimedaks/külmaks' (translative -ks), bodily state 'Mul on külm' (adessive experiencer).

Examples

Väljas sajab vihma.
Väljas see sajab vihma.
Weather verbs are subjectless; you do not add the dummy subject 'see' (it).
On vaja kiiremini minna.
On vaja kiiremini lähen.
'On vaja' is followed by a da-infinitive ('minna'), not a finite verb.
Õhtul läheb pimedaks.
Õhtul läheb pime.
Change of state uses the translative 'pimedaks' (-ks); the bare nominative 'pime' does not express 'becoming'.

Common mistakes

Adding a dummy subject to a weather verb
See sajab.
Sajab.
Weather verbs are fully subjectless; Estonian has no equivalent of English 'it'.
Finite verb after 'on vaja' / 'tuleb'
On vaja lähen.
On vaja minna.
These necessity impersonals take the da-infinitive.

B2Verb usage

Aspectual Adverbs (juba, alles, veel, parajasti)

Aspekti väljendavad määrsõnad

Estonian has no continuous tense, so aspect — whether an action is ongoing, already finished, or still going — is often shown by ADVERBS rather than verb forms. 'juba' = already (Ta on juba läinud), 'veel' = still / yet (Ta on veel siin; Ta ei ole veel tulnud = not yet), 'alles' = only just / not until (Ta tuli alles eile; Kell on alles kaheksa = it's only eight), 'parajasti / just' = right now, at this very moment (Ma parajasti söön). The trickiest contrast is 'veel' (still / not yet) vs 'enam' (any more): 'Ta töötab veel siin' (still works here) vs 'Ta ei tööta enam siin' (no longer works here). Master these to express phase without a continuous tense.

Key rule

Estonian shows phase with adverbs, not a continuous tense: 'juba' = already, 'veel' = still (affirmative) / not yet (negative), 'alles' = only just / not until, 'enam … ei' = not any more, 'parajasti/just' = right now. 'veel' (still) opposes 'enam ei' (no longer).

Examples

Ta on juba koju läinud.
Ta on juba koju lähen.
'juba' (already) sits before the perfect participle 'läinud'; the perfect needs the -nud form, not a finite 'lähen'.
Ma ei ole veel söönud.
Ma ei ole juba söönud.
'not yet' is 'ei ole veel'; 'juba' (already) is wrong in a negative 'not yet' context.
Ta töötab veel siin.
Ta töötab enam siin.
'still' in an affirmative is 'veel'; 'enam' only works in negatives ('ei tööta enam').

Common mistakes

Using 'enam' in an affirmative for 'still'
Ma elan enam Tartus.
Ma elan veel Tartus.
'still' in affirmatives is 'veel'; 'enam' belongs only to negatives.
'juba' instead of 'veel' for 'not yet'
Ma ei ole juba valmis.
Ma ei ole veel valmis.
'not yet' = 'ei ole veel'; 'juba' means 'already'.

B2Verb usage

Advanced Verb Rection and Prepositional Government

Verbirektsioon — laiendus

Many Estonian verbs demand a specific case or adposition on their complement, and the choice is often NOT what English leads you to expect. Some govern a plain case: 'loobuma millest' (give up sth — elative), 'sõltuma millest' (depend on — elative), 'tüdinema millest' (get tired of — elative), 'uskuma millesse' (believe in — illative), 'kahtlema milles' (doubt — inessive), 'osalema milles' (take part in — inessive). Others govern an adpositional phrase: 'pöörduma kelle poole' (turn to sb), 'hoolitsema kelle eest' (care for sb), 'võitlema mille eest / vastu' (fight for / against). At B2 you learn these as fixed verb+case/adposition units, because translating the English preposition word-for-word produces the wrong case.

Key rule

Each verb governs its own case or adposition, rarely matching English: elative (loobuma/sõltuma millest), illative (uskuma millesse), inessive (osalema milles), allative (lootma millele), plus adpositional rection (pöörduma kelle poole, hoolitsema kelle eest). Learn verb + case/adposition as a fixed unit.

Examples

Ma loobusin sellest plaanist.
Ma loobusin selle plaani.
'loobuma' governs the elative ('sellest plaanist'), not the genitive object.
Edu sõltub sinust.
Edu sõltub sind.
'sõltuma' takes the elative ('sinust' = on you), not the partitive 'sind'.
Ma usun sinusse.
Ma usun sind.
'uskuma' (believe in) governs the illative 'sinusse'; the partitive 'sind' means 'believe you (a statement)' — a different reading.

Common mistakes

Importing the English preposition's case
Ma sõltun sind.
Ma sõltun sinust.
'sõltuma' governs the elative ('sinust'), regardless of English 'depend ON you'.
Genitive object where elative is required
Loobusin selle idee.
Loobusin sellest ideest.
'loobuma' takes the elative complement, not a total genitive object.

B2Verb usage

Reflexive/Mediopassive (-u) vs Impersonal (avaneb vs avatakse)

Enesekohane (-u) ja umbisikuline tegumood

Two different ways to background the doer. (1) The -u/-ne MEDIOPASSIVE-REFLEXIVE verb: 'uks avaneb' (the door opens — by itself, no agent implied), 'olukord muutub' (the situation changes), 'klaas purunes' (the glass broke). These are intransitive verbs derived with -u; the thing undergoes the event on its own. (2) The IMPERSONAL voice (-takse / -ti): 'uks avatakse' (the door is opened — by someone unspecified), 'maja ehitatakse'. The impersonal still implies a human agent, just unnamed. Compare: 'Uks avaneb' (it opens by itself) vs 'Uks avatakse' (someone opens it). Use -u when the event happens spontaneously to the subject; use the impersonal when there is an unnamed human doer.

Key rule

The -u/-ne verb (avaneb, muutub, puruneb) presents the subject as undergoing the event spontaneously, with NO implied agent; the impersonal (avatakse, ehitati, on tehtud) implies an unnamed human doer. Choose -u for self-happening events, the impersonal for agent-suppressed human action.

Examples

Uks avanes aeglaselt.
Uks avati aeglaselt iseenesest.
A door opening by itself is the -u verb 'avanes'; the impersonal 'avati' implies a human opener, contradicting 'iseenesest' (by itself).
Pood avatakse kell üheksa.
Pood avaneb kell üheksa töötajate poolt.
When a human agent opens the shop, use the impersonal 'avatakse'; the -u verb 'avaneb' implies no agent, so adding 'töötajate poolt' is contradictory.
Olukord muutub kiiresti.
Olukord muudetakse kiiresti iseenesest.
A situation changing on its own is 'muutub' (-u); the impersonal 'muudetakse' implies someone changes it.

Common mistakes

Impersonal where a spontaneous event is meant
Uks avati tuule käes.
Uks avanes tuule käes.
An agentless, self-happening event uses the -u verb 'avanes'.
-u verb where a human agent is implied
Pood avaneb kell kümme. (intended: staff open it)
Pood avatakse kell kümme.
When unnamed people perform the action, use the impersonal 'avatakse'.

B2Verb usage

Idiomatic Phrasal Verbs and Particle Semantics (läbi saama, üle elama)

Ühendverbid — idiomaatika

Estonian phrasal verbs combine a verb with a particle (ära, läbi, üle, kinni, lahti, maha, kokku, välja), and many are IDIOMATIC — the meaning is not the sum of the parts. 'läbi saama' literally 'get through', but with 'kellegagi' it means 'get along with someone' (Ma saan temaga hästi läbi). 'üle elama' (live over) = survive / get through (Elasin selle üle). 'maha jätma' (leave down) = abandon (Ta jättis töö maha). 'kokku leppima' = agree on (Leppisime kokku). 'välja mõtlema' = invent / come up with. The particle usually comes AFTER the object in a simple affirmative (Ma mõtlesin selle välja), and these idioms must be learned as units because the particle carries an unpredictable meaning.

Key rule

Idiomatic particle verbs (läbi saama = get along, üle elama = survive, maha jätma = abandon, aru saama = understand, kokku leppima = agree) are non-compositional units; the particle follows the object in a neutral affirmative (Mõtlesin selle välja) and many govern a fixed case (aru saama millest, läbi saama kellega).

Examples

Ma saan oma õega hästi läbi.
Ma saan oma õde hästi läbi.
'läbi saama' (get along with) governs the comitative 'õega'; the partitive 'õde' is wrong.
Ta elas raske aja üle.
Ta elas üle raske aega.
In a neutral affirmative the particle 'üle' follows the object; the total object is genitive 'raske aja' (a completed survival), so 'üle raske aega' is doubly wrong.
Ma ei saa sellest aru.
Ma ei saa seda aru.
'aru saama' (understand) governs the elative 'sellest'; the partitive 'seda' is the wrong case.

Common mistakes

Wrong case after 'aru saama'
Ma ei saa seda aru.
Ma ei saa sellest aru.
'aru saama' (understand) governs the elative 'sellest'.
Wrong case after 'läbi saama'
Ma saan teda hästi läbi.
Ma saan temaga hästi läbi.
'läbi saama' (get along) governs the comitative 'temaga'.

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B2 Estonian Grammar — 58 Topics & Common Mistakes

Abessive Case (-ta) - 'without'

Comitative (-ga) - Full Range

Terminative (-ni) - Spatial, Temporal & Degree Limits

Essive (-na) - Role, Temporary State & Time

Cases Where Only the Head Inflects

Idiomatic Locative Uses

Short Plural & i-Plural Forms

Genitive Attributes - Advanced

Clitics -gi/-ki — Scope & Placement (Advanced)

Modal Particles ju, ka, küll, ikka

Epistemic Particles vist, ehk, äkki, vahest

Focus Particles ainult, isegi, just, koguni

Negative-Polarity Items (mitte kunagi, üldse, sugugi)

Two-Part Connectors — Advanced (mitte ainult… vaid ka; kas… või)

Response & Discourse Particles (no, noh, ahah, eks ole)

Text-Structuring Connectors (esiteks, teiseks, kokkuvõttes)

The des-Converb - Full Use

The nud-Participial Clause (anterior)

The tud-Participial Clause (passive anterior)

Extended Participial Attributes

Agent in Passive Participle Phrases

The ma-Form Series - Systematic Review

da-Infinitive - Advanced Syntax

The -v Participle in Quotative Complements

Spoken Estonian — Full Features (ma/sa/ta, pole, dropped -d, mis vs mida)

Business & Academic Register (nominalisation, impersonal, formulae)

Dialect Awareness (Võro, saarte murre — recognition)

False Friends (with Finnish, Russian, German, English)

Derivation — Advanced Suffixes (-nik, -lane, -ndus, -stik)

Loanword Strata (German, Russian, Finnic, English)

Common Idioms (kassi saba alla, üle kivide ja kändude)

Punctuation — Comma Rules (before et/kui/kes; lists; appositions)

Word Order for Emphasis & Information Structure

Advanced Existential Sentences (definiteness, locative-first order)

Advanced Negation (ei… vaid; mitte; pole kunagi; ükski)

Complex Relative Clauses (kelle, mille, kus, kuhu as relativizers)

Cleft & Focus Constructions (See on Mart, kes…)

Participial & Converb Clauses Replacing Subordination

Concession — Advanced (ehkki, olgugi et, hoolimata sellest et)

Discourse Markers (muide, igatahes, teatavasti, muuseas)

Reformulation & Addition (teisisõnu, lisaks, pealegi, samuti)

Quotative / Oblique Mood — Present (-vat: tegevat, olevat)

Quotative — Past (olevat teinud / -nuvat)

Quotative in Reported Speech & Hearsay

Jussive Mood (3rd-person imperative: tehku, mingu)

Imperative — Full Paradigm (incl. impersonal tehtagu)

Conditional Perfect — Nuanced Counterfactual (oleks teinud)

Impersonal Voice — Register & Style Choice

Tense & Mood Sequence in Complex Sentences

Mood Overview — Indicative / Conditional / Imperative / Quotative (+ Jussive)

Replacing a Finite Clause with an Infinitive or Participle

Perception Verbs and Their Complements (nägin teda tulemas)

Psychological and Seeming Predicates (tundub, paistab, näib)

Impersonal and Weather Verbs (sajab, on vaja, läheb pimedaks)

Aspectual Adverbs (juba, alles, veel, parajasti)

Advanced Verb Rection and Prepositional Government

Reflexive/Mediopassive (-u) vs Impersonal (avaneb vs avatakse)

Idiomatic Phrasal Verbs and Particle Semantics (läbi saama, üle elama)