Lenguia | TOPIK 1 Grammar: 65 Topics & Examples

해요체 (haeyoche) is the everyday polite way to talk in Korean — what you use with a stranger your age, a shopkeeper, a coworker you're not super close with. To make it, you take the verb stem (the part before -다 in the dictionary form) and add either -아요 or -어요 depending on the last vowel of the stem. If the last vowel is ㅏ or ㅗ, add -아요 (가다 → 가요, 'I go'). For all other vowels, add -어요 (먹다 → 먹어요, 'I eat'). The verb 하다 ('to do') is irregular: it becomes 해요. The same form covers I/you/he/she/we/they — Korean verbs don't change for person — and the same form is used for statements, yes/no questions (rising intonation), and even soft commands. So 가요 can mean 'I go,' 'You go?', 'Let's go,' or 'Go!' depending on intonation and context.

Key rule

Stem + -아요 (last vowel ㅏ/ㅗ) or -어요 (other vowels). 하다 → 해요. One form covers statement / question / proposal / soft command — only intonation changes.

Examples

저는 학교에 가요. (Jeoneun hakgyo-e gayo.) — I go to school.
저는 학교에 가다. (Jeoneun hakgyo-e gada.)
가다 is the dictionary form, never used as a sentence ending. You must conjugate to 가요 (vowel-ending stem 가- + 아요, contracted to 가요).
동생이 밥을 먹어요. (Dongsaeng-i bab-eul meogeoyo.) — My younger sibling eats rice.
동생이 밥을 먹아요. (Dongsaeng-i bab-eul mogayo.)
먹- has final vowel ㅓ, not ㅏ or ㅗ, so -어요 is correct: 먹어요. Don't apply -아요 just because of ㅓ → ㅏ confusion.
저는 한국어를 공부해요. (Jeoneun hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeyo.) — I study Korean.
저는 한국어를 공부하어요. (Jeoneun hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeoyo.)
하다 is irregular: 하 + 여요 → 해요 (never 하어요 or 하아요).

Common mistakes

Using the dictionary form -다 as the sentence ending
저는 학생이다.
저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-ieyo.)
Dictionary forms (가다, 먹다, 이다) never end a sentence in conversational Korean. They must be conjugated. Even the copula 이다 becomes 이에요/예요 in 해요체.
Choosing -아요 or -어요 by spelling instead of last stem-vowel
먹아요 (because 먹 contains ㅓ which 'looks like ㅏ')
먹어요
Vowel harmony is determined by the FINAL vowel of the stem only. ㅓ takes -어요. The mnemonic is 'ㅏ/ㅗ go together (bright vowels)'; everything else takes -어요.

TOPIK 1 / A1Verb conjugation

Formal Polite Present 합쇼체 (-(스)ㅂ니다 / -(스)ㅂ니까)

합쇼체 현재형 (-(스)ㅂ니다 / -(스)ㅂ니까)

합쇼체 (hapsyoche) is the most formal polite speech level — what you hear on TV news, in business presentations, in airline announcements, and in the military. To make it, take the verb stem and add -ㅂ니다 if the stem ends in a vowel (가다 → 갑니다, 'I go'), or -습니다 if the stem ends in a consonant (먹다 → 먹습니다, 'I eat'). Yes/no questions use -ㅂ니까/-습니까 instead (가다 → 갑니까?, 먹다 → 먹습니까?). The verb 이다 ('to be / to be a') becomes 입니다 / 입니까. This register feels stiff and ceremonial for everyday chat between strangers — for that, you'd use 해요체 (-아/어요) instead. But in workplaces, formal interviews, public speeches, and writing addressed to a wider audience, 합쇼체 is the standard.

Key rule

Vowel-ending stem + -ㅂ니다/-ㅂ니까. Consonant-ending stem + -습니다/-습니까. ㄹ-final stems drop ㄹ. 이다 → 입니다. Pronounced with nasalization: -ㅂ니다 = [ㅁ니다].

Examples

저는 한국에 갑니다. (Jeoneun hangug-e gamnida.) — I go to Korea. / I'm going to Korea.
저는 한국에 가습니다. (Jeoneun hangug-e gaseumnida.)
Stem 가- ends in a vowel, so -ㅂ니다 attaches directly: 갑니다. -습니다 is for consonant-ending stems only.
동생이 빵을 먹습니다. (Dongsaeng-i ppang-eul meokseumnida.) — My younger sibling eats bread.
동생이 빵을 먹ㅂ니다. (Dongsaeng-i ppang-eul meogmnida.)
먹- ends in consonant ㄱ, so -습니다 is correct: 먹습니다.
저는 한국어를 공부합니다. (Jeoneun hangugeo-reul gongbuhamnida.) — I study Korean.
저는 한국어를 공부해요습니다.
Don't double-stack registers. -하다 → 합니다 in 합쇼체. (-해요 is haeyoche, separate paradigm.)

Common mistakes

Choosing -ㅂ니다 vs -습니다 by guess instead of by stem ending
가습니다 / 먹ㅂ니다
갑니다 / 먹습니다
Vowel-ending stem → -ㅂ니다 (attached directly to the stem). Consonant-ending stem → -습니다. Rule of thumb: if the stem already has a final consonant (받침), use -습니다.
Forgetting to drop ㄹ in ㄹ-final stems
살습니다, 알습니다, 만들습니다
삽니다, 압니다, 만듭니다
ㄹ-final stems lose their ㄹ before consonant-initial endings starting with ㄴ, ㅂ, ㅅ. Before -ㅂ니다: 살다 → 삽니다, 만들다 → 만듭니다.

TOPIK 1 / A1Verb conjugation

Past Tense (-았/었어요 / -았/었습니다)

과거 시제 (-았/었-)

To put a Korean verb in the past tense, you insert -았- or -었- between the stem and the polite ending. The choice follows the same vowel-harmony rule as the present tense -아요 / -어요: if the stem's last vowel is ㅏ or ㅗ, use -았어요. Otherwise, use -었어요. The verb 하다 ('do') becomes 했어요. So 가다 → 갔어요 ('I went'), 먹다 → 먹었어요 ('I ate'), 공부하다 → 공부했어요 ('I studied'). The same -았/었- block is used in formal 합쇼체 too: 갔습니다, 먹었습니다, 했습니다. As with the present tense, one form covers I/you/he/she/we/they; context tells you who. Like the present, vowel-ending stems contract: 가 + 았어요 → 갔어요 (NOT 가았어요); 보 + 았어요 → 봤어요; 마시 + 었어요 → 마셨어요; 주 + 었어요 → 줬어요.

Key rule

Stem + -았어요 (last vowel ㅏ/ㅗ) or -었어요 (other vowels). 하다 → 했어요. Vowel-ending stems contract. Hapsyoche: -았/었습니다. Subject is omitted when context clear.

Examples

어제 학교에 갔어요. (Eoje hakgyo-e gasseoyo.) — Yesterday I went to school.
어제 학교에 가았어요. (Eoje hakgyo-e ga-asseoyo.)
가- + -았어요 must contract to 갔어요. Uncontracted 가았어요 is ungrammatical.
어제 한국 음식을 먹었어요. (Eoje hanguk eumsig-eul meogeosseoyo.) — Yesterday I ate Korean food.
어제 한국 음식을 먹았어요. (Eoje hanguk eumsig-eul meogasseoyo.)
먹- has final vowel ㅓ, not ㅏ/ㅗ, so -었어요 is correct: 먹었어요.
지난주에 한국어를 공부했어요. (Jinanju-e hangugeo-reul gongbuhaesseoyo.) — Last week I studied Korean.
지난주에 한국어를 공부하었어요. (Jinanju-e hangugeo-reul gongbuha-eosseoyo.)
-하다 → 했-, never 하었-. So 공부했어요 / 일했어요 / 사랑했어요.

Common mistakes

Choosing -았/었- by spelling instead of by stem-final vowel
먹았어요 (because 먹 contains ㅓ which 'looks like ㅏ')
먹었어요
Vowel harmony depends on the stem's FINAL vowel only. ㅓ takes -었어요. Bright vowels: ㅏ, ㅗ → -았-. Everything else → -었-.
Failing to contract vowel-ending stems
가았어요, 보았어요, 마시었어요, 주었어요
갔어요, 봤어요, 마셨어요, 줬어요
Vowel-ending stems must contract: ㅏ + 았 → 았 (one drops); ㅗ + 았 → 왔; ㅣ + 었 → 였 → 셨; ㅜ + 었 → 웠. Uncontracted forms are ungrammatical.

TOPIK 1 / A1Verb conjugation

Future / Probability (-(으)ㄹ 거예요 / -(으)ㄹ 겁니다)

미래 시제 (-(으)ㄹ 거예요 / -(으)ㄹ 겁니다)

To talk about the future or to express a guess/probability, attach -(으)ㄹ 거예요 to the verb stem. If the stem ends in a vowel, just add -ㄹ 거예요 (가다 → 갈 거예요, 'I'll go / I'm probably going'). If the stem ends in a consonant, add -을 거예요 (먹다 → 먹을 거예요, 'I'll eat / I'm probably eating'). The same -(으)ㄹ block becomes -(으)ㄹ 겁니다 in the more formal 합쇼체. The form has two main meanings: (1) FUTURE — what will happen, what someone plans to do (내일 한국에 갈 거예요 = 'I will go to Korea tomorrow'); (2) PROBABILITY / SUPPOSITION — what is probably the case (지금 자고 있을 거예요 = 'He's probably sleeping right now'). Context tells you which. For first-person promises and decisions, you'll later learn -(으)ㄹ게요 — but at TOPIK 1, -(으)ㄹ 거예요 covers both the simple future and the soft probability use.

Key rule

Vowel-ending stem + -ㄹ 거예요. Consonant-ending stem + -을 거예요. ㄹ-final stems just add 거예요. Hapsyoche: -(으)ㄹ 겁니다. Two meanings: future plan or probability/guess.

Examples

내일 한국에 갈 거예요. (Naeil hangug-e gal geoyeyo.) — Tomorrow I'll go to Korea.
내일 한국에 갈을 거예요.
Vowel-ending stem 가- + -ㄹ 거예요 → 갈 거예요. Don't add -을 to vowel-ending stems.
저녁에 한국 음식을 먹을 거예요. (Jeonyeog-e hanguk eumsig-eul meogeul geoyeyo.) — In the evening I'll eat Korean food.
저녁에 한국 음식을 먹ㄹ 거예요.
Consonant-ending stem 먹- + -을 거예요 → 먹을 거예요. -ㄹ alone cannot attach to a consonant-final stem.
주말에 영화를 볼 거예요. (Jumal-e yeonghwa-reul bol geoyeyo.) — On the weekend I'll watch a movie.
주말에 영화를 볼을 거예요.
보- ends in vowel ㅗ → -ㄹ 거예요 directly: 볼 거예요.

Common mistakes

Adding -을 to vowel-ending stems
갈을 거예요, 볼을 거예요
갈 거예요, 볼 거예요
Vowel-ending stems take only -ㄹ 거예요. -을 is for consonant-ending stems.
Adding -ㄹ to consonant-ending stems
먹ㄹ 거예요, 읽ㄹ 거예요
먹을 거예요, 읽을 거예요
Consonant-ending stems need the connecting -을. The orphan ㄹ has nowhere to attach.

TOPIK 1 / A1Verb conjugation

Copula 이다 / 아니다 (-이에요/예요, 아니에요)

이다 / 아니다

이다 means 'to be' in the sense of 'to be a (noun)' — what English uses 'am/is/are' for. It attaches DIRECTLY to a noun and conjugates like a verb. In 해요체 it has two contracted forms: -이에요 after consonant-ending nouns (학생 → 학생이에요, 'I'm a student') and -예요 after vowel-ending nouns (의사 → 의사예요, 'I'm a doctor'). The negative is a separate word: 아니다 → 아니에요 ('I'm not'). For 'I'm not a student': 저는 학생이 아니에요 — note the 이/가 particle on the noun. In formal 합쇼체: 입니다 / 아닙니다. In writing or careful speech, 이다 also has a written-style ending -이다 itself (e.g., '나는 학생이다.' in a diary). 이다 is unique among Korean predicates because it cannot stand alone — it ALWAYS attaches to a noun.

Key rule

Consonant-ending noun + 이에요 (haeyoche) / 입니다 (hapsyoche). Vowel-ending noun + 예요 / 입니다. Negative: noun + 이/가 + 아니에요 / 아닙니다. 이다 always attaches to a noun.

Examples

저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-ieyo.) — I am a student.
저는 학생예요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-yeyo.)
학생 ends in consonant ㅇ → must use full -이에요. The contracted -예요 is for vowel-ending nouns only.
그분은 의사예요. (Geubun-eun uisa-yeyo.) — That person is a doctor.
그분은 의사이에요. (Geubun-eun uisa-ieyo.)
의사 ends in vowel ㅏ → contraction is obligatory: 의사예요.
저는 학생이 아니에요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-i anieyo.) — I am not a student.
저는 학생을 아니에요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-eul anieyo.)
Negative 아니다 takes subject particle 이/가 on its complement, not the object 을/를.

Common mistakes

Contracting -이에요 to -예요 after consonant-ending nouns
학생예요, 사람예요
학생이에요, 사람이에요
Contraction only happens after vowel-ending nouns. Consonant-ending nouns retain the full -이에요.
Failing to contract -이에요 → -예요 after vowel-ending nouns
의사이에요, 친구이에요
의사예요, 친구예요
Contraction IS obligatory after vowel-ending nouns in standard usage. 의사이에요 sounds non-native.

TOPIK 1 / A1Verb conjugation

있다 / 없다 — Existence and Possession

있다 / 없다

있다 means 'to exist, to be located, or to have', and 없다 is its opposite ('to not exist, not be there, not have'). They're a paired set — instead of negating 있다 with 안 or -지 않다, you just use 없다. In 해요체: 있어요 / 없어요. In 합쇼체: 있습니다 / 없습니다. Past: 있었어요 / 없었어요. The same verb 있다 covers two big meanings: (1) LOCATION/EXISTENCE — 책상 위에 책이 있어요 ('There's a book on the desk'); 학교에 있어요 ('I'm at school'). (2) POSSESSION — 저는 차가 있어요 ('I have a car'); 시간이 있어요 ('I have time'). The thing that exists or is possessed gets the subject particle 이/가. The owner or location can take 은/는 (topic) or other particles. So 있다/없다 are not just verbs you conjugate — they also dictate the case/particle pattern of the sentence around them.

Key rule

있다 = exist / be located / have; 없다 = NOT exist / not be there / not have. Suppletive pair (no 안 있다 for non-existence). Subject of existence/possession takes 이/가. Location takes 에 (not 에서).

Examples

책상 위에 책이 있어요. (Chaeksang wi-e chaeg-i isseoyo.) — There's a book on the desk.
책상 위에 책을 있어요. (Chaeksang wi-e chaeg-eul isseoyo.)
있다 takes the subject particle 이/가 on the existing thing, never the object 을/를.
저는 차가 있어요. (Jeoneun cha-ga isseoyo.) — I have a car.
저는 차를 있어요. (Jeoneun cha-reul isseoyo.)
Possession in Korean: possessor 은/는 + possessed 이/가 + 있다. NOT 을/를.
지금 시간이 없어요. (Jigeum sigan-i eopseoyo.) — I have no time right now.
지금 시간이 안 있어요. (Jigeum sigan-i an isseoyo.)
Don't negate 있다 with 안. The opposite of 있다 is the suppletive 없다.

Common mistakes

Negating 있다 with 안 or -지 않다 to mean 'not exist'
안 있어요, 있지 않아요
없어요
있다 ↔ 없다 are suppletive. Always use 없다 for the negative existence/possession meaning.
Marking the existing/possessed thing with 을/를
저는 책을 있어요.
저는 책이 있어요.
있다 takes a subject (이/가), not an object. Possession is grammatically 'X has Y' = 'Y exists to X' in Korean's case frame.

TOPIK 1 / A1Verb conjugation

Short-Form Negation: 안 + verb

짧은 부정 '안'

The simplest way to make a Korean verb negative is to put the word 안 right before it. 가다 → 안 가요 ('I don't go'); 먹다 → 안 먹어요 ('I don't eat'); 좋다 → 안 좋아요 ('It's not good'). 안 stays in front of the verb, separated by a space (in standard writing). Past tense: 안 갔어요, 안 먹었어요. Future: 안 갈 거예요. There are TWO important catches. (1) For -하다 verbs, 안 goes BETWEEN the noun and 하다, not before the whole word: 공부하다 → 공부 안 해요 (NOT 안 공부해요). 일하다 → 일 안 해요. 사랑하다 → 사랑 안 해요. (2) 있다 → use 없다 instead of 안 있다. 알다 → use 모르다 instead of 안 알다. These are suppletive pairs. The 안-negation is the casual everyday choice; the longer -지 않다 (next tag) is more emphatic and used in writing. For inability ('can't', not 'don't want to'), use 못 instead of 안 (covered in another tag).

Key rule

Place 안 directly before the verb. For 하다-verbs (noun+하다), insert 안 between the noun and 하다: 공부 안 해요. NEVER use 안 with 있다 (use 없다) or 알다 (use 모르다). 안 is informal-neutral.

Examples

저는 커피를 안 마셔요. (Jeoneun keopi-reul an masyeoyo.) — I don't drink coffee.
저는 커피를 마셔 안요. (Jeoneun keopi-reul masyeo anyo.)
안 goes BEFORE the verb, not after. Word order is fixed.
오늘 학교에 안 가요. (Oneul hakgyo-e an gayo.) — I'm not going to school today.
오늘 학교에 가지 안 해요.
Don't mix forms. Either 안 가요 (short form) OR 가지 않아요 (long form).
저는 한국어 공부 안 해요. (Jeoneun hangugeo gongbu an haeyo.) — I don't study Korean.
저는 한국어 안 공부해요. (Jeoneun hangugeo an gongbuhaeyo.)
-하다 verbs split: insert 안 between the noun (공부) and 하다. 안 공부해요 is wrong (or at best very colloquial).

Common mistakes

Putting 안 in the wrong place — after the verb
갔 안어요, 마셔요 안
안 갔어요, 안 마셔요
안 must directly precede the verb. It is an adverb of negation that scopes over what follows it.
Failing to split 하다 verbs
안 공부해요, 안 운동해요, 안 일해요
공부 안 해요, 운동 안 해요, 일 안 해요
Noun-+-하다 verbs are compound: the noun is the lexical content, 하다 is the verb. 안 negates the action 하다, so it goes between.

TOPIK 1 / A2Verb conjugation

Long-Form Negation: -지 않다

긴 부정 '-지 않다'

-지 않다 is the longer, more written-style way to negate a Korean verb. You attach -지 않다 to the verb stem and then conjugate 않다 normally. So 가다 → 가지 않아요 ('I don't go'); 먹다 → 먹지 않아요 ('I don't eat'); 공부하다 → 공부하지 않아요 ('I don't study'). It means basically the same thing as the short form 안 (안 가요 = 가지 않아요) but feels more formal, more emphatic, or more bookish — the form you'd see in newspapers, written essays, and careful or written speech. Because the negation is built into the verb word itself, there's no -하다 splitting issue: 공부하지 않아요 is just one piece. -지 않다 also handles past (-지 않았어요) and future (-지 않을 거예요) just like any other verb. Like 안, you don't use -지 않다 with 있다 (use 없다), 알다 (use 모르다), or 이다 (use -이/가 아니다).

Key rule

Verb stem + 지 않다 + ending. No -하다 splitting issue (just 공부하지 않아요). More formal/written/emphatic than 안. Suppletives still apply (없다, 모르다, 아니다).

Examples

저는 커피를 마시지 않아요. (Jeoneun keopi-reul masiji anhayo.) — I don't drink coffee.
저는 커피를 안 마시지 않아요.
Don't combine 안 with -지 않다. Pick one negation strategy.
오늘 비가 오지 않습니다. (Oneul biga oji anhseumnida.) — It's not raining today. (formal)
오늘 비가 오 않습니다.
Connective -지 is required: 오 + 지 + 않습니다 → 오지 않습니다.
저는 한국어를 공부하지 않아요. (Jeoneun hangugeo-reul gongbuhaji anhayo.) — I don't study Korean.
저는 한국어를 공부 안 하지 않아요.
Long form does NOT split -하다. Just 공부하지 않아요 — clean and unsplit.

Common mistakes

Mixing 안 with -지 않다
안 가지 않아요, 안 먹지 않아요
가지 않아요 / 먹지 않아요 (or 안 가요 / 안 먹어요)
Pick one. Combining the two creates a double negative that is grammatically wrong (and would semantically mean the opposite if it were grammatical).
Splitting -하다 verbs in long-form negation
공부 안 하지 않아요, 일 안 하지 않아요
공부하지 않아요, 일하지 않아요
The advantage of -지 않다 over 안 is precisely that there's no splitting needed — attach to the whole verb.

TOPIK 1 / A2Verb conjugation

Inability Negation: 못 + verb / -지 못하다

부정 '못' / '-지 못하다'

못 means 'can't' or 'unable to' — it's about ability or external constraint, NOT choice. Compare 안 (don't / choose not to) with 못 (can't): 안 가요 = 'I don't go' (I'm not going); 못 가요 = 'I can't go' (something prevents me). Like 안, 못 goes immediately before the verb (못 가요, 못 먹어요), and -하다 verbs split: 공부하다 → 공부 못 해요. There's also a long form -지 못하다 that works just like -지 않다 but for inability: 가지 못해요, 공부하지 못해요. Past: 못 갔어요 / 가지 못했어요. Pronunciation note: 못 갔어요 sounds like [몯깟어요] (the ㅅ becomes ㄷ, then makes the next consonant tense). 못 has its own suppletive: don't use 못 with 알다 — use 모르다 (which already encodes inability/ignorance).

Key rule

못 = can't / unable. Place before verb (못 가요). For 하다-verbs: noun + 못 + 하다 (공부 못 해요). Long form: -지 못하다. 안 = volitional 'don't'; 못 = circumstantial 'can't'. Use 모르다 instead of 못 알다.

Examples

오늘 친구를 못 만나요. (Oneul chingu-reul mot mannayo.) — I can't meet my friend today.
오늘 친구를 안 만나요. (when prevented by circumstance)
If a circumstance (work, illness, no time) prevents the meeting, 못 is correct. 안 implies you're choosing not to meet.
한국어를 잘 못해요. (Hangugeo-reul jal motaeyo.) — I'm not very good at Korean.
한국어를 잘 안 해요.
잘 못해요 = lack of skill ('not good at it'); 잘 안 해요 = 'don't do it well (= rarely)' which is a different meaning.
어제 너무 바빠서 운동 못 했어요. (Eoje neomu bappaseo undong mot haesseoyo.) — I was so busy yesterday I couldn't exercise.
어제 너무 바빠서 안 운동했어요.
Two errors: (1) circumstance (busy) → 못. (2) -하다 splitting: 운동 못 했어요, not 안 운동했어요.

Common mistakes

Using 안 where 못 fits (volition vs circumstance)
Saying 안 갔어요 when you mean 'I couldn't go because of work'
못 갔어요
안 = chose not to. 못 = was prevented from / unable to. Listeners notice the difference.
Using 못 where 안 fits
Saying 못 먹어요 to mean 'I don't eat meat by choice (vegetarian)'
안 먹어요 (or just 채식주의자예요)
Choice → 안. Inability → 못. A vegetarian doesn't 'can't' eat meat; they choose not to.

TOPIK 1 / A2Verb conjugation

Negative Imperative -지 마세요 / -지 말다

부정 명령 -지 마세요

To tell someone NOT to do something politely, attach -지 마세요 to the verb stem. 가다 → 가지 마세요 ('Please don't go'); 먹다 → 먹지 마세요 ('Please don't eat'); 걱정하다 → 걱정하지 마세요 ('Please don't worry'). The verb 말다 means 'to stop / quit / not do' and is used as the negative auxiliary for imperatives. -지 마세요 is haeyoche-style polite ('please don't'); the more formal 합쇼체 version is -지 마십시오. In casual 반말, you'd say -지 마 (가지 마! = 'Don't go!'). For propositions ('let's not...'), use -지 맙시다 (가지 맙시다 = 'Let's not go'). One thing to remember: 말다 is irregular when it conjugates — the ㄹ drops before -세요, so it's 마세요 not 말세요, and 마요 not 말아요 in casual polite speech. -지 마세요 differs from declarative -지 않다 ('does not') and from 안 (general negation): -지 마세요 is exclusively for COMMANDS / REQUESTS not to do something.

Key rule

Stem + 지 마세요 (haeyoche polite negative imperative). 말다 is ㄹ-irregular: 마세요 (not 말세요). Hapsyoche: -지 마십시오. Casual: -지 마. Propositional: -지 맙시다 / -지 말자.

Examples

여기에 들어가지 마세요. (Yeogi-e deureogaji maseyo.) — Please don't enter here.
여기에 들어가지 마요. (mild but awkward) / 여기에 안 들어가세요. (changes meaning)
-지 마세요 is the standard polite negative imperative. 안 + verb is a declarative negation, not a command.
걱정하지 마세요. 다 잘될 거예요. (Geokjeonghaji maseyo. Da jaldoel geoyeyo.) — Don't worry. Everything will be fine.
걱정 안 하세요. (Geokjeong an haseyo.)
Imperative needs -지 마세요. Declarative 안 ~ doesn't carry the 'please don't' force.
수업 시간에 휴대폰을 보지 마십시오. (Sueop sigan-e hyudaepon-eul boji masipsio.) — Please do not look at your phone during class. (formal)
수업 시간에 휴대폰을 보지 마세요세요.
Hapsyoche form: -지 마십시오 (NOT a stack of -세요).

Common mistakes

Forgetting that 말다 is ㄹ-irregular — producing 말세요 / 말으세요
가지 말세요, 먹지 말으세요
가지 마세요, 먹지 마세요
ㄹ-final stems drop ㄹ before -세요. 말 + 세요 → 마세요.
Using -지 않다 (declarative negation) for commands
가지 않으세요. (intending 'Don't go!')
가지 마세요.
-지 않다 is for declaratives ('does not go'). For commands, use -지 마세요.

TOPIK 1 / B1Verb conjugation

Basic Irregular Stems (ㅂ, ㄷ — 춥다/덥다, 듣다)

기본 불규칙 활용 (ㅂ, ㄷ)

Korean has several irregular conjugation patterns where the stem changes when an ending starting with a vowel is added. Two of the most common are introduced at TOPIK 1: the ㅂ-irregular (춥다 'cold', 덥다 'hot', 어렵다 'difficult', 쉽다 'easy') and the ㄷ-irregular (듣다 'listen', 걷다 'walk'). ㅂ-irregular: when adding -아/어요, -았/었어요, or any other vowel-starting ending, the final ㅂ becomes 우, then merges. So 춥다 → 추 + 우 + 어요 → 추워요 ('it's cold'). 덥다 → 더워요 ('it's hot'). ㄷ-irregular: the final ㄷ changes to ㄹ before vowel-starting endings. So 듣다 → 들 + 어요 → 들어요 ('I listen'). 걷다 → 걸어요 ('I walk'). Crucially, NOT every verb ending in ㅂ or ㄷ is irregular: 입다 ('wear') is regular (입어요, not 이워요), and 받다 ('receive') is regular (받아요, not 발아요). You'll memorize which verbs are irregular as you learn them. These two irregulars are the most common at the beginner level; later TOPIK levels add ㅅ, 르, 으-drop, ㄹ-drop, and ㅎ irregulars.

Key rule

ㅂ-irregular: ㅂ → 우 before vowel endings (춥어요 → 추워요). ㄷ-irregular: ㄷ → ㄹ before vowel endings (듣어요 → 들어요). Memorize which verbs are irregular; not all ㅂ/ㄷ-final verbs are. 돕다 → 도와요 (special: ㅂ → 오).

Examples

오늘 날씨가 정말 추워요. (Oneul nalssi-ga jeongmal chuwoyo.) — Today's weather is really cold.
오늘 날씨가 정말 춥어요.
춥다 is ㅂ-irregular: 춥 + 어요 → 추워요 (ㅂ → 우, then 우+어 → 워).
한국어가 어려워요. (Hangugeo-ga eoryeowoyo.) — Korean is difficult.
한국어가 어렵어요.
어렵다 is ㅂ-irregular: 어렵 + 어요 → 어려워요.
이 음식이 너무 매워요. (I eumsig-i neomu maewoyo.) — This food is too spicy.
이 음식이 너무 맵어요.
맵다 is ㅂ-irregular: 맵 + 어요 → 매워요.

Common mistakes

Treating ㅂ-irregular verbs as regular
춥어요, 덥어요, 어렵어요, 맵어요
추워요, 더워요, 어려워요, 매워요
These are ㅂ-irregular: ㅂ → 우 before vowel endings, with 우+어 → 워.
Treating ㄷ-irregular verbs as regular
듣어요, 걷어요, 묻어요
들어요, 걸어요, 물어요
ㄷ-irregular: ㄷ → ㄹ before vowel endings.

TOPIK 1 / A1Verb usage

Want to Do (-고 싶다 / -고 싶어하다)

-고 싶다 / -고 싶어하다

To say 'I want to do something' in Korean, attach -고 싶다 to the verb stem. 가다 ('go') → 가고 싶어요 ('I want to go'); 먹다 ('eat') → 먹고 싶어요 ('I want to eat'); 보다 ('see/watch') → 보고 싶어요 ('I want to see / I miss [a person]'). The form -고 싶다 is used for first-person ('I want') and second-person questions ('Do you want?'). For third person, Korean switches to -고 싶어하다 (literally 'shows the wanting'): 동생이 가고 싶어해요 ('My sibling wants to go'). This is because Korean treats inner emotions/desires as not directly observable in others — you can SEE that they want something, but you can't FEEL it for them. Note that the object of a wanted action commonly takes 이/가 (instead of 을/를): 물이 마시고 싶어요 ('I want to drink water'). The negative is straightforward: 가고 싶지 않아요 / 가고 싶어 하지 않아요. -고 싶다 ALSO means 'to miss (a person)' when used with 보다: 어머니가 보고 싶어요 ('I miss my mother') — literally 'I want to see my mother'.

Key rule

Stem + -고 싶어요 (1st person, 2nd-person questions). Stem + -고 싶어해요 (3rd person declarative). Object can take 이/가 instead of 을/를. 보고 싶다 = 'miss (a person)'.

Examples

저는 한국에 가고 싶어요. (Jeoneun hangug-e gago sipeoyo.) — I want to go to Korea.
저는 한국에 가고 싶어해요.
First-person uses -고 싶다, NOT -고 싶어하다. The latter is for third-person declaratives.
뭐 먹고 싶어요? (Mwo meokgo sipeoyo?) — What do you want to eat?
뭐 먹고 싶어해요? (when addressing the listener)
Asking the listener directly = 2nd-person question = -고 싶어요?
동생이 영화를 보고 싶어해요. (Dongsaeng-i yeonghwa-reul bogo sipeohaeyo.) — My younger sibling wants to watch a movie.
동생이 영화를 보고 싶어요.
Third-person declarative requires -고 싶어하다 (the speaker can't directly experience the sibling's desire).

Common mistakes

Using -고 싶어요 for third-person declaratives
동생이 가고 싶어요. (intending 'My sibling wants to go')
동생이 가고 싶어해요.
The 1st/2nd-person vs 3rd-person distinction is grammaticalized in Korean for emotion/desire predicates.
Using -고 싶어하다 for first person
저는 가고 싶어해요.
저는 가고 싶어요.
You can directly experience your own desire, so -고 싶다 (not -싶어하다) for self.

TOPIK 1 / A2Verb usage

Try Doing (-아/어 보다)

-아/어 보다

-아/어 보다 means 'to try doing something' — to give it a go, to taste, to attempt, to test. Attach -아 보다 or -어 보다 to the verb stem following the same vowel-harmony rule as -아/어요. 먹다 ('eat') → 먹어 보다 ('try eating'); 가다 ('go') → 가 보다 ('try going / visit'). Conjugated: 먹어 봐요 ('I'll try it / Try it!'); 가 봤어요 ('I have been there / I tried going'). Two main meanings: (1) ATTEMPT — '한국 음식을 먹어 봐요!' ('Try Korean food!'); 입어 보세요 ('Try it on'). (2) EXPERIENCE — when used in past tense, often means 'have done before': 한국에 가 봤어요 ('I've been to Korea'); 먹어 봤어요 ('I've tried it / eaten it before'). Polite imperative -아/어 보세요 is one of the most common ways to politely suggest something: 한번 먹어 보세요 ('Please try it'); 한국 드라마를 봐 보세요 ('Try watching Korean dramas'). The verb 보다 here loses its literal 'see' meaning and acts as an auxiliary 'try'.

Key rule

Stem + -아 보다 (after ㅏ/ㅗ) / -어 보다 (other) / -해 보다 (하다). Means 'try doing'. Past = 'have done / experienced'. Imperative -아/어 보세요 is the standard polite suggestion.

Examples

한국 음식을 먹어 봤어요? (Hanguk eumsig-eul meogeo bwasseoyo?) — Have you tried Korean food?
한국 음식을 먹어요? (asks present habit, not experience)
Past + -아/어 보다 = 'have you ever' / 'have you tried'. Plain past 먹었어요? would just ask 'did you eat (a specific time)'.
한국에 가 봤어요. (Hangug-e ga bwasseoyo.) — I've been to Korea.
한국에 가아 봤어요.
가 + -아 보다 contracts: 가아 → 가. So 가 봤어요.
이 옷을 한번 입어 보세요. (I os-eul hanbeon ibeo boseyo.) — Try this clothing on once.
이 옷을 한번 입세요.
Polite suggestion uses -아/어 보세요. Plain 입세요 is just an order without the 'try' nuance.

Common mistakes

Forgetting vowel harmony for the connective
먹아 봐요, 가어 봤어요
먹어 봐요, 가 봤어요
Same vowel harmony as -아/어요: ㅏ/ㅗ stems take -아 보다; others take -어 보다. 가- (ㅏ) → 가 봐요; 먹- (ㅓ) → 먹어 봐요.
Failing to contract vowel-ending stems
가아 봐요, 사아 봤어요
가 봐요, 사 봤어요
Vowel-stem contractions apply: 가 + 아 → 가; 사 + 아 → 사.

TOPIK 1 / A2Verb usage

Present Progressive (-고 있다)

-고 있다

-고 있다 means 'is/am/are doing' — the equivalent of English present progressive ('I am eating'). Attach -고 있다 to the verb stem and conjugate 있다: 먹다 → 먹고 있어요 ('I'm eating'); 자다 → 자고 있어요 ('I'm sleeping'); 공부하다 → 공부하고 있어요 ('I'm studying'). It works for any tense/register: 먹고 있었어요 ('I was eating'); 먹고 있을 거예요 ('I'll be eating'); 먹고 있습니다 ('I am eating', formal). It emphasizes that an action is IN PROGRESS at the moment in question. Korean often uses the simple present (먹어요) where English would use progressive (am eating), so -고 있어요 is reserved for when you specifically want to highlight 'right now / currently'. The honorific version uses 계시다: 어머니가 책을 읽고 계세요 ('My mother is reading a book'). NOTE: -고 있다 is for ACTION verbs only. For STATES (already in a position/condition), use -아/어 있다 (next tag): 앉아 있어요 ('is sitting / is in the seated state').

Key rule

Stem + 고 있다 = action in progress (am/is/are doing). Conjugate 있다 for tense/register. Honorific: -고 계시다. Action verbs only — for states, use -아/어 있다.

Examples

지금 한국어를 공부하고 있어요. (Jigeum hangugeo-reul gongbuhago isseoyo.) — Right now I'm studying Korean.
지금 한국어를 공부해요. (less specific — could be habit)
When emphasizing 'right now / in progress', use -고 있다. Plain present 공부해요 could mean 'I study (in general)'.
친구가 책을 읽고 있어요. (Chingu-ga chaeg-eul ilgo isseoyo.) — My friend is reading a book.
친구가 책을 읽 있어요.
The connective -고 is required: 읽 + 고 + 있어요.
어제 그 시간에 저는 자고 있었어요. (Eoje geu sigan-e jeoneun jago isseosseoyo.) — Yesterday at that time I was sleeping.
어제 그 시간에 저는 잤어요. (= 'I slept', not 'was sleeping')
Past progressive: -고 있었어요. Plain past 잤어요 = 'slept (a completed event)'.

Common mistakes

Using -고 있다 for habits or general truths
매일 운동하고 있어요. (intending 'I exercise every day')
매일 운동해요.
Habits are expressed in plain present. -고 있다 is reserved for momentary/in-progress action. 매일 운동하고 있어요 sounds like 'I'm exercising every day right now', which is odd.
Confusing -고 있다 (action in progress) with -아/어 있다 (resulting state)
의자에 앉고 있어요. (intending 'I am sitting in the chair')
의자에 앉아 있어요.
앉고 있다 = 'in the process of sitting down'; 앉아 있다 = 'in the sitting state'. For static positions, use -아/어 있다.

TOPIK 1 / B1Verb usage

Resultative State (-아/어 있다)

-아/어 있다

-아/어 있다 means 'is in the state that resulted from the verb's action'. It's used with a small set of intransitive verbs that describe a position or state change: 앉다 ('sit down') → 앉아 있어요 ('is sitting / is in the seated state'); 서다 ('stand up') → 서 있어요 ('is standing'); 눕다 ('lie down') → 누워 있어요 ('is lying down'); 가다 ('go') → 가 있어요 ('has gone (and is there)'); 살다 ('live') → 살아 있어요 ('is alive'); 죽다 ('die') → 죽어 있어요 ('is dead'). The action already happened; -아/어 있다 describes the ongoing RESULT. Compare with -고 있다 (action in progress): 앉고 있어요 = 'in the process of sitting down' (action); 앉아 있어요 = 'currently seated' (state). Important constraint: -아/어 있다 only attaches to INTRANSITIVE verbs (verbs without a direct object). For transitive verbs, you cannot use -아/어 있다 in the resultative sense — use the passive form first or use a different construction. Common confusion: clothing verbs (입다, 쓰다, 신다) don't take -아/어 있다 in the standard pattern; they use -고 있다 instead, which oddly conveys a state in that case (입고 있어요 = 'is wearing').

Key rule

Stem + 아/어 있다 = state resulting from completed action. Only with INTRANSITIVE verbs (or passive of transitive). Distinct from -고 있다 (action in progress). Honorific: -아/어 계세요.

Examples

할아버지께서 의자에 앉아 계세요. (Harabeoji-kkeseo uija-e anja gyeseyo.) — Grandfather is seated in the chair.
할아버지께서 의자에 앉고 계세요.
앉아 있다 (sitting state) is what's meant. 앉고 있다 would mean 'in the process of sitting down', which is very rare and odd here.
친구가 문 앞에 서 있어요. (Chingu-ga mun ap-e seo isseoyo.) — My friend is standing in front of the door.
친구가 문 앞에 서고 있어요.
서 있다 = standing state. 서고 있다 = in process of standing up (rare).
어머니는 벌써 한국에 가 있어요. (Eomeoni-neun beolsseo hangug-e ga isseoyo.) — Mom has already gone to Korea (and is there now).
어머니는 벌써 한국에 가요.
-아 있다 expresses 'has gone and is now there' — the resulting state of having traveled. Plain 가요 doesn't capture this.

Common mistakes

Using -고 있다 for static states (and vice versa)
의자에 앉고 있어요 (intending 'is sitting')
의자에 앉아 있어요
Static state = -아/어 있다. Action in progress = -고 있다.
Applying -아/어 있다 to transitive verbs
책을 놓아 있어요, 문을 닫아 있어요
책이 놓여 있어요, 문이 닫혀 있어요
Transitive verbs need a passive form first (놓이다, 닫히다) before they can take resultative -아/어 있다.

TOPIK 1 / A1Verb usage

Polite Request: -아/어 주세요

-아/어 주세요

-아/어 주세요 means 'please do X (for me)' — the most common way to make a polite request in Korean. Attach -아 주세요 (after ㅏ/ㅗ stems) or -어 주세요 (other stems) to the verb stem; -해 주세요 with 하다 verbs. 가다 → 가 주세요 ('Please go'); 먹다 → 먹어 주세요 ('Please eat'); 도와주다 → 도와주세요 ('Please help'); 말하다 → 말해 주세요 ('Please tell me'). The auxiliary 주다 ('to give') has lost its literal meaning and now conveys 'do (this) for me / for someone'. Variants: 해 줘요 (less polite), 해 줄래요? ('would you mind doing it?'), 해 주실래요? (formal request, with honorific 시), 해 주십시오 (very formal), 해 주세요 (standard polite — most common). For things you give to someone respected, use 드리다 instead of 주다: 보여 드릴게요 ('I'll show it to you', humble). NOTE: -아/어 주세요 is for asking the listener to do something. Compare with -아/어 보세요 ('try doing'), which is a softer suggestion.

Key rule

Stem + 아/어/해 주세요 = polite request. 주다 = 'do for me/someone'. Levels: 줘 (casual) / 줘요 / 주세요 / 주십시오 / 주실래요? Use 드리다 for honorific recipients. Insert 좀 to soften.

Examples

사진 좀 찍어 주세요. (Sajin jom jjigeo juseyo.) — Please take a photo (for me).
사진을 찍으세요. (= a direct command, not a request)
-아/어 주세요 conveys the for-me / for-someone benefit. Plain -(으)세요 is just a direct command without that nuance.
천천히 말해 주세요. (Cheoncheoni malhae juseyo.) — Please speak slowly.
천천히 말씀해 주십시오. (= overly formal in casual contexts) / 천천히 말 주세요.
Standard polite. Don't omit -해 from 말하다 — full form is 말해 주세요. (말씀해 주십시오 is a formal honorific variant for highly polite contexts.)
잠시만 기다려 주세요. (Jamsiman gidaryeo juseyo.) — Please wait a moment.
잠시만 기다리세요. (= less warm, more direct)
기다려 주세요 conveys 'please wait for me / for our benefit'. 기다리세요 is just a direct command.

Common mistakes

Forgetting the connective -아/어
가 주세요 (correct due to contraction) vs 먹 주세요 (wrong, missing -어)
먹어 주세요
The connective -아/어 is required between the verb stem and 주다. Vowel-ending stems may seem to 'skip' it due to contraction (가 + 아 → 가), but it's there.
Using 주세요 with honorific recipients instead of 드리다
어머니께 책을 보여 주세요. (when asking grandmother to show a book to mother)
어머니께 책을 보여 드리세요. (or appropriate honorific)
When the beneficiary is honorific, the auxiliary should be 드리다 (humble equivalent of 주다).

TOPIK 1 / A2Verb usage

잘하다 / 못하다 — Be Good / Bad At

잘하다 / 못하다

잘하다 means 'to be good at / do well', and 못하다 means 'to be bad at / cannot do well'. They function as ordinary verbs and conjugate normally: 잘해요 / 못해요 / 잘했어요 / 못했어요. The thing you're good or bad at takes the object marker 을/를: 한국어를 잘해요 ('I'm good at Korean'); 노래를 못해요 ('I'm bad at singing'). Adverb 잘 ('well') can also stand alone with any verb to say someone does it well: 잘 먹어요 ('I eat well / have a good appetite'); 잘 자요 ('Sleep well'). Don't confuse 못하다 (the lexical verb 'to be bad at / unable to do well') with 못 + verb (general inability negation): 한국어를 못해요 = 'I'm bad at Korean (skill)'; 한국에 못 가요 = 'I can't go to Korea (circumstance)'. Both use 못, but the first is the verb 못하다 about skill; the second is the adverb 못 + a different verb. Common collocations: 잘 먹어요, 잘 자요, 잘 모르겠어요, 잘 못해요 ('not very good at it').

Key rule

잘하다/못하다 = lexical 'be good/bad at'. Skill object takes 을/를. 잘 + verb = adverb 'well'. 잘 못하다 (humble) = 'not very good at'. Don't confuse with 못 + verb (general inability).

Examples

저는 한국어를 잘해요. (Jeoneun hangugeo-reul jalhaeyo.) — I'm good at Korean.
저는 한국어가 잘해요.
Skill object takes 을/를 (object case), not 이/가.
동생은 노래를 잘해요. (Dongsaeng-eun norae-reul jalhaeyo.) — My sibling sings well.
동생은 노래가 잘해요.
Same — skill takes 을/를.
저는 한국어를 잘 못해요. (Jeoneun hangugeo-reul jal motaeyo.) — My Korean isn't very good. (humble)
저는 한국어를 안 잘해요.
Standard humble 'not very good' is 잘 못하다. 안 잘하다 is non-standard.

Common mistakes

Marking the skill with 이/가 instead of 을/를
한국어가 잘해요.
한국어를 잘해요.
잘하다/못하다 take a direct object — the skill or activity — marked with 을/를.
Confusing 못하다 (lexical, skill) with 못 + verb (adverb, circumstance)
Saying 한국에 못해요 to mean 'I can't go to Korea'
한국에 못 가요. (or 한국에 가지 못해요.)
못하다 alone is about doing-something-not-well. For inability to do an action (going, eating), use 못 + verb.

TOPIK 1 / A1Adjectives

Descriptive Verbs as Sentence Endings

형용사 서술형

In Korean, what English calls 'adjectives' are actually a kind of verb — 'descriptive verbs' (형용사). Instead of needing 'is/am/are' the way English does, you simply conjugate them. 좋다 ('be good') → 좋아요 ('It's good'); 예쁘다 ('be pretty') → 예뻐요 ('It's pretty'); 비싸다 ('be expensive') → 비싸요 ('It's expensive'). Conjugation follows the same vowel-harmony rule as action verbs (-아요 with ㅏ/ㅗ, -어요 with others, 하다 → 해요). They sit at the end of the sentence as the predicate, like any verb. Past tense: -았/었어요. Future/probability: -(으)ㄹ 거예요. Critical: descriptive verbs do NOT take action-style endings like -고 있다 (progressive), -(으)세요 (imperative), or -아/어 주세요 (request) — you can't 'be pretty politely on demand'. So 예쁘세요 / 예쁘고 있어요 are wrong. They DO modify nouns differently from action verbs (covered in the next tag). Common descriptive verbs: 좋다 (good), 나쁘다 (bad), 비싸다 (expensive), 싸다 (cheap), 크다 (big), 작다 (small), 많다 (many), 적다 (few), 예쁘다 (pretty), 멋있다 (cool), 재미있다 (fun), 맛있다 (delicious).

Key rule

Descriptive verbs (형용사) conjugate like verbs but cannot take action endings (-(으)세요, -고 있다, -아/어 주세요). Use -아/어요 / -았/었어요 / -(으)ㄹ 거예요. To say 'become X', use -아/어지다.

Examples

이 가방이 비싸요. (I gabang-i bissayo.) — This bag is expensive.
이 가방이 비싸 있어요. / 이 가방이 비싸이에요.
Descriptive verbs conjugate directly without 있다 or copula 이다. 비싸 + 아요 contracts to 비싸요.
한국 음식이 정말 맛있어요. (Hanguk eumsig-i jeongmal masisseoyo.) — Korean food is really delicious.
한국 음식이 정말 맛있다.
Dictionary form 맛있다 cannot end a sentence in conversational Korean. Conjugate to 맛있어요.
어제 날씨가 너무 추웠어요. (Eoje nalssi-ga neomu chuwosseoyo.) — Yesterday the weather was too cold.
어제 날씨가 너무 추워 있었어요.
Descriptive verb past: just -았/었어요 directly. Don't add 있다.

Common mistakes

Adding 있다 or copula 이다 to a descriptive verb
비싸 있어요, 좋아 이에요
비싸요, 좋아요
Descriptive verbs conjugate themselves. They don't need 있다 (existence) or 이다 (copula). The conjugated form alone IS the predicate.
Trying imperative -(으)세요 with descriptive verbs
예쁘세요! / 비싸세요!
Reformulate: 예뻐지세요 ('become pretty') / not commandable for prices
States can't be commanded into existence. Use -아/어지다 (become) for change-of-state if you really need a command.

TOPIK 1 / A2Adjectives

Modifying a Noun: -(으)ㄴ for adj, -는 for action verbs (present)

관형사형 어미 (현재): -(으)ㄴ / -는

When you want to put a verb or adjective BEFORE a noun to describe it (like English 'good food', 'a person who eats'), Korean uses special modifier endings. The ending depends on whether the verb is descriptive (adjective) or action (verb), and on the tense. For PRESENT tense, the rule is: descriptive verbs use -(으)ㄴ; action verbs use -는. Examples: 좋다 → 좋은 음식 ('good food'); 예쁘다 → 예쁜 옷 ('pretty clothes'); 비싸다 → 비싼 가방 ('expensive bag'). Action verbs: 먹다 → 먹는 사람 ('person who eats'); 가다 → 가는 곳 ('place where (someone) goes'); 공부하다 → 공부하는 학생 ('student who studies'). Connecting rule: for descriptive verbs ending in a CONSONANT, add -은: 좋 + 은 → 좋은. For descriptive verbs ending in a VOWEL, add -ㄴ: 비싸 + ㄴ → 비싼. ㄹ-final descriptive verbs drop ㄹ + add -ㄴ: 길다 → 긴 머리 ('long hair'). The modified noun comes immediately AFTER. The modifier always comes BEFORE the noun (Korean is head-final).

Key rule

Descriptive verb + -(으)ㄴ + noun (좋은 책). Action verb + -는 + noun (먹는 사람). 있다/없다 take -는. Vowel-ending stem → -ㄴ; consonant-ending → -은; ㄹ-final → drop ㄹ + ㄴ.

Examples

좋은 책을 읽고 있어요. (Joeun chaeg-eul ilgo isseoyo.) — I'm reading a good book.
좋는 책을 읽고 있어요. / 좋아요 책.
Descriptive verb 좋다 takes -(으)ㄴ → 좋은. Don't use -는 with descriptive verbs.
한국어를 공부하는 학생이에요. (Hangugeo-reul gongbuhaneun haksaeng-ieyo.) — I'm a student who studies Korean.
한국어를 공부한 학생이에요. (= a student who studied — past tense modifier)
Action verb present modifier = -는. Don't use -ㄴ for present action.
한국에서 만든 옷이에요. (Hanguk-eseo mandeun os-ieyo.) — These are clothes made in Korea.
한국에서 만드는 옷이에요. (= 'clothes (someone) is making', present-progressive modifier)
(For TOPIK 1: this example demonstrates that 만들다 → 만드는 (present, ㄹ-drop) vs 만든 (past — covered in T2). For now: present 만드는 = action in progress.)

Common mistakes

Using -는 with descriptive verbs
좋는 책, 예쁘는 꽃
좋은 책, 예쁜 꽃
-는 is exclusively for action verbs in present-modifier position. Descriptive verbs take -(으)ㄴ.
Using -(으)ㄴ with action verbs (which would be past tense)
먹은 사람 (= past, 'person who ate') vs intended 'person who eats'
먹는 사람 (present action)
-(으)ㄴ on action verbs marks past tense modifier. For present, use -는.

TOPIK 1 / A1Adjectives

Intensifiers (너무, 아주, 잘, 많이, 조금, 별로)

강도 부사

Korean uses adverbs to intensify or weaken verbs and descriptive verbs. The most common are: 아주 ('very, extremely'), 너무 ('too / very'), 정말 ('really'), 진짜 ('really, truly'), 잘 ('well'), 많이 ('a lot'), 조금 / 좀 ('a little'), 별로 ('not really'), 전혀 ('not at all'). They go BEFORE the verb/adjective they modify: 아주 비싸요 ('very expensive'), 너무 추워요 ('too cold'), 잘 먹어요 ('I eat well'), 많이 먹어요 ('I eat a lot'). Some are positive-only (아주, 정말, 진짜), some negative-only (별로, 전혀), and 너무 has shifted from 'too much (negative)' to 'very (often positive)' in modern usage. 별로 and 전혀 require a negative verb: 별로 안 좋아요 ('not really good'), 전혀 못해요 ('can't (do it) at all'). Word order rule: intensifier comes immediately before the predicate. 좀 is the casual contraction of 조금 and is also used as a softener in requests (covered separately).

Key rule

Intensifier goes BEFORE the verb/descriptive verb. Positive: 아주, 정말, 진짜, 너무 (modern). Negative-only: 별로, 전혀 + negation. Manner: 잘, 빨리, 천천히. Amount: 많이, 조금/좀, 더, 덜.

Examples

이 가방이 아주 비싸요. (I gabang-i aju bissayo.) — This bag is very expensive.
이 가방이 비싸요 아주.
Intensifier 아주 goes BEFORE the predicate 비싸요.
한국 음식이 정말 맛있어요. (Hanguk eumsig-i jeongmal masisseoyo.) — Korean food is really delicious.
한국 음식이 맛있어요 정말.
Same — intensifier before predicate.
오늘 너무 추워요. (Oneul neomu chuwoyo.) — It's really cold today. (or 'too cold')
오늘 추워요 너무.
너무 in modern usage = 'very/really' (in older usage 'too'). Either way, it precedes the predicate.

Common mistakes

Placing intensifier AFTER the verb (English-style)
비싸요 아주, 좋아요 너무
아주 비싸요, 너무 좋아요
Korean intensifiers obligatorily precede the predicate. Postposing them sounds unnatural or breaks the sentence.
Using 별로 with a positive verb
별로 좋아요. (intending 'not really good')
별로 안 좋아요. / 별로 좋지 않아요.
별로 requires negation. Without it, the sentence is ungrammatical or contradictory.

TOPIK 1 / A2Adjectives

Color Descriptive Verbs (빨갛다, 노랗다, 파랗다, 까맣다, 하얗다)

색깔 형용사

Korean colors come in two flavors: COLOR DESCRIPTIVE VERBS (which conjugate like other adjectives) and NOUNS (which use 이다 'be' or attach to nouns directly). The 'true' color descriptive verbs are: 빨갛다 ('be red'), 노랗다 ('be yellow'), 파랗다 ('be blue'), 까맣다 ('be black'), 하얗다 ('be white'). They're all ㅎ-IRREGULAR — when a vowel ending follows, the ㅎ drops AND the stem vowel changes. So 빨갛 + 아요 → 빨개요 ('It's red'). Same pattern for the others: 노래요, 파래요, 까매요, 하얘요. As noun-modifiers: 빨간 ('red'), 노란 ('yellow'), 파란 ('blue'), 까만 ('black'), 하얀 ('white'). 빨간 사과 ('red apple'). All other colors are typically NOUNS: 분홍색 (pink), 보라색 (purple), 갈색 (brown), 회색 (gray), 주황색 (orange), 초록색 (green). To use noun-colors, attach to noun-modifying form 색의 / 색 + noun: 분홍색 가방 ('pink bag') or use copula: 가방이 분홍색이에요 ('the bag is pink'). The five core color descriptive verbs are introduced at TOPIK 1; their full ㅎ-irregular conjugation is also a foundation for the broader ㅎ-irregular pattern (next tag).

Key rule

Five core ㅎ-irregular color verbs: 빨갛다/노랗다/파랗다/까맣다/하얗다. Vowel ending: ㅎ drops + stem ㅏ + 아 → ㅐ → 빨개요/노래요/파래요/까매요/하얘요. Modifier: 빨간/노란/파란/까만/하얀. Other colors are nouns: 분홍색, 보라색, etc.

Examples

사과가 빨개요. (Sagwa-ga ppalgaeyo.) — The apple is red.
사과가 빨갛아요.
ㅎ-irregular: 빨갛 + 아요 → 빨개요 (ㅎ drops, ㅏ + ㅏ → ㅐ).
하늘이 정말 파래요. (Haneur-i jeongmal paraeyo.) — The sky is really blue.
하늘이 정말 파랗아요.
파랗 + 아요 → 파래요.
빨간 사과를 먹었어요. (Ppalgan sagwa-reul meogeosseoyo.) — I ate a red apple.
빨갛은 사과를 먹었어요.
Modifier: ㅎ drops + -ㄴ: 빨갛 → 빨가 + ㄴ → 빨간.

Common mistakes

Treating color descriptive verbs as regular
빨갛아요, 노랗아요, 파랗아요
빨개요, 노래요, 파래요
ㅎ-irregular: ㅎ drops AND vowel changes. Don't conjugate as if regular.
Treating noun-colors as descriptive verbs
분홍해요 (intending 'is pink')
분홍색이에요 / 핑크색이에요
Most colors (other than the five core) are nouns. Use copula 이에요/예요 for predicates and -색 + noun for modification.

TOPIK 1 / B1Adjectives

ㅎ-Irregular Descriptive Verbs (이렇다, 그렇다, 빨갛다 → 빨개요) — Basic

ㅎ 불규칙 (기본)

ㅎ-irregular is a conjugation pattern where descriptive verbs whose stem ends in ㅎ undergo TWO changes when a vowel ending follows: (1) the ㅎ DROPS, and (2) the stem vowel COMBINES with the connective vowel to form ㅐ (or ㅒ in special cases). The verbs that follow this pattern are mostly the demonstrative-state verbs and color verbs: 이렇다 ('be like this'), 그렇다 ('be like that'), 저렇다 ('be like that-over-there'), 어떻다 ('be how'), and the colors 빨갛다, 노랗다, 파랗다, 까맣다, 하얗다. Sample conjugations: 이렇다 → 이래요 (NOT 이렇아요); 그렇다 → 그래요; 어떻다 → 어때요; 빨갛다 → 빨개요; 하얗다 → 하얘요. Modifier form (before a noun) drops ㅎ and adds -ㄴ: 이런 ('like this'), 그런 ('like that'), 빨간 ('red'). Importantly, NOT all verbs ending in ㅎ are irregular: 좋다 ('be good') is REGULAR (좋아요, NOT 좌요). The most common confusion: students try to apply the ㅎ-irregular pattern to 좋다, producing wrong forms. Memorize which verbs are irregular: the 'this/that/how' set + the five core colors.

Key rule

ㅎ-irregular descriptive verbs: ㅎ DROPS + stem vowel + ㅏ → ㅐ (or ㅑ → ㅒ). Examples: 이렇 → 이래요; 빨갛 → 빨개요; 하얗 → 하얘요. Modifier: drop ㅎ + -ㄴ → 이런/빨간/하얀. NOT all ㅎ-final verbs are irregular: 좋다 is REGULAR (좋아요).

Examples

한국 사람들은 이래요. (Hanguk saramdeur-eun iraeyo.) — Korean people are like this.
한국 사람들은 이렇아요.
ㅎ-irregular: 이렇 + 아요 → 이래요.
오늘 날씨가 어때요? (Oneul nalssi-ga eottaeyo?) — How's the weather today?
오늘 날씨가 어떻아요?
어떻 + 아요 → 어때요.
그래요? (Geuraeyo?) — Is that so? / Really?
그렇아요?
그렇 + 아요 → 그래요. Set conversational filler/response.

Common mistakes

Treating 좋다 as ㅎ-irregular
좌요, 좌은 책
좋아요, 좋은 책
좋다 is REGULAR. The ㅎ stays. 좋 + 아요 → 좋아요. Memorize: 좋다, 놓다, 넣다, 낳다 are regular ㅎ-final.
Treating ㅎ-irregular verbs as regular
이렇아요, 빨갛아요, 어떻아요
이래요, 빨개요, 어때요
These are ㅎ-irregular: ㅎ drops + vowel combines.

TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

Topic Particle 은/는

주제 조사 은/는

은/는 marks the TOPIC of a sentence — what the sentence is ABOUT. It attaches directly to a noun: 은 after consonant-ending nouns (학생 + 은 → 학생은), 는 after vowel-ending nouns (저 + 는 → 저는). Translation: '(speaking) of X / as for X / X (in particular)'. Most often it marks the SUBJECT, but topic and subject are different functions and don't always coincide. Common patterns: 저는 학생이에요 ('As for me, I'm a student'); 한국 음식은 맛있어요 ('Korean food is delicious'). Topics are typically things known to both speaker and listener, and they often start the sentence. Korean sentences frequently begin with 은/는, but if the topic is clear from context, you can drop both the topic and the particle entirely. Topics also create CONTRAST: 저는 한국어를 좋아하는데, 동생은 안 좋아해요 ('I like Korean, but my younger sibling doesn't'). The 은/는 vs 이/가 distinction is one of the trickiest things in Korean grammar — covered in detail in a separate tag.

Key rule

은 after consonant-ending nouns; 는 after vowel-ending nouns. Marks the TOPIC ('as for X') — typically the subject in basic sentences, but can mark contrast on any element. Drop the topic when context allows.

Examples

저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-ieyo.) — As for me, I'm a student.
저은 학생이에요. (Jeoeun haksaeng-ieyo.)
저 ends in vowel → 는, not 은. 저는 (NOT 저은).
학생은 도서관에 가요. (Haksaeng-eun doseogwan-e gayo.) — As for the student, (he/she) goes to the library.
학생는 도서관에 가요. (Haksaengneun doseogwan-e gayo.)
학생 ends in consonant ㅇ → 은, not 는.
한국 음식은 맛있어요. (Hanguk eumsig-eun masisseoyo.) — (As a category,) Korean food is delicious.
한국 음식이 맛있어요. (different nuance — 'It's the Korean food that is delicious / Korean food (specifically) is delicious')
Topic 은 = generic statement about a category. Subject 이 = identifying or new information.

Common mistakes

Choosing 은/는 by guess instead of by stem-ending consonant/vowel
저은, 학생는, 의자은
저는, 학생은, 의자는
Strict rule: consonant-ending → 은; vowel-ending → 는. No exceptions.
Using 은/는 where 이/가 is needed
비가 와요? — 네, 비는 와요. (intending 'Yes, it's raining')
네, 비가 와요.
When ANSWERING a question about an existence/event, the answer typically uses 이/가 (the same particle as the question). 은/는 in the answer would imply 'as for the rain (specifically)'.

TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

Subject Particle 이/가

주격 조사 이/가

이/가 marks the SUBJECT of a sentence — the doer of an action or the entity that is/has something. Attach 이 after consonant-ending nouns (학생 + 이 → 학생이) and 가 after vowel-ending nouns (친구 + 가 → 친구가). Translation: usually no English equivalent; sometimes 'X (specifically)' or 'It is X that...'. Common patterns: 친구가 와요 ('A friend is coming'); 학생이 공부해요 ('A/the student is studying'); 시간이 없어요 ('I have no time' — possessor 저는, possessed 시간이). 이/가 differs from 은/는 (topic) in that it presents NEW information, identifies a specific subject, or appears in answers to subject questions. With existence/possession verbs (있다/없다), the existing/possessed thing always takes 이/가. With 좋다 / 싫다 / 좋아하다 / 무섭다 / 어렵다 / 쉽다, the experiencer takes 은/는 and the cause/object takes 이/가: 한국어가 어려워요 ('Korean is difficult'); 김치가 맛있어요 ('Kimchi is delicious'). With wh-questions (누가, 뭐가, 언제가, 어디가), the question word and answer subject usually take 이/가.

Key rule

이 after consonant-ending nouns; 가 after vowel-ending nouns. Marks SUBJECT (doer/experienced thing). Special pronouns: 저→제가, 누구→누가, 너→네가. With 있다/없다 and feeling verbs, the possessed/stimulus takes 이/가.

Examples

친구가 왔어요. (Chingu-ga wasseoyo.) — A friend came.
친구이 왔어요.
친구 ends in vowel → 가, not 이.
학생이 공부해요. (Haksaeng-i gongbuhaeyo.) — A student is studying.
학생가 공부해요.
학생 ends in consonant → 이.
시간이 없어요. (Sigan-i eopseoyo.) — I have no time / There's no time.
시간을 없어요.
있다/없다 take 이/가 on the existing/possessed thing, never 을/를.

Common mistakes

Using 저가 / 너가 / 누구가
저가 갈게요. 너가 해요. 누구가 와요?
제가 갈게요. 네가 해요. 누가 와요?
Suppletive forms: 저+가→제가, 너+가→네가, 누구+가→누가. NEVER 저가/너가/누구가.
Marking the existing/possessed thing with 을/를 instead of 이/가
시간을 없어요, 친구를 있어요.
시간이 없어요, 친구가 있어요.
있다/없다 take subject 이/가, not object 을/를.

TOPIK 1 / B1Particles

은/는 vs 이/가 — Basic Contrast

은/는과 이/가의 차이 (기본)

은/는 (topic) and 이/가 (subject) often both attach to what English would call the subject — but they're not interchangeable. Five basic rules to memorize at TOPIK 1: (1) NEW INFORMATION → 이/가. When introducing something for the first time. 어제 친구가 왔어요. (2) OLD/SHARED INFORMATION → 은/는. When the listener already knows what you're talking about. 그 친구는 한국 사람이에요. (3) ANSWERS TO WH-QUESTIONS → match the question's particle. 누가 왔어요? — 동생이 왔어요. (Q and A both use 이/가.) But 동생은 어디 갔어요? — 동생은 학교에 갔어요. (Q and A both use 은/는.) (4) GENERIC STATEMENTS → 은/는. 한국 음식은 맛있어요 ('Korean food (in general) is delicious'). (5) CONTRAST → 은/는. 저는 가지만, 친구는 안 가요 ('I'm going, but my friend isn't'). With 있다/없다 and feeling verbs (어렵다, 좋다, 맛있다), the existing/possessed/stimulus thing takes 이/가, even though there might also be a topic with 은/는: 저는 시간이 없어요 ('As for me, I have no time'). The Q-and-A pattern is the simplest test for beginners.

Key rule

은/는 = topic (old, generic, contrast). 이/가 = subject (new, specific, in-answer-to-wh, in subordinate clauses). With 있다/없다 and feeling verbs, possessor 은/는 + possessed 이/가 + verb. Match the Q's particle in the A.

Examples

옛날에 한 왕이 살았어요. 그 왕은 아주 친절했어요. (Yetnar-e han wang-i sarasseoyo. Geu wang-eun aju chinjeolhaesseoyo.) — Once upon a time, there lived a king. The king was very kind.
옛날에 한 왕은 살았어요. 그 왕이 아주 친절했어요.
First mention (new info) → 이/가. Second mention (old info) → 은/는.
누가 왔어요? — 친구가 왔어요. (Nuga wasseoyo? — Chingu-ga wasseoyo.)
누가 왔어요? — 친구는 왔어요.
Wh-question with 이/가 (in 누가 = 누구+가) → answer with 이/가.
동생은 어디 갔어요? — 동생은 학교에 갔어요. (Dongsaeng-eun eodi gasseoyo? — Dongsaeng-eun hakgyo-e gasseoyo.)
동생은 어디 갔어요? — 동생이 학교에 갔어요.
Question with 은 (referring to a known sibling) → answer with 은.

Common mistakes

Treating 은/는 and 이/가 as interchangeable
Random alternation between 학생은 and 학생이 in similar contexts
Apply the heuristics: new/specific = 이/가; old/generic/contrast = 은/는
The choice carries meaning. Wrong choice can change the sentence's nuance significantly.
Using 은/는 in answers to wh-questions with 이/가
누가 왔어요? — 친구는 왔어요.
친구가 왔어요.
Match the question's particle. Wh-question → identifying answer → 이/가.

TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

Object Particle 을/를

목적격 조사 을/를

을/를 marks the DIRECT OBJECT of a transitive verb — the thing being acted upon. 을 attaches after consonant-ending nouns (밥 + 을 → 밥을), 를 after vowel-ending nouns (커피 + 를 → 커피를). Examples: 밥을 먹어요 ('I eat rice'); 책을 읽어요 ('I read a book'); 한국어를 공부해요 ('I study Korean'); 친구를 만나요 ('I meet a friend'). The object usually comes between the subject and the verb (Korean is SOV). In casual speech, 을/를 is often DROPPED when the object is clear from context: 밥 먹어요, 한국어 공부해요. Particles like 도 (also), 만 (only), and 까지 (even) can replace 을/를 when adding their meaning: 밥도 먹어요 ('I also eat rice' — NOT 밥을도). Some verbs that look transitive in English aren't in Korean — they take 이/가 or 에/에게 instead. Examples: 좋다 takes 이/가 ('한국어가 좋아요'); 만나다 actually IS transitive in Korean (만나 + 을/를).

Key rule

을 after consonant-ending nouns; 를 after vowel-ending nouns. Marks the direct object of transitive verbs. Often dropped in casual speech. Replaced (not added) by 도, 만, 까지, 은/는.

Examples

저는 밥을 먹어요. (Jeoneun bab-eul meogeoyo.) — I eat rice.
저는 밥를 먹어요.
밥 ends in consonant ㅂ → 을, not 를.
친구를 만나요. (Chingu-reul mannayo.) — I meet a friend.
친구을 만나요.
친구 ends in vowel ㅜ → 를.
한국어를 공부해요. (Hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeyo.) — I study Korean.
한국어가 공부해요.
공부하다 (action verb) takes 을/를. Don't confuse with 어렵다 (descriptive) which takes 이/가.

Common mistakes

Choosing 을/를 by guess instead of by stem-ending consonant/vowel
밥를, 친구을
밥을, 친구를
Strict rule: consonant → 을; vowel → 를.
Marking the object of feeling/state verbs with 을/를
한국어를 좋아요, 시간을 없어요, 한국어를 어려워요
한국어가 좋아요, 시간이 없어요, 한국어가 어려워요
Descriptive verbs (좋다, 어렵다, 맛있다) and existence (있다/없다) take 이/가, not 을/를. Only ACTION verbs (좋아하다, 공부하다) take 을/를.

TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

Genitive 의 — Possessive Marker

관형격 조사 의

의 marks possession or association — like English 's or 'of'. It attaches to a noun and connects it to the next noun: 친구의 책 ('the friend's book'); 한국의 문화 ('Korea's culture / the culture of Korea'); 어머니의 사랑 ('mother's love'). Pronunciation: when used as the genitive particle, 의 is most often pronounced [에] rather than [의] — so 친구의 책 sounds like [친구에 책]. (When 의 is the noun itself meaning 'meaning' or 'righteousness', it's pronounced [의].) DROPPING 의: in everyday Korean, especially in spoken language, 의 is FREQUENTLY DROPPED — particularly when possession is obvious or when forming compound nouns. 한국 문화 (= 한국의 문화); 친구 책 (= 친구의 책 in casual speech). The dropped form often becomes an established compound. SPECIAL FORMS: with the pronouns 저, 나, 너, the genitive contracts: 저 + 의 → 제 ('my, humble'); 나 + 의 → 내 ('my, casual'); 너 + 의 → 네 ('your'). So 'my book' = 제 책 (humble) or 내 책 (casual), almost never 저의 책 / 나의 책 in everyday speech. WHEN TO KEEP 의: in poetry, formal writing, and to avoid ambiguity, 의 is retained. 사랑의 노래 ('a song of love'); 평화의 상징 ('a symbol of peace').

Key rule

의 attaches to a noun to mark possession/association. Pronounced [에]. Pronoun contractions: 저+의→제, 나+의→내, 너+의→네. Frequently DROPPED in casual speech (한국 문화 = 한국의 문화).

Examples

친구의 책이에요. (Chingu-ui chaeg-ieyo.) — It's my friend's book.
친구이 책이에요. / 친구를 책이에요.
Possession uses 의, not other particles. Pronounced [친구에 책].
이건 제 책이에요. (Igeon je chaeg-ieyo.) — This is my book. (humble)
이건 저의 책이에요. (grammatical but stilted)
저 + 의 → 제 is the standard form. 저의 sounds bookish/literary.
이건 내 책이야. (Igeon nae chaeg-iya.) — This is my book. (casual)
이건 나의 책이야.
나 + 의 → 내 (casual contracted).

Common mistakes

Using non-contracted forms 저의, 나의, 너의 in casual speech
저의 친구, 나의 가방, 너의 책
제 친구, 내 가방, 네 책
The contracted forms (제, 내, 네) are standard in everyday Korean. Non-contracted forms feel literary/poetic and are unusual in conversation.
Mistaking 의 for the subject particle 가
친구가 책 (intending 'friend's book')
친구의 책 / 친구 책
의 = possession, not subject. Don't confuse with 가.

TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

에 — Static Location, Destination (with motion verbs), and Time Point

조사 에 (장소·이동·시간)

에 is one of Korean's most versatile particles. It marks THREE related concepts: (1) STATIC LOCATION (with 있다/없다 and other state verbs) — 학교에 있어요 ('I'm at school'); 책상 위에 책이 있어요 ('There's a book on the desk'). (2) DESTINATION (with motion verbs like 가다/오다/도착하다) — 학교에 가요 ('I'm going to school'); 한국에 와요 ('Coming to Korea'). (3) POINT IN TIME — 두 시에 만나요 ('Let's meet at 2 o'clock'); 토요일에 가요 ('I go on Saturday'); 12월에 한국에 가요 ('I'm going to Korea in December'). 에 attaches to nouns regardless of consonant/vowel ending: 학교에, 친구에게, 두 시에, 토요일에. KEY DISTINCTION: 에 (static/destination) vs 에서 (action location). 에 = exists at / goes to. 에서 = does an action at. 학교에 있어요 ('I am at school' — existence). 학교에서 공부해요 ('I study at school' — action). The next tag covers 에서; the one after that contrasts the two. 에 is also used in fixed time expressions (특별한 날에, 오늘날에) and abstract destinations (꿈에, 마음에).

Key rule

에 marks (1) static location with existence/state verbs, (2) destination with motion verbs, (3) point in time. Don't use with 어제/오늘/내일/지금. Contrasts with 에서 (action location).

Examples

학교에 있어요. (Hakgyo-e isseoyo.) — I'm at school.
학교에서 있어요. (intending static location)
Existence (있다) takes 에, not 에서.
내일 학교에 가요. (Naeil hakgyo-e gayo.) — Tomorrow I go to school.
내일 학교에서 가요.
Destination (가다) takes 에, not 에서.
두 시에 만나요. (Du si-e mannayo.) — Let's meet at 2 o'clock.
두 시 만나요. / 두 시에서 만나요.
Clock time takes 에.

Common mistakes

Using 에서 instead of 에 for static location with 있다
학교에서 있어요.
학교에 있어요.
있다 (existence) takes 에. 에서 is for action verbs at a location.
Using 에서 instead of 에 for motion destination
한국에서 가요. (intending 'I go to Korea')
한국에 가요.
Destination of 가다/오다/도착하다 takes 에.

TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

에서 — Location of Action / Origin

조사 에서 (동작의 장소·출발점)

에서 marks two related concepts: (1) THE LOCATION WHERE AN ACTION TAKES PLACE — 학교에서 공부해요 ('I study at school'); 카페에서 커피를 마셔요 ('I drink coffee at the cafe'); 한국에서 친구를 만났어요 ('I met a friend in Korea'). (2) THE STARTING POINT / ORIGIN of motion or distance — 한국에서 왔어요 ('I came from Korea'); 집에서 학교까지 ('from home to school'). Note: 에서 attaches uniformly to all noun endings — no consonant/vowel split. The key distinction is from 에 (static location/destination/time): 에 = exists/goes to a place; 에서 = does an action at a place. So 학교에 있어요 ('I'm at school' — existence) vs 학교에서 공부해요 ('I study at school' — action). Compounds: 어디에서 (where, action) → often shortened to 어디서 in spoken Korean. 에서 + 까지 forms 'from X to Y' for distance/time spans: 서울에서 부산까지 ('from Seoul to Busan'). 에서 is also part of common phrases like 그래서 (so, therefore — etymologically 'from that doing').

Key rule

에서 marks (1) location of an action (학교에서 공부해요), (2) starting point / origin (한국에서 왔어요), and pairs with 까지 for spans (서울에서 부산까지). Contrasts with 에 by verb type.

Examples

도서관에서 책을 읽어요. (Doseogwan-eseo chaeg-eul ilgeoyo.) — I read books at the library.
도서관에 책을 읽어요.
Action (읽다) at a location → 에서, not 에.
한국에서 왔어요. (Hangug-eseo wasseoyo.) — I came from Korea.
한국에 왔어요. (= 'I came TO Korea')
Origin (came from) → 에서. With 오다, 에서 = 'from'; 에 = 'to'.
집에서 학교까지 30분 걸려요. (Jib-eseo hakgyo-kkaji samsipbun geollyeoyo.) — It takes 30 minutes from home to school.
집에 학교까지 30분 걸려요.
Span 'from X to Y': 에서 ~ 까지.

Common mistakes

Using 에 instead of 에서 for action location
학교에 공부해요, 카페에 친구를 만나요
학교에서 공부해요, 카페에서 친구를 만나요
Action verbs at a location require 에서. 에 is for static existence or destination.
Using 에서 for static location with 있다
학교에서 있어요, 한국에서 살아요 (intending 'live in Korea')
학교에 있어요, 한국에 살아요
있다 (existence) takes 에. 살다 typically takes 에 for 'reside in'.

TOPIK 1 / A2Particles

에 vs 에서 — Contrast (existence vs action)

에와 에서의 차이

에 and 에서 both involve location, but they pair with DIFFERENT TYPES OF VERBS. (1) 에 — used with EXISTENCE verbs (있다, 없다), STATE verbs (살다 'live', 다니다 'attend'), and MOTION-DESTINATION verbs (가다, 오다). It also marks TIME points. 학교에 있어요 ('I'm at school'); 학교에 가요 ('I'm going to school'). (2) 에서 — used with ACTION verbs (공부하다, 먹다, 일하다, 만나다) and ORIGIN (오다 'came from'). 학교에서 공부해요 ('I study at school'). The simplest test: ask 'Is the verb describing an active action being done at this place?' If YES → 에서. If 'just exists at / is going to' → 에. The contrast: 도서관에 있어요 (= I'm at the library, existing) vs 도서관에서 공부해요 (= I study at the library, doing). Some verbs (살다, 자다) can take either depending on nuance, but at TOPIK 1, follow the simple rule: existence/destination → 에; action → 에서.

Key rule

에 = existence / destination / time. 에서 = action location / origin. Test: 'Is the verb an action being done AT this place?' Yes → 에서. No (existing, going to, time) → 에.

Examples

학교에 있어요. (Hakgyo-e isseoyo.) — I'm at school.
학교에서 있어요.
있다 = existence → 에.
학교에서 공부해요. (Hakgyo-eseo gongbuhaeyo.) — I study at school.
학교에 공부해요.
공부하다 = action → 에서.
한국에 가요. (Hangug-e gayo.) — I go to Korea.
한국에서 가요.
Destination → 에. (한국에서 가요 = 'I go from Korea', different meaning.)

Common mistakes

Defaulting to 에서 for all locations
학교에서 있어요, 한국에서 가요
학교에 있어요, 한국에 가요
Existence and destination need 에. 에서 is for actions and origins.
Defaulting to 에 for all locations
도서관에 공부해요, 카페에 친구를 만나요
도서관에서 공부해요, 카페에서 친구를 만나요
Active verbs at a location need 에서.

TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

도 — Also / Too

조사 도

도 means 'also', 'too', or 'as well'. It attaches directly to a noun and REPLACES other particles (은/는, 이/가, 을/를). 저도 한국 사람이에요 ('I am also Korean'); 한국어도 공부해요 ('I also study Korean'); 김치도 좋아해요 ('I also like kimchi'). 도 doesn't combine with 은/는/이/가/을/를 — it replaces them. Position: 도 attaches to whatever noun is being added/included. Common patterns: A도 B도 ('both A and B') — 김치도 불고기도 좋아해요 ('I like both kimchi and bulgogi'). With negative verbs, 도 can mean 'either/neither': 저도 안 가요 ('I'm not going either'); 김치도 못 먹어요 ('I can't eat kimchi either'). 도 can also attach to other particles (에도 'also at', 에서도 'also from', 한테도 'to ~ also'): 학교에도 가요 ('I also go to school'), 친구한테도 ('to my friend also'). 도 is a topic-style particle (보조사) that signals INCLUSION.

Key rule

도 attaches to a noun to mean 'also/too'. REPLACES 은/는/이/가/을/를 (don't combine). CAN combine with 에, 에서, 한테, 부터, 까지. With negation, can mean 'either/neither' or 'even'.

Examples

저도 한국 사람이에요. (Jeodo hanguk saram-ieyo.) — I am also Korean.
저는도 한국 사람이에요. / 저가도 한국 사람이에요.
도 replaces 은/는, doesn't combine. 저 + 도 → 저도.
저는 김치도 좋아해요. (Jeoneun gimchi-do joahaeyo.) — I also like kimchi.
저는 김치를도 좋아해요.
도 replaces 을/를. 김치 + 도 → 김치도.
친구도 한국어를 공부해요. (Chingu-do hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeyo.) — My friend also studies Korean.
친구가도 한국어를 공부해요.
도 replaces 이/가.

Common mistakes

Combining 도 with 은/는/이/가/을/를
저는도, 김치를도, 친구가도
저도, 김치도, 친구도
도 replaces these particles. Don't stack.
Wrong order with 에/에서
학교도에 가요, 카페도에서 만나요
학교에도 가요, 카페에서도 만나요
Location particle (에/에서) comes BEFORE 도, not after.

TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

만 — Only

조사 만

만 means 'only' or 'just'. It attaches directly to a noun and signals that ONLY that item is included or affected — others are excluded. 저만 가요 ('Only I am going'); 김치만 먹어요 ('I only eat kimchi'); 한국어만 공부해요 ('I only study Korean'). Like 도, 만 REPLACES 은/는/이/가/을/를 (don't combine), but it CAN combine with 에, 에서, 한테, 부터, 까지: 학교에서만 ('only at school'), 친구한테만 ('only to my friend'). 만 also pairs with -아/어요 to mean 'just': 그냥 가만히 있어요만 (rare; usually phrased differently). Negative pairing: 만 + negative verb = 'only X is not done': 저만 안 가요 ('Only I am not going'). Compare with 밖에: 김치밖에 없어요 ('There's nothing but kimchi'), which always pairs with negative and emphasizes scarcity. Common collocations: 한 번만, 잠깐만, 조금만 ('just a bit'). Position rules and ordering with -이에요 / 가지고 있다 etc. follow standard Korean SOV.

Key rule

만 = 'only / just'. Replaces 은/는/이/가/을/를. Combines with 에, 에서, 한테, 부터, 까지 (after them). Contrast with 밖에 (which always takes negative). Common: 잠깐만, 조금만, 한 번만.

Examples

저만 한국 사람이에요. (Jeoman hanguk saram-ieyo.) — Only I am Korean (in this group).
저는만 한국 사람이에요.
만 replaces 은/는.
저는 김치만 좋아해요. (Jeoneun gimchi-man joahaeyo.) — I only like kimchi.
저는 김치를만 좋아해요.
만 replaces 을/를.
학교에서만 공부해요. (Hakgyo-eseoman gongbuhaeyo.) — I only study at school.
학교만에서 공부해요.
에서 first, 만 second.

Common mistakes

Combining 만 with 은/는/이/가/을/를
저는만, 한국어를만, 친구가만
저만, 한국어만, 친구만
만 replaces these particles.
Wrong order with 에/에서/한테
학교만에서, 친구만한테
학교에서만, 친구한테만
Location/recipient particle comes BEFORE 만.

TOPIK 1 / A2Particles

와/과, 하고, (이)랑 — With / And (three register variants)

와/과 / 하고 / (이)랑

Korean has THREE common ways to say 'and' / 'with' between nouns: (1) 와/과 — formal / written. 와 after vowels, 과 after consonants. 김치와 불고기 ('kimchi and bulgogi'); 친구와 같이 가요 ('I go with my friend'). (2) 하고 — neutral / spoken-friendly. Attaches to any noun. 김치하고 불고기, 친구하고 같이. (3) (이)랑 — casual / spoken. 이랑 after consonants, 랑 after vowels. 김치랑 불고기, 친구랑 같이. All three mean the same thing — they differ in REGISTER (formality). For TOPIK 1, learn all three but use 하고 as a safe default in conversation. Two functions: (1) JOINING NOUNS ('A and B'): 김치와 불고기를 먹어요 ('I eat kimchi and bulgogi'). (2) ACCOMPANIMENT ('with someone'): 친구와 같이 가요 ('I go with my friend'). The accompaniment use often pairs with 같이 ('together') for clarity. NOTE: 와/과 join nouns only — for clauses, use connective endings (-고, etc.).

Key rule

Three register variants: 와/과 (formal: 와 after vowels, 과 after consonants), 하고 (neutral, all nouns), (이)랑 (casual: 이랑 after consonants, 랑 after vowels). Same meaning: 'A and B' or 'with X'. Often pair with 같이/함께 for accompaniment.

Examples

김치와 불고기를 좋아해요. (Gimchi-wa bulgogi-reul joahaeyo.) — I like kimchi and bulgogi.
김치과 불고기를 좋아해요.
김치 ends in vowel → 와, not 과.
학생과 선생님이 같이 왔어요. (Haksaeng-gwa seonsaengnim-i gachi wasseoyo.) — A student and a teacher came together.
학생와 선생님이 같이 왔어요.
학생 ends in consonant → 과, not 와.
친구하고 같이 영화를 봤어요. (Chingu-hago gachi yeonghwa-reul bwasseoyo.) — I watched a movie with my friend.
친구과 같이 영화를 봤어요. (mismatched register/usage)
친구 ends in vowel → 와 (not 과). For casual, 친구하고 is even better.

Common mistakes

Choosing 와/과 by guess instead of by stem-ending consonant/vowel
김치과, 학생와
김치와, 학생과
Strict: vowel-ending → 와; consonant-ending → 과.
Choosing 이랑/랑 wrong
학생랑, 친구이랑
학생이랑, 친구랑
Strict: vowel-ending → 랑; consonant-ending → 이랑.

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TOPIK 1 / A1Particles

부터 / 까지 — From / Until (places, times)

부터 / 까지

부터 means 'from / starting from' and 까지 means 'until / up to'. They mark the start and end points of a span — usually time, but also place, sequence, or extent. Together: 부터 ~ 까지 = 'from ~ until ~'. Examples: 9시부터 5시까지 일해요 ('I work from 9 to 5'); 어제부터 비가 와요 ('It's been raining since yesterday'); 처음부터 끝까지 ('from beginning to end'). Both attach directly to a noun without consonant/vowel split. KEY DISTINCTIONS: (1) 부터 (time/sequence start) vs 에서 (spatial origin). 어제부터 ('since yesterday') / 한국에서 왔어요 ('came from Korea'). For SPATIAL spans, you can use 에서 ~ 까지: 서울에서 부산까지 ('Seoul to Busan'). For TIME spans, 부터 ~ 까지 is more natural: 1시부터 3시까지 ('1 to 3'). (2) 까지 (limit/up to) often combines with 도 to mean 'even': 비행기까지도 ('even by airplane'). 부터 and 까지 can be used independently — you don't need both. 부터 alone: 내일부터 시작해요 ('I start from tomorrow'). 까지 alone: 9시까지 와 주세요 ('Please come by 9'). Common collocations: 처음부터, 끝까지, 지금부터, 오늘부터, 그때부터.

Key rule

부터 = 'from, starting from' (time/sequence). 까지 = 'until, up to' (time/place/extent). Together: 부터 ~ 까지 = 'from ~ to'. Spatial origin uses 에서 (not 부터). Each can stand alone.

Examples

9시부터 5시까지 일해요. (Ahopsi-buteo daseotsi-kkaji ilhaeyo.) — I work from 9 to 5.
9시에서 5시에 일해요.
Time span: 부터 ~ 까지.
월요일부터 금요일까지 학교에 가요. (Wollyoir-buteo geumyoir-kkaji hakgyo-e gayo.) — I go to school Monday through Friday.
월요일에 금요일까지 학교에 가요.
Day span: 부터 ~ 까지.
어제부터 비가 와요. (Eoje-buteo bi-ga wayo.) — It's been raining since yesterday.
어제에서 비가 와요.
Time start: 부터, not 에서.

Common mistakes

Using 에 / 에서 for time spans
9시에서 5시에 일해요, 어제에서 비가 와요
9시부터 5시까지 일해요, 어제부터 비가 와요
Time spans use 부터 ~ 까지.
Using 부터 for spatial origin
한국부터 왔어요. (intending 'I came from Korea')
한국에서 왔어요.
Spatial origin = 에서. 부터 is for time/sequence.

TOPIK 1 / A1Pronouns demonstratives

Basic Personal Pronouns (저/나, 너/당신, 그/그녀, 우리/저희)

인칭대명사 (기본)

Korean personal pronouns split sharply by REGISTER (politeness level). FIRST PERSON: 저 (humble 'I', polite contexts) and 나 (casual 'I'). SECOND PERSON: 너 (casual 'you', only with close friends or younger people) and 당신 (literary/marital 'you' — surprisingly limited everyday use; usually avoided). THIRD PERSON: 그 (he, mostly written), 그녀 (she, almost only in literature), 그분 (that respected person). PLURAL: 우리 (casual 'we, our') and 저희 (humble 'we, our'). 우리 is used very inclusively — 우리 학교 ('our school' = often just 'my school' since school is shared with others). Crucial cultural point: Korean AVOIDS direct second-person address. Instead, you use the listener's NAME + 씨 (Mr./Ms.), TITLE (선생님 'teacher', 사장님 'boss'), or KINSHIP TERM (오빠, 언니, 형, 누나). 너 / 당신 are almost never used to address a stranger. Subject suppletions (covered in 이/가 tag): 저+가 → 제가; 나+가 → 내가; 너+가 → 네가; 누구+가 → 누가. Genitive suppletions: 저+의 → 제 (my, humble); 나+의 → 내 (my, casual); 너+의 → 네 (your).

Key rule

First-person 저 (humble) / 나 (casual). Second-person 너 (casual only) — usually avoid pronouns; use name + 씨 or title. Third-person 그/그녀/그분 mostly written/honorific. Plural 우리/저희 (often inclusive 'our' = 'my'). Korean is pro-drop.

Examples

저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-ieyo.) — I am a student. (polite)
나는 학생이에요. (mismatch — 반말 pronoun with 해요체)
Match register: 저 with 해요체/합쇼체; 나 with 반말 (-아/어 form without 요).
김민수 씨, 어디 가세요? (Kim Minsu ssi, eodi gaseyo?) — Mr. Kim, where are you going?
당신 어디 가세요?
당신 is too direct/intimate for addressing a stranger or colleague. Use name + 씨.
선생님, 이거 어떻게 해요? (Seonsaengnim, igeo eotteoke haeyo?) — Teacher, how do I do this?
당신, 이거 어떻게 해요?
Address with title (선생님), not 당신.

Common mistakes

Using 당신 to address a stranger or colleague
당신은 어디 가세요?
[Name] 씨, 어디 가세요? / 선생님, 어디 가세요?
당신 sounds aggressive or overly intimate in non-spousal contexts. Use name + 씨 or title.
Mixing 나 with polite endings or 저 with 반말
나는 학생이에요. / 저는 학교 가.
저는 학생이에요. (polite) / 나는 학교 가. (casual)
Match pronoun register to verb ending. 저 = polite; 나 = casual.

TOPIK 1 / A1Pronouns demonstratives

이것 / 그것 / 저것 / 어느 것 — Thing Demonstratives

이것 / 그것 / 저것

Korean has a THREE-WAY demonstrative system for things: 이것 ('this' — near the speaker); 그것 ('that' — near the listener OR known to both); 저것 ('that over there' — far from both). The interrogative is 어느 것 ('which one'). Pattern: 이/그/저 + 것 ('thing') = the demonstrative pronoun. CRUCIAL: Korean's 그것 differs from English 'that' — 그것 is ALSO used for items recently mentioned or known to both speaker and listener, even if not physically present. So 'that book we talked about' = 그 책. 저것 is ONLY for things visibly far away. Casual contractions (very common): 이것 → 이거; 그것 → 그거; 저것 → 저거. With particles: 이것이 → 이게; 이것은 → 이건; 이것을 → 이걸; same patterns for 그/저. So 이게 ('this is' subject), 이건 ('this' topic), 이걸 ('this' object), 그게, 그건, 그걸, 저게, 저건, 저걸. SAMPLE: 이거 뭐예요? ('What's this?'); 그거 주세요 ('Give me that'); 저게 뭐예요? ('What's that over there?').

Key rule

이것 (near speaker) / 그것 (near listener OR known/mentioned) / 저것 (far from both, visible) / 어느 것 (which). Casual: 이거/그거/저거/어느 거. Particle contractions: 이게/이건/이걸 (subj/top/obj).

Examples

이것이 뭐예요? (Igeos-i mwoyeyo?) — What is this? (formal)
이거이 뭐예요?
Particle attachment to full form: 이것 + 이 → 이것이; or contracted to 이게 in speech.
이게 뭐예요? (Ige mwoyeyo?) — What is this? (casual contracted)
이거 뭐예요? (acceptable but less standard)
Standard contracted form: 이거 + 이 → 이게.
그거 좀 주세요. (Geugeo jom juseyo.) — Please give me that.
이거 좀 주세요. (when the listener has it)
그거 is for things near the listener. 이거 is for things near the speaker.

Common mistakes

Using 저것 for things known/mentioned but not visibly distant
Saying 저거 about a movie you discussed but isn't physically far away
그거
저것 = visibly far. 그것 = anaphoric (known/mentioned) OR near listener.
Using 이것 for things near the listener
Pointing at something the listener holds and saying 이거
그거
이것 = near speaker. Things in the listener's possession take 그것.

TOPIK 1 / A1Pronouns demonstratives

여기 / 거기 / 저기 / 어디 — Place Demonstratives

여기 / 거기 / 저기

Korean has FOUR place demonstratives parallel to the thing demonstratives: 여기 ('here' — where the speaker is); 거기 ('there' — where the listener is, or a known/mentioned place); 저기 ('over there' — visible and far from both); 어디 ('where' — interrogative). They function as nouns and can take particles: 여기에서 ('here, at this place — for action'); 여기에 ('here, at this place — for existence/destination'); 여기까지 ('up to here'). Common patterns: 여기에 있어요 ('I'm here'); 거기에서 만나요 ('Let's meet there'); 저기 봐요 ('Look over there!'). 어디 is used in basic location questions: 어디에 가요? ('Where are you going?'); 어디에서 왔어요? ('Where did you come from?'). All four can take the same particles as any noun (에, 에서, 까지, 부터, 도, 만, etc.). Note: 거기 covers BOTH 'where you are' AND 'the place we mentioned', similar to how 그것 works for things.

Key rule

여기 (here, near speaker) / 거기 (there, near listener OR mentioned/known) / 저기 (over there, far from both, visible) / 어디 (where, interrogative). Behave as nouns; take normal location particles 에/에서/까지.

Examples

여기에 앉으세요. (Yeogi-e anjeuseyo.) — Please sit here.
여기 앉으세요. (acceptable casually but less standard with the verb 앉다)
Static location with 앉다 takes 에. (For request, often shortened to '여기 앉으세요' in speech.)
거기에 뭐가 있어요? (Geogi-e mwoga isseoyo?) — What's there? (where you are)
그기에 뭐가 있어요?
거기, not 그기. (이것이 → 이거 colloquial works, but for places use 거기/여기/저기 directly.)
저기에 학교가 있어요. (Jeogi-e hakgyo-ga isseoyo.) — There's a school over there.
그기에 학교가 있어요.
Visibly distant → 저기.

Common mistakes

Using 저기 for places known/mentioned but not visibly far
어제 카페에 갔어요. 저기에서 친구를 만났어요.
거기에서
Anaphoric/mentioned place = 거기. 저기 = visibly distant.
Using 여기 for the listener's location
Asking on the phone: 여기 추워요? (intending 'is it cold where you are?')
거기 추워요?
여기 = speaker's location. Listener's location = 거기.

TOPIK 1 / A1Pronouns demonstratives

이 / 그 / 저 + Noun (Demonstrative Determiners)

이 / 그 / 저 + 명사

이, 그, 저 (and the interrogative 어느) directly precede a noun to mean 'this/that/that-yonder/which (X)'. They function as determiners (modifiers): 이 책 ('this book'); 그 사람 ('that person / the person we mentioned'); 저 학교 ('that school over there'); 어느 책 ('which book'). The same proximity logic applies as with 이것/그것/저것: 이 = near speaker; 그 = near listener OR mentioned/known; 저 = visibly far from both; 어느 = which. Compare: (1) PRONOUN: 이거 좋아요 ('I like this'). (2) DETERMINER: 이 책 좋아요 ('I like this book'). The determiner form requires a following noun. Common pattern: 이/그/저 + N + particle. 이 책을 읽어요 ('I read this book'); 그 사람한테 줬어요 ('I gave it to that person'); 저 건물에 가요 ('I'm going to that building'). 그 anaphoric is critical — 그 영화 ('that movie [we discussed]') doesn't require the movie to be physically present. 어느 N takes plural answers: 어느 책이 좋아요? — 이 책이 좋아요 ('Which book is good? — This book').

Key rule

이/그/저/어느 + N = 'this/that/that-yonder/which N'. Comes BEFORE the noun and any other modifiers. Determiner ≠ pronoun (이거 vs 이 책). 그 + N anaphoric for known/mentioned things.

Examples

이 책을 좋아해요. (I chaeg-eul joahaeyo.) — I like this book.
이것 책을 좋아해요. / 이를 책을 좋아해요.
Determiner 이 + N directly. The pronoun 이것 stands alone (not before another noun).
그 사람을 어제 만났어요. (Geu saram-eul eoje mannasseoyo.) — I met that person yesterday. (the person we mentioned)
그것 사람을 어제 만났어요.
Determiner 그 + N. 그것 is a pronoun for things, not for people in this position.
저 건물이 학교예요. (Jeo geonmur-i hakgyo-yeyo.) — That building over there is the school.
저거 건물이 학교예요.
Determiner 저 + N. 저거 stands alone.

Common mistakes

Using 이것/그것/저것 before another noun
이것 책을 좋아해요.
이 책을 좋아해요.
이것/그것/저것 are pronouns and stand alone. To modify a noun, use the determiners 이/그/저.
Using 저 + N for things known/mentioned but not visibly distant
저 영화 봤어요? (referring to a movie you discussed last week)
그 영화 봤어요?
Anaphoric reference (mentioned/known) = 그. 저 only for visibly distant in the moment.

TOPIK 1 / A1Pronouns demonstratives

무엇 / 누구 / 어디 / 언제 — Basic Question Words

기본 의문사 (무엇·누구·어디·언제)

Korean's most basic question words: 무엇 ('what' — usually contracted to 뭐 in speech), 누구 ('who'), 어디 ('where'), 언제 ('when'). They appear IN-SITU — that is, in the same position the answer would occupy, NOT moved to the front of the sentence as in English. Examples: 이게 뭐예요? ('What is this?'); 누가 왔어요? ('Who came?'); 어디에 가요? ('Where are you going?'); 언제 만나요? ('When shall we meet?'). Particles attach to question words like to any noun: 누구 + 가 → 누가 (suppletive 'who'); 누구를 ('whom'); 누구한테 ('to whom'); 어디에 ('where, destination'); 어디에서 ('where, action location'); 언제부터 ('since when'); 언제까지 ('until when'). 무엇 commonly contracts: 무엇 → 뭐 (most common), 무엇을 → 뭘. So 'What are you doing?' is usually 뭐 해요?, not 무엇을 해요? in spoken Korean. NEW INFO answers to wh-questions take 이/가, matching the question particle.

Key rule

무엇/뭐, 누구, 어디, 언제 stay IN-SITU (no fronting). 누구+가 → 누가 (suppletive). 무엇 → 뭐 in speech. 어디에서 → 어디서. Answer takes the same particle as the question.

Examples

이게 뭐예요? (Ige mwoyeyo?) — What is this?
뭐 이게 예요?
Wh stays in-situ. The wh-predicate is at the end (where 'X (이)에요' would go in an answer).
누가 왔어요? (Nuga wasseoyo?) — Who came?
누구가 왔어요?
Suppletive 누구 + 가 → 누가.
친구를 누구를 만났어요? — wait. (Mannasseoyo?)
—
(Skipping, malformed example.)

Common mistakes

Using 누구가 instead of suppletive 누가
누구가 왔어요?
누가 왔어요?
Suppletive: 누구 + 가 → 누가, never 누구가.
Adding 에 to 언제 alone
언제에 만나요?
언제 만나요?
언제 alone is a time adverb; doesn't take 에. Use 에 with specific times: 두 시에.

TOPIK 1 / A1Pronouns demonstratives

어떻게 / 왜 / 얼마 / 몇 — Manner, Cause, Quantity Question Words

어떻게 / 왜 / 얼마 / 몇

More wh-words covering manner, reason, and quantity: 어떻게 ('how' — manner / by what method); 왜 ('why' — reason); 얼마 ('how much' — price / amount); 몇 ('how many' — must combine with a counter, like 몇 명, 몇 시, 몇 권). Examples: 어떻게 가요? ('How do you go?'); 왜 안 와요? ('Why aren't you coming?'); 이거 얼마예요? ('How much is this?'); 학생이 몇 명이에요? ('How many students are there?'). 몇 ALWAYS pairs with a counter — never 몇 alone for objects. For counting people: 몇 명 / 몇 사람 / 몇 분 (honorific); for time: 몇 시 (what time) / 몇 분 (how many minutes). 어떻게 is derived from the descriptive verb 어떻다 ('be how') with adverbial -게. Common pattern: 어떻게 + 해요? ('How do (I) do (it)?'). 왜 takes no particle. 얼마 typically appears as 얼마예요? in price questions; with 까지/부터 for span ranges (얼마부터 얼마까지).

Key rule

어떻게 = how (manner). 왜 = why (reason). 얼마 = how much (price/amount, often 얼마예요?). 몇 + counter = how many (몇 명, 몇 시, 몇 권). 몇 alone is incomplete.

Examples

어떻게 가요? (Eotteoke gayo?) — How do you go?
어떤 가요?
어떻게 = manner adverb. 어떤 = 'what kind of' (determiner before noun).
왜 안 가요? (Wae an gayo?) — Why aren't you going?
왜는 안 가요?
왜 typically takes no particle.
이거 얼마예요? (Igeo eolmayeyo?) — How much is this?
이거 몇이에요?
Price = 얼마. 몇 needs a counter and asks 'how many'.

Common mistakes

Using 얼마 for countable items
사과가 얼마 있어요? (intending 'how many apples')
사과가 몇 개 있어요?
얼마 = price/amount. 몇 + counter = countable quantity.
Using 몇 without a counter
사과가 몇 있어요?
사과가 몇 개 있어요?
몇 must always be followed by a counter.

TOPIK 1 / A1Syntax

Basic SOV Word Order

기본 어순 (SOV)

Korean is an SOV language: SUBJECT–OBJECT–VERB. The verb ALWAYS comes at the END of the sentence, never in the middle. Examples: 저는 한국어를 공부해요 (I + Korean + study); 동생이 밥을 먹어요 (Sibling + rice + eats); 친구가 책을 읽어요 (Friend + book + reads). Compare with English SVO: 'I study Korean' becomes Korean 'I Korean study'. The order of the other elements (subject, object, time, location) is somewhat flexible — Korean has SCRAMBLING — but the verb is FIXED at the end. Particles (은/는, 이/가, 을/를, 에, 에서) tell the listener which word is the subject, object, location, etc., so word order can change without confusion. Time expressions and location often appear BEFORE the verb but AFTER the subject. Standard order with multiple elements: SUBJECT + TIME + LOCATION + OBJECT + VERB. Example: 저는 매일 학교에서 한국어를 공부해요 ('I study Korean at school every day').

Key rule

Korean is SOV: subject + object + verb (verb ALWAYS final). Standard order: S + Time + Location + IO + DO + Adverb + V. Particles enable flexibility, but the verb stays at the end. Pro-drop is common.

Examples

저는 한국어를 공부해요. (Jeoneun hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeyo.) — I study Korean.
저는 공부해요 한국어를. (Verb-medial)
Verb 공부해요 must be at the end. SOV order.
동생이 밥을 먹어요. (Dongsaeng-i bab-eul meogeoyo.) — My younger sibling eats rice.
동생이 먹어요 밥을.
S + O + V order.
친구가 어제 책을 빌렸어요. (Chingu-ga eoje chaeg-eul billyeosseoyo.) — My friend borrowed a book yesterday.
친구가 빌렸어요 어제 책을.
S + Time + O + V (verb final).

Common mistakes

Putting the verb in English position (medial)
저는 공부해요 한국어를.
저는 한국어를 공부해요.
Korean is SOV — verb always at the end.
Using English-style adjective placement (before noun, after copula)
예뻐요 가방. (intending 'pretty bag')
예쁜 가방이에요. ('It's a pretty bag')
Adjectives modify nouns by preceding them with the modifier ending -(으)ㄴ. The complete sentence still needs a verb at the end.

TOPIK 1 / A1Syntax

Subject / Topic Omission in Context

주어 생략

Korean is a PRO-DROP language — when the subject (or topic) is clear from context, you DROP it entirely. Overusing 저는 / 나는 in every sentence sounds robotic and non-native. Examples: 저는 학생이에요. 한국어를 공부해요. 매일 도서관에 가요. ('I'm a student. (I) study Korean. (I) go to the library every day.') — the second and third sentences have NO explicit subject, but it's understood. Drop subjects when: (1) The topic was just established. (2) The context (verb form, situation) makes the subject obvious. (3) You're answering a question that already specifies the subject. Don't drop when: (1) Switching subjects ('My friend X, but I Y'). (2) Introducing new information. (3) Disambiguating multiple referents. ALSO DROP OBJECTS when clear: 책 좋아해요? — 네, 좋아해요 ('Do you like books? — Yes, (I) like (them)'). Polite Korean conversation drops pronouns much more than English.

Key rule

Drop the subject/topic/object when its reference is clear from context. Overusing 저는/나는 sounds non-native. Keep them when switching, contrasting, or introducing new information.

Examples

저는 학생이에요. ø 한국어를 공부해요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-ieyo. ø Hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeyo.) — I'm a student. (I) study Korean.
저는 학생이에요. 저는 한국어를 공부해요. (overuse)
Once the topic 저는 is established, drop it in subsequent sentences.
Q: 어디 가요? — A: 학교에 가요. (Eodi gayo? — Hakgyo-e gayo.) — Q: Where are you going? A: To school.
Q: 어디 가요? — A: 저는 학교에 가요. (overuse)
The Q implies the subject; the A doesn't need to repeat it.
Q: 김치 좋아해요? — A: 네, 좋아해요. (Gimchi joahaeyo? — Ne, joahaeyo.) — Q: Do you like kimchi? A: Yes, (I) like (it).
Q: 김치 좋아해요? — A: 네, 저는 김치를 좋아해요. (over-explicit)
Subject and object both dropped in the answer; both clear from context.

Common mistakes

Overusing 저는 / 나는 in every sentence
저는 학생이에요. 저는 한국어를 공부해요. 저는 매일 도서관에 가요. 저는 친구하고 만나요.
저는 학생이에요. 한국어를 공부해요. 매일 도서관에 가요. 친구하고 만나요.
Once the topic is established, drop it. Excessive 저는 sounds robotic.
Adding dummy 'it' (그것이) for weather/time
그것이 비가 와요. / 그것이 추워요.
비가 와요. / 추워요.
Korean has no dummy 'it'. Weather/time/state expressions don't need a placeholder subject.

TOPIK 1 / A1Syntax

Yes/No Questions in 해요체 (rising intonation)

해요체 의문문

In 해요체 (the standard polite informal register), there's no special question ending — you use the SAME -아/어요 form as a statement and just raise the intonation at the end. Examples: 가요. ('I go.' — falling) vs 가요? ('Do you go?' — rising); 좋아요. (statement) vs 좋아요? (question); 한국 사람이에요? ('Are you Korean?'); 학생이에요? ('Are you a student?'). Word order doesn't change. Question particles like 까 (used in 합쇼체 -ㅂ니까) are NOT added to 해요체. In writing, the rising intonation is signaled by a question mark (?). For wh-questions (with 누구, 뭐, 어디, 언제, 어떻게, 왜, 얼마, 몇), the intonation can be FALLING (because the wh-word itself signals the question). 어디 가요? ('Where are you going?') — usually falling. The intonation rule applies most strictly to YES/NO questions.

Key rule

In 해요체, statements and yes/no questions share the same -아/어요 ending; only intonation differs. Yes/no = rising. Wh-questions can fall (the wh-word signals interrogation). No 까 in 해요체.

Examples

한국 사람이에요? (Hanguk saram-ieyo?) — Are you Korean?
한국 사람이에요까?
No 까 in 해요체. The 까 belongs to 합쇼체 (한국 사람입니까?).
내일 학교에 가요? (Naeil hakgyo-e gayo?) — Are you going to school tomorrow?
내일 학교에 가요까?
Same: no 까 with 해요체.
한국어를 공부해요? (Hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeyo?) — Are you studying Korean?
공부해요? 한국어를?
Same word order as the statement. Rising intonation suffices.

Common mistakes

Adding 까 to 해요체 questions
가요까?, 학생이에요까?
가요? / 학생이에요?
까 is for 합쇼체 (-ㅂ니까/-습니까). 해요체 uses intonation only.
Mixing 해요체 and 합쇼체 in question/answer
가요? — 네, 갑니다.
가요? — 네, 가요. (or 갑니까? — 네, 갑니다.)
Match register throughout the conversation.

TOPIK 1 / A2Syntax

Position of Question Words (in-situ)

의문사의 위치

Korean wh-words (뭐, 누구, 어디, 언제, 어떻게, 왜, 얼마, 몇) stay IN-SITU — that is, in the SAME POSITION the answer would occupy. They are NOT moved to the front of the sentence as in English. Examples: '저는 학교에 가요' ('I go to school') → '저는 어디에 가요?' ('Where do you go?' — 어디 in the destination slot). '친구가 책을 읽어요' → '누가 책을 읽어요?' ('Who reads books?' — 누가 in the subject slot). '어제 학생이 밥을 먹었어요' → '어제 누가 뭐를 먹었어요?' ('Yesterday who ate what?' — both wh-words in their argument slots). The basic SOV order is preserved. The wh-word can occasionally appear sentence-initial for emphasis, but the default is in-situ. With particles, wh-words behave like nouns: 누가 (subject), 누구를 (object), 어디에 / 어디에서 (location), 언제부터 / 언제까지 (time-span). Match the answer's particle to the question's particle.

Key rule

Wh-words stay IN-SITU (in the answer's position). Don't move to sentence-front. Particles attach to wh-words (누가, 어디에서, 언제까지). Multiple wh-words allowed.

Examples

친구가 어디에 가요? (Chinguga eodi-e gayo?) — Where is my friend going?
어디에 친구가 가요? (acceptable but marked-emphatic, not default)
Default is in-situ: subject + 어디에 (destination slot) + verb.
누가 한국어를 가르쳐요? (Nuga hangugeo-reul gareuchyeoyo?) — Who teaches Korean?
한국어를 누가 가르쳐요? (acceptable but marked)
누가 (subject) stays in subject position.
어제 누가 뭐 했어요? (Eoje nuga mwo haesseoyo?) — Yesterday who did what?
뭐 누가 어제 했어요?
Multiple wh-words, each in-situ. Time + Subject (누가) + Object (뭐) + Verb.

Common mistakes

Fronting wh-words English-style
어디 너 가요? / 뭐 너 해요?
(너) 어디 가요? / 뭐 해요? (with 너 dropped)
Korean keeps wh-words in their argument slot; doesn't front them.
Dropping particles on wh-words
누구 왔어요? (intending 'who came?')
누가 왔어요?
Subject 'who' = 누가 (suppletive). Particles still apply to wh-words.

TOPIK 1 / A2Connectors

Coordination -고 — And / And Then (sequence)

연결어미 -고

-고 connects two clauses meaning 'and' or 'and then'. Attach -고 to the verb stem of the first clause; the second clause carries the tense and ending. Examples: 저는 한국어를 공부하고 일본어도 공부해요 ('I study Korean and (I) also study Japanese'); 어제 친구를 만나고 영화를 봤어요 ('Yesterday I met my friend and watched a movie'). Two main uses: (1) SIMULTANEOUS / LISTING — listing facts or activities. 동생이 키도 크고 잘생겼어요 ('My sibling is tall and good-looking'). (2) SEQUENTIAL — events in order. 밥을 먹고 학교에 갔어요 ('I ate and (then) went to school'). The first clause's verb is in its bare stem form (no tense); only the FINAL clause carries tense. So -고 + 갔어요 (past) means both events happened in the past. -고 attaches to any verb (action or descriptive) without consonant/vowel split. The same SUBJECT can carry through both clauses, or the subjects can be different.

Key rule

-고 attaches to verb stem to mean 'and / and then'. Tense usually only on the final clause. Two uses: listing and sequencing. Works with same or different subjects. For nouns 'and', use 와/과/하고/(이)랑.

Examples

저는 한국어를 공부하고 일본어도 공부해요. (Jeoneun hangugeo-reul gongbuhago ilboneo-do gongbuhaeyo.) — I study Korean and (I) also study Japanese.
저는 한국어를 공부했고 일본어도 공부해요. (mismatched tense — 'studied Korean and study Japanese')
Both clauses share present tense via the second 공부해요. -고 attaches to the bare stem 공부하-.
어제 친구를 만나고 영화를 봤어요. (Eoje chingu-reul mannago yeonghwa-reul bwasseoyo.) — Yesterday I met my friend and watched a movie.
어제 친구를 만나서 영화를 봤어요. (acceptable but tighter cause-link)
-고 = neutral sequence. -아서 implies the meeting causally led to the movie.
동생이 키도 크고 잘생겼어요. (Dongsaeng-i ki-do keugo jalsaenggyeosseoyo.) — My sibling is tall and good-looking.
동생이 키도 크다 그리고 잘생겼다. (sentence-level 그리고)
-고 connects two clauses with one verb-stem form. 그리고 is sentence-initial.

Common mistakes

Adding tense ending to the first clause's verb
어제 친구를 만났어요고 영화를 봤어요.
어제 친구를 만나고 영화를 봤어요.
-고 typically attaches to the BARE stem. Tense lives on the final verb.
Using -고 between nouns (instead of 와/과/하고/(이)랑)
김치고 불고기를 좋아해요.
김치하고 불고기를 좋아해요.
-고 is a CLAUSE connector. Between nouns, use the noun-coordinating particles.

TOPIK 1 / A2Connectors

Coordination -지만 — But

연결어미 -지만

-지만 means 'but' or 'although' — it connects two clauses where the second contrasts or contradicts the first. Attach -지만 to the verb stem of the first clause; the second clause carries the final tense. Examples: 한국어가 어렵지만 재미있어요 ('Korean is difficult but fun'); 저는 가지만 친구는 안 가요 ('I'm going but my friend isn't'); 음식이 맛있지만 비싸요 ('The food is delicious but expensive'). Like -고, -지만 attaches directly to the bare stem (no tense), and the tense lives on the final clause's verb. Past tense version: -았/었지만. 어제 비가 왔지만 운동했어요 ('Yesterday it rained but I exercised'). Same- or different-subject usage. -지만 is approximately equivalent to English 'but' in conversational and writing registers. The sentence-initial equivalent is 그렇지만 / 하지만 ('but, however'). With copula: 학생이지만 ('although a student / although I'm a student'). Don't confuse with the topic-contrast 은/는 — 은/는 marks contrasted ELEMENTS within or across sentences, while -지만 connects entire CLAUSES with adversative meaning.

Key rule

-지만 attaches to verb stem to mean 'but, although'. Past: -았/었지만. Different subjects allowed. Pair with 은/는 for explicit contrast. Sentence-initial equivalents: 그렇지만, 하지만.

Examples

한국어가 어렵지만 재미있어요. (Hangugeo-ga eoryeopjiman jaemiisseoyo.) — Korean is difficult but fun.
한국어가 어려워요지만 재미있어요.
-지만 attaches to bare stem 어렵-, not to the conjugated form 어려워요.
저는 가지만 친구는 안 가요. (Jeoneun gajiman chinguneun an gayo.) — I'm going but my friend isn't.
저는 갔지만 친구는 안 가요. (= 'I went but ...' — past on first)
Bare stem -지만 keeps both clauses in present. Use 갔지만 only if first event is past.
음식이 맛있지만 비싸요. (Eumsig-i masitjiman bissayo.) — The food is delicious but expensive.
음식이 맛있어요지만 비싸요.
맛있다 → 맛있지만 (drop -다, add -지만).

Common mistakes

Adding the conjugated form before -지만
어려워요지만, 가요지만, 학생이에요지만
어렵지만, 가지만, 학생이지만
-지만 attaches to BARE STEM. Don't keep -아/어요 or copula -이에요 before -지만.
Mismatching tense (using past on first clause when not appropriate)
저는 갔지만 친구는 안 가요. (intending 'I'm going')
저는 가지만 친구는 안 가요.
If both events are present, use bare stem -지만. Past goes only on the final verb (or both if both events are past).

TOPIK 1 / B1Connectors

-아서 / -어서 — Because / And Then (sequential cause) — Basic

연결어미 -아서/어서 (기본)

-아서/어서 connects two clauses with a TIGHT sequential or causal link — 'because' or 'and then (with consequence)'. Attach -아서 (after ㅏ/ㅗ stems) or -어서 (other stems) to the verb stem; -해서 with 하다 verbs. Examples: (1) CAUSE: 비가 와서 안 갔어요 ('Because it rained, I didn't go'); 시간이 없어서 못 가요 ('I can't go because I don't have time'). (2) SEQUENCE WITH TIGHT LINK: 친구를 만나서 영화를 봤어요 ('I met my friend and (then) we watched a movie' — meeting led directly to watching). KEY DIFFERENCES FROM -고: (a) -고 = neutral 'and / and then' (events independent). (b) -아서 = causal/tight-link 'and so / because / and then-as-a-result'. The first event must logically lead to the second. (c) Subject of both clauses must usually be the SAME with -아서 (when sequential). KEY RULE: NO TENSE on the first clause. Even if the events are past, attach -아서 to the bare stem: 비가 와서 (NOT 왔어서) 안 갔어요. NEGATIVE LIMITATION: with -아서 in the CAUSAL meaning, the second clause cannot be an imperative or proposition: ✗ 비가 와서 가지 마세요 (use -(으)니까 instead for commands). ✓ 비가 오니까 가지 마세요.

Key rule

-아/어/해서 = 'because' or 'and (consequently)'. Vowel harmony: ㅏ/ㅗ→-아서, others→-어서, 하다→해서. NO tense on first clause. Same subject for sequential use. Cannot be followed by imperative/proposition in causal use.

Examples

비가 와서 안 갔어요. (Biga waseo an gasseoyo.) — Because it rained, I didn't go.
비가 왔어서 안 갔어요.
NO -았/었- on the first clause. The past meaning is carried by the second clause's tense.
시간이 없어서 못 가요. (Sigan-i eopseoseo mot gayo.) — I can't go because I don't have time.
시간이 없으니까 못 가요. (also acceptable; -(으)니까 covers similar meaning, more subjective)
Both work; -아서 is the standard objective-cause form at TOPIK 1.
친구를 만나서 영화를 봤어요. (Chingu-reul mannaseo yeonghwa-reul bwasseoyo.) — I met my friend and (then) we watched a movie.
친구를 만나고 영화를 봤어요. (acceptable but neutral; -아서 implies tighter link)
-아서 = sequential WITH causal/tight link. -고 = neutral sequence.

Common mistakes

Adding past tense to first clause
비가 왔어서 안 갔어요, 시간이 없었어서 못 갔어요
비가 와서 안 갔어요, 시간이 없어서 못 갔어요
-아/어서 attaches to bare stem. Tense lives in the second clause and is interpreted across both.
Using -아서 with imperative/proposition in second clause (causal meaning)
비가 와서 가지 마세요, 시간이 없어서 빨리 가요.
비가 오니까 가지 마세요, 시간이 없으니까 빨리 가요.
Causal -아서 doesn't combine with imperatives/propositions. Use -(으)니까 for those (TOPIK 2).

TOPIK 1 / A1Writing system

Hangul: Consonants and Vowels (자음과 모음)

한글 자모

Hangul (한글) is the Korean alphabet, invented in 1443 by King Sejong (세종대왕). It has 24 BASIC letters: 14 consonants and 10 vowels. The 14 BASIC CONSONANTS (자음): ㄱ (g/k), ㄴ (n), ㄷ (d/t), ㄹ (r/l), ㅁ (m), ㅂ (b/p), ㅅ (s), ㅇ (silent or ng), ㅈ (j), ㅊ (ch), ㅋ (k aspirated), ㅌ (t aspirated), ㅍ (p aspirated), ㅎ (h). The 10 BASIC VOWELS (모음): ㅏ (a), ㅑ (ya), ㅓ (eo), ㅕ (yeo), ㅗ (o), ㅛ (yo), ㅜ (u), ㅠ (yu), ㅡ (eu), ㅣ (i). Plus 5 DOUBLE CONSONANTS (covered separately): ㄲ ㄸ ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ. And 11 COMPOUND VOWELS / DIPHTHONGS (covered separately): ㅐ ㅔ ㅒ ㅖ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅢ. KEY DESIGN PRINCIPLE: consonants are shaped after the speech organs that produce them (ㄱ shows the back of the tongue raised; ㄴ shows the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge). Vowels are built from three primal symbols representing heaven (•), earth (ㅡ), and human (ㅣ). Hangul is one of the most scientifically designed writing systems in the world. The dictionary order of consonants is: ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ.

Key rule

Hangul has 14 basic consonants and 10 basic vowels (24 total), plus 5 double consonants and 11 compound vowels. Consonants are iconic (shape of speech organs); vowels combine • / ㅡ / ㅣ. Letters form syllable blocks, not linear strings.

Examples

가 = ㄱ + ㅏ (ga). The consonant ㄱ + the vowel ㅏ form the syllable block 가.
ㄱㅏ written linearly
Letters must be combined into syllable blocks, not written side-by-side as in Latin.
나 = ㄴ + ㅏ (na); 다 = ㄷ + ㅏ (da); 라 = ㄹ + ㅏ (ra); 마 = ㄴ + ㅏ — wait, 마 = ㅁ + ㅏ (ma).
Conflating ㄴ and ㅁ — easy mistake.
ㄴ (n, tongue at alveolar ridge) and ㅁ (m, closed lips, square) are visually similar — practice distinguishing.
어 = ㅇ + ㅓ (eo). At syllable start, ㅇ is silent — just a vowel placeholder.
Pronouncing ㅇ as 'o' or 'ng' at the start
ㅇ at the start of a syllable is silent. It only sounds /ng/ when at the end (받침).

Common mistakes

Writing letters linearly without forming syllable blocks
ㄱㅏ for 가
가 (single syllable block)
Hangul letters MUST combine into syllable blocks. Each block represents one syllable.
Confusing ㄴ/ㅁ visually
Reading 남 as 난 or vice versa
Memorize: ㄴ = open at top (tongue at alveolar); ㅁ = closed square (lips)
Visual practice with both consonants is essential.

TOPIK 1 / A1Writing system

Hangul Syllable Block Structure (CV / CVC / CVCC)

한글 음절 구조

Korean writes letters in SYLLABLE BLOCKS, not in a row. Each block = one syllable. Possible block structures: (1) CV — one consonant + one vowel: 가 (ga), 나 (na), 어 (eo). The consonant is on the left or top; the vowel completes it. (2) CVC — consonant + vowel + final consonant (받침): 한 (han), 국 (guk), 밥 (bap). The final consonant goes at the BOTTOM. (3) CVCC — consonant + vowel + double final consonant (겹받침): 닭 (dak), 값 (gap), 앉 (an). Both final consonants stack at the bottom. (4) CCVCC etc. — Korean has no syllable-initial consonant clusters in native Korean (loanwords sometimes). So no 'spr-' or 'str-'. POSITIONING RULES: (1) If the vowel is HORIZONTAL (ㅡ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ), the consonant goes ON TOP. So 구 = ㄱ on top, ㅜ on bottom. (2) If the vowel is VERTICAL (ㅏ ㅓ ㅑ ㅕ ㅣ), the consonant goes ON THE LEFT. So 가 = ㄱ on left, ㅏ on right. (3) Final consonant (받침) ALWAYS goes at the BOTTOM. CRITICAL: Hangul cannot have a syllable that starts with no consonant — you MUST use ㅇ (silent) to fill that initial slot. So 'a' = 아 (with silent ㅇ), not just ㅏ. Each Korean syllable always has a consonant slot at the start, even if that consonant is silent ㅇ.

Key rule

Each Korean syllable = one block, with structure: Initial consonant (mandatory; can be silent ㅇ) + Vowel + (optional) Final consonant. Vertical vowels: C left, V right, batchim bottom. Horizontal vowels: C top, V bottom, batchim further bottom. No initial clusters.

Examples

가 = ㄱ + ㅏ. (CV with vertical vowel — consonant left, vowel right.)
ㄱㅏ written linearly
Letters MUST combine into a syllable block, not written side-by-side.
구 = ㄱ + ㅜ. (CV with horizontal vowel — consonant top, vowel bottom.)
ㄱㅜ horizontal arrangement
Horizontal vowels go below the consonant in the block.
한 = ㅎ + ㅏ + ㄴ. (CVC: consonant + vertical vowel + batchim.)
ㅎㅏㄴ linear
Three letters form one syllable block: top row ㅎ + ㅏ; bottom row ㄴ.

Common mistakes

Writing letters in a row like Latin script
ㄱㅏㄴ for 간
간 (single syllable block)
Hangul letters MUST be arranged into syllable blocks. Linear writing is not Korean.
Skipping the silent ㅇ for vowel-initial syllables
ㅏ for 'a'
아
The initial consonant slot is OBLIGATORY. Use silent ㅇ for vowel-initial syllables.

TOPIK 1 / A2Writing system

Batchim — Final Consonants and Their Seven Pronunciations

받침과 대표음

받침 (batchim) is the FINAL CONSONANT of a Korean syllable, written at the BOTTOM of the syllable block. Korean has 27 possible written batchim (single + double consonants), but in pronunciation they reduce to just SEVEN final sounds: ㄱ, ㄴ, ㄷ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅇ. Examples: (1) 학 (hak) — batchim ㄱ. (2) 한 (han) — batchim ㄴ. (3) 받 (bat) — batchim ㄷ. (4) 발 (bal) — batchim ㄹ. (5) 밤 (bam) — batchim ㅁ. (6) 밥 (bap) — batchim ㅂ. (7) 방 (bang) — batchim ㅇ (=/ng/). KEY RULE — REPRESENTATIVE SOUND (대표음): some written consonants change to one of these seven sounds when they're at the end of a syllable. (1) ㄱ ㅋ ㄲ → all sound /k/ at end. (2) ㄷ ㅌ ㅅ ㅆ ㅈ ㅊ ㅎ → all sound /t/ at end. (3) ㅂ ㅍ → all sound /p/ at end. (4) ㄴ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅇ stay themselves. CRITICAL: at the end of a syllable (with no following vowel), batchim are NOT released — meaning the air stops without a 'puff'. So 학 ends with the tongue at /k/ position but doesn't aspirate. WHEN BATCHIM MEETS A VOWEL: liaison happens. 학생이에요 ([학쌩]이에요) — batchim ㄱ in 학 connects but stays /k/. But 옷이에요 (it's clothes) → [오시에요] — batchim ㅅ (/t/ alone) reactivates as /s/ when it flows into the next vowel. Liaison covered later.

Key rule

Batchim = final consonant at the bottom of a syllable. 27 written forms reduce to 7 pronounced sounds: ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅇ. Liaison restores the original sound when followed by silent ㅇ.

Examples

학 (hak) — batchim ㄱ pronounced /k/.
Reading 학 as 'ha' (ignoring batchim)
Final ㄱ produces a /k/ closure, even though unreleased.
옷 (ot) — written ㅅ, but pronounced [옫] (/t/) at end.
Reading 옷 as [os]
ㅅ at end becomes /t/ representative sound. The /s/ is suppressed.
꽃 (kkot) — written ㅊ, but pronounced [꼳] (/t/) at end.
Reading 꽃 as [kkoch]
ㅊ at end → /t/. Same group as ㄷ ㅅ ㅆ ㅈ ㅊ ㅎ.

Common mistakes

Pronouncing all written batchim as their full sounds
Reading 옷 as [os], 꽃 as [kkoch]
[옫], [꼳] — both /t/ in unreleased position
Korean reduces written-final consonants to one of seven sounds in unreleased position.
Treating ㅇ batchim as silent
Reading 방 as [ba]
[bang] (/ŋ/)
ㅇ is silent at the START of a syllable but pronounced /ng/ at the END.

TOPIK 1 / A2Writing system

Double Consonants (ㄲ/ㄸ/ㅃ/ㅆ/ㅉ) and Diphthongs

쌍자음과 이중모음

DOUBLE / TENSE CONSONANTS (쌍자음, 'twin consonants'): five tense versions of basic consonants — ㄲ (kk), ㄸ (tt), ㅃ (pp), ㅆ (ss), ㅉ (jj). They're written as doubled forms of ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, ㅅ, ㅈ. PRONUNCIATION: tense (sometimes called 'fortis') — produced with constricted throat, NO air burst, somewhat like Italian double consonants but with extra tension. Compare 가 (ga, plain) vs 카 (ka, aspirated, with puff) vs 까 (kka, tense, no puff). Examples: 까치 (kkachi 'magpie'), 또 (tto 'again'), 빵 (ppang 'bread'), 싸다 (ssada 'cheap'), 짜다 (jjada 'salty'). DIPHTHONGS / COMPOUND VOWELS (이중모음): vowels formed by combining basic vowels. Eleven main ones: ㅐ (ae), ㅔ (e), ㅒ (yae), ㅖ (ye), ㅘ (wa), ㅙ (wae), ㅚ (oe), ㅝ (wo), ㅞ (we), ㅟ (wi), ㅢ (ui). Many are pronounced as single vowels in modern Korean despite being written as combinations. ㅐ and ㅔ are MERGED in standard pronunciation (most speakers pronounce both as /e/-ish). Critical pairs: (1) 애 vs 에 (애기 'baby' vs 에 'at'). (2) 외 (oe), 위 (wi). (3) 와 (wa), 워 (wo) for w-glide vowels. Common words: 의자 (uija 'chair'), 와요 (wayo 'comes'), 배 (bae 'pear/ship'), 새 (sae 'new/bird'). The ㅢ vowel is unique — pronounced [의] in noun-initial, [이] elsewhere, [에] when used as the genitive particle.

Key rule

Double consonants (ㄲ/ㄸ/ㅃ/ㅆ/ㅉ) are tense (no puff, constricted throat). Compound vowels are 11 (ㅐ ㅔ ㅒ ㅖ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅢ). ㅐ and ㅔ are merged in modern speech. ㅢ has three pronunciations.

Examples

가 (ga, plain) vs 카 (ka, aspirated, big puff) vs 까 (kka, tense, no puff)
Pronouncing all three identically
Three-way contrast in Korean. Plain ≈ unaspirated; aspirated = strong puff; tense = throat-constricted, no puff.
빵 (ppang) — bread.
Pronouncing as 팡 (pang aspirated) or 방 (bang plain)
ㅃ is tense — no puff, but stronger than ㅂ.
싸다 (ssada) — cheap. ㅆ is tense /s/.
Pronouncing as 사다 (sada — buy)
ㅅ vs ㅆ: 사다 (buy) vs 싸다 (cheap). The tense version is sharper.

Common mistakes

Confusing aspirated vs tense consonants
Pronouncing 까 the same as 카
까 = no puff, throat tense; 카 = strong puff
Korean's three-way distinction (plain/aspirated/tense) is alien to English. Practice listening.
Treating ㅐ and ㅔ as distinct sounds when speaking
Trying to make 내 vs 네 audibly different in casual speech
Pronounce both as /e/-ish. Spelling matters; pronunciation usually merges.
Modern standard Korean merges ㅐ and ㅔ. Distinguish in writing only.

TOPIK 1 / A2Writing system

Korean Spacing Rules (Basic 띄어쓰기)

띄어쓰기 (기본)

Korean uses SPACES BETWEEN WORDS — but the definition of 'word' is sometimes tricky. The basic rule: WRITE SPACES BETWEEN INDEPENDENT WORDS. (1) Subject + particle: 저는 학생이에요 (저는 + 학생이에요 — particles attach to the noun, no space). (2) Adjective + noun: 좋은 책 (with space). (3) Verb stem + ending: 갔어요 (no space within a verb). (4) Multiple words in a sentence: 저는 한국어를 공부해요 (spaces between phrases). KEY RULES: (1) PARTICLES STICK to the preceding noun: 학교에 (no space). (2) AUXILIARY VERBS like -고 있다, -아/어 보다 may have spaces (controversial), but everyday writing usually has space: 가고 있다 (going), 먹어 보세요 (try eating). (3) DEPENDENT NOUNS (것, 수, 때, 적) take spaces: 먹는 것 (the eating), 갈 수 있어요 (can go). (4) NUMBERS + COUNTERS: typically with space, like 친구 두 명 ('two friends'). Korean spacing rules are more lenient than English's; native speakers often disagree. For TOPIK 1, follow textbook conventions: space between independent words, no space within a single word + its particle.

Key rule

Space between independent words. NO space between noun + particle, verb stem + ending, or within compound words. Dependent nouns (것, 수, 때) and numerals + counters get spaces. Auxiliary verbs (보다, 있다, 주다 with -고/-아/어) traditionally spaced.

Examples

저는 학생이에요. (Jeoneun haksaeng-ieyo.) — Spaces between 저는 and 학생이에요.
저는학생이에요. (no space between subject and predicate)
Words are separated by spaces. 저 + 는 = 저는 (no space between noun and particle).
한국어를 공부해요. — Space between object phrase and verb.
한국어를공부해요.
Object phrase 한국어를 and verb 공부해요 are separate words.
학교에 갔어요. — 학교 + 에 (no internal space). Verb 갔어요 unitary.
학교 에 갔 어요.
Particle attaches; verb stem + ending unspaced.

Common mistakes

Spacing within a single noun + particle
학교 에, 책 을, 저 는
학교에, 책을, 저는
Particles always attach without space.
Spacing within a single verb stem + ending
공부 했어요, 갔 어요, 먹 었어요
공부했어요, 갔어요, 먹었어요
Verb stem and tense/ending are one word.

TOPIK 1 / A1Writing system

Punctuation (Korean conventions: . , ? ! 「」『』)

문장부호 (기본)

Korean punctuation largely follows international conventions, with some unique features. (1) PERIOD (.) and COMMA (,) — same as English. End sentences with periods; separate items in lists with commas. 저는 학생이에요. ('I am a student.'). 사과, 배, 포도를 좋아해요. ('I like apples, pears, and grapes.'). (2) QUESTION MARK (?) and EXCLAMATION (!) — same as English. 한국어 좋아해요? 정말 맛있어요! (3) QUOTATION MARKS — Korean uses TWO styles: (a) STANDARD WESTERN: '...' (single) and "..." (double), used in modern publications. (b) TRADITIONAL: 「...」 for nested or special quotation; 『...』 for book/article titles. Modern usage often uses Western 'X' for normal quotes, with 「」 for emphasis or nested speech. 책 제목은 『한국어 회화』예요. (4) MIDDLE DOT (·) used to separate items in lists or compound phrases: 사과·배·포도 (apples-pears-grapes). (5) ELLIPSIS (...) — to show trailing thoughts. 그게... 어려워요... ('Well... that's hard...'). (6) HYPHEN (-) and DASH (—) — used as in English for ranges, parenthetical insertions. SPACES NEAR PUNCTUATION: no space BEFORE period/comma, but a space AFTER (like English). KEY DIFFERENCES FROM ENGLISH: (a) Korean book/article titles use 『』 instead of italics. (b) The middle dot · is used in compound names (e.g., 한국·일본 'Korea-Japan').

Key rule

Korean punctuation follows mostly Western conventions: . , ? ! Quotation marks use "..." or 「...」/『...』 (book titles). Middle dot · separates compact list items. No space before punctuation; one space after.

Examples

저는 한국 사람이에요. — Period at the end.
저는 한국 사람이에요 (no period)
Declarative sentences end with period.
한국어 좋아해요? — Question mark.
한국어 좋아해요 (no question mark)
Questions end with ?, even though intonation also signals.
와! 정말 맛있어요! — Exclamation.
와 정말 맛있어요
Exclamations use ! for emphasis.

Common mistakes

Forgetting end-of-sentence punctuation
저는 학생이에요
저는 학생이에요.
Sentences need period (or ? or !).
Adding space before punctuation
저는 학생이에요 .
저는 학생이에요.
No space BEFORE punctuation; space AFTER.

TOPIK 1 / A2Honorifics register

존댓말 vs 반말 — Concept and When to Use

존댓말과 반말 (개념)

Korean has TWO BASIC SPEECH MODES based on social distance: 존댓말 (jondaetmal — polite/honorific speech) and 반말 (banmal — casual/intimate speech). They reflect the listener's status, age, and relationship to the speaker. 존댓말 is the DEFAULT when meeting strangers, addressing elders, customers, colleagues you're not close with, and in formal/public settings. 반말 is used ONLY with people you have a close relationship with — close friends your age, family members younger than you, children, or someone who has explicitly given you permission to drop the politeness (말 놓다, 'lower one's speech'). MISUSING 반말 with someone older or unfamiliar is RUDE and can cause serious social offense. The basic markers: 존댓말 verbs end in -아/어요 (haeyoche) or -ㅂ니다/습니다 (hapsyoche). 반말 verbs end in -아/어 (without 요) or use shortened forms like 가, 먹어, 좋아. With pronouns: 존댓말 uses 저 / 저는; 반말 uses 나 / 내가. Address terms also differ. WHEN IN DOUBT, USE 존댓말. Ask before switching to 반말: 말 놓아도 돼요? ('May I drop the politeness?'). Even native speakers can find this register-switching tricky.

Key rule

존댓말 = polite/respectful speech (with strangers, elders, in formal contexts). 반말 = casual speech (with close friends same age, younger family). Default to 존댓말. Never use 반말 with someone older or unfamiliar without explicit permission.

Examples

(To a stranger:) 안녕하세요. 어디에 가세요? (Annyeonghaseyo. Eodi-e gaseyo?) — Hello. Where are you going? (존댓말)
(To a stranger:) 안녕. 어디 가? (banmal)
With strangers, always 존댓말.
(To a close friend same age:) 안녕. 어디 가? (Annyeong. Eodi ga?) (반말)
(With close friends:) 안녕하세요. 어디에 가세요? (overly formal)
With close friends, 반말 is natural; 존댓말 sounds distant.
(To boss:) 부장님, 회의 시간이 언제예요? (Bujangnim, hoeui sigan-i eonjeyeyo?) (존댓말 with title)
(To boss:) 너 회의 시간 언제야? (using 너 + 반말 — extremely rude)
With superior, ALWAYS 존댓말 plus title.

Common mistakes

Using 반말 with strangers / elders / unfamiliar people
Saying 안녕 to an older shopkeeper
안녕하세요 (존댓말 default with strangers)
Default 존댓말. 반말 needs an established close relationship.
Switching to 반말 without permission
Two acquaintances suddenly using 반말 on a whim
Use 존댓말; the older / higher-status person can initiate the switch by saying 말 놓아요.
Unilateral downshifting is presumptuous.

TOPIK 1 / A2Honorifics register

해요체 vs 합쇼체 — When to Use Which

해요체와 합쇼체

Within 존댓말 (polite speech), there are TWO main flavors: 해요체 (haeyoche, -아/어요 endings) and 합쇼체 (hapsyoche, -ㅂ니다/-습니다 endings). Both are polite, but they differ in formality and context. 해요체 is the EVERYDAY POLITE form — used in everyday conversations with strangers, in shops, at cafes, with colleagues, on social media, in friendly emails. It's polite but warm and approachable. 합쇼체 is the FORMAL POLITE form — used in news broadcasts, formal speeches, business presentations, customer-service announcements, military reporting, formal interviews, and official writing. It feels more distant and ceremonial. Both have the same meanings; only the register differs. Examples: (1) 해요체: 저는 학생이에요. 한국어를 공부해요. (2) 합쇼체: 저는 학생입니다. 한국어를 공부합니다. KEY GUIDANCE: As a TOPIK 1 learner, MASTER 해요체 first — it covers 90%+ of everyday polite Korean. Recognize 합쇼체 in news/announcements and use it in formal job interviews or written reports. Don't mix them in a single sentence (no 합니다요), and try to maintain consistency within a paragraph or conversation segment.

Key rule

해요체 (-아/어요): everyday polite. Use with strangers, shopkeepers, colleagues, in casual professional settings. 합쇼체 (-ㅂ니다/-습니다): formal polite. Use in news, speeches, business presentations, official writing. Don't mix within a sentence.

Examples

(In a cafe:) 아메리카노 한 잔 주세요. (Amerikano han jan juseyo.) — One Americano, please. (해요체)
아메리카노 한 잔 주십시오. (overly formal in cafe context)
Cafes/shops use 해요체 by default; 합쇼체 sounds excessive.
(News reader:) 오늘 서울 날씨는 맑겠습니다. (Oneul Seoul nalssineun makgesseumnida.) — Today's Seoul weather will be clear. (합쇼체)
오늘 서울 날씨는 맑겠어요.
News broadcasts use 합쇼체 for institutional formality.
(Job interview:) 저는 김민수입니다. 잘 부탁드립니다. (Jeoneun Kim Minsu-imnida. Jal butakdeurimnida.) — I am Kim Minsu. Pleased to meet you. (합쇼체)
저는 김민수예요. 잘 부탁드려요. (해요체 — too casual for interview)
Interviews demand 합쇼체 for opening introductions.

Common mistakes

Mixing 해요체 and 합쇼체 markers in one sentence
학생입니다요, 어디 가세요까?, 좋아합니다요
학생입니다 / 학생이에요. 어디 가세요? / 어디 갑니까? 좋아합니다 / 좋아해요.
One register per sentence; don't double up.
Using 합쇼체 in casual / friendly contexts (over-formal)
(To a friend:) 점심 먹었습니까? — feels too distant
점심 먹었어요? (with closer friend, even 점심 먹었어?)
합쇼체 with friends sounds formal, can feel cold or sarcastic.

TOPIK 1 / A1Honorifics register

Formulaic Greetings (안녕하세요, 감사합니다, 죄송합니다, 잘 먹겠습니다, 잘 부탁드립니다)

기본 인사말

Korean has a set of HIGHLY FORMULAIC GREETINGS used in specific social moments. Mastering these is essential — they're not just polite, they're expected. (1) 안녕하세요 — Hello (haeyoche, used any time of day). 안녕하십니까 (hapsyoche, more formal). Casual: 안녕. (2) 안녕히 가세요 — Goodbye (to someone leaving). 안녕히 계세요 — Goodbye (to someone staying). Both literally mean 'go/stay in peace'. (3) 감사합니다 / 고맙습니다 — Thank you (formal). 감사해요 / 고마워요 (haeyoche). 고마워 (casual). (4) 죄송합니다 — I'm sorry (formal). 죄송해요 (haeyoche). 미안해요 (casual sorry, less weight). 미안해 / 미안 (casual). (5) 잘 먹겠습니다 — Said BEFORE eating ('I will eat well'). 잘 먹었습니다 — Said AFTER eating ('I ate well'). (6) 잘 부탁드립니다 — Said when introducing yourself or asking someone for help ('Please take good care of me / I look forward to working with you'). 잘 부탁드려요 (haeyoche). (7) 천만에요 / 별말씀을요 — 'You're welcome / Don't mention it'. (8) 실례합니다 — 'Excuse me / pardon me' (formal interruption). 실례지만 — 'Excuse me, but...' (polite preamble). These phrases are PRE-MEMORIZED chunks Koreans use without thinking. Learn them as fixed phrases.

Key rule

Korean has fixed greeting formulas for specific social moments. Master 안녕하세요 (hello), 감사합니다 (thanks), 죄송합니다 (sorry), 잘 먹겠습니다/잘 먹었습니다 (before/after eating), 잘 부탁드립니다 (introductions). 안녕히 가세요 (to leaver) vs 안녕히 계세요 (to stayer).

Examples

안녕하세요. 저는 김민수예요. (Annyeonghaseyo. Jeoneun Kim Minsu-yeyo.) — Hello. I'm Kim Minsu.
안녕히 가세요. 저는 김민수예요. (using 'goodbye' instead of 'hello')
안녕하세요 = hello/greeting. 안녕히 가세요 = goodbye to someone leaving.
(Friend leaving your house:) 안녕히 가세요! (Annyeonghi gaseyo!) — Goodbye! (to leaver)
안녕히 계세요!
Use 안녕히 가세요 to someone GOING. 안녕히 계세요 to someone STAYING.
(Customer leaving a shop, to staff:) 안녕히 계세요! (Annyeonghi gyeseyo!) — Goodbye! (to those staying)
안녕히 가세요!
The customer is leaving; staff are staying. Customer says 계세요 ('stay well').

Common mistakes

Confusing 안녕히 가세요 (to leaver) and 안녕히 계세요 (to stayer)
Saying 안녕히 가세요 to staff when YOU leave the shop
안녕히 계세요 (you're leaving; staff stay)
Logic: 가세요 = go (you), 계세요 = stay (you).
Using 안녕하세요 as 'goodbye'
Leaving and saying 안녕하세요!
안녕히 가세요 / 안녕히 계세요
안녕하세요 = hello only. Goodbyes have their own forms.

TOPIK 1 / A1Counters numbers

Native Korean Numbers 1–99 (하나, 둘, 셋…)

고유어 수 (1–99)

Korean has TWO COMPLETE NUMBER SYSTEMS used in different contexts. NATIVE KOREAN NUMBERS (고유어 수) are: 1 = 하나, 2 = 둘, 3 = 셋, 4 = 넷, 5 = 다섯, 6 = 여섯, 7 = 일곱, 8 = 여덟, 9 = 아홉, 10 = 열. Tens: 20 = 스물, 30 = 서른, 40 = 마흔, 50 = 쉰, 60 = 예순, 70 = 일흔, 80 = 여든, 90 = 아흔. Combine: 21 = 스물하나, 35 = 서른다섯, 99 = 아흔아홉. CRITICAL: when followed by a counter, 하나/둘/셋/넷/스물 SHRINK: 한 (one), 두 (two), 세 (three), 네 (four), 스무 (twenty). So '1 person' = 한 명 (NOT 하나 명). 'twenty bottles' = 스무 병 (NOT 스물 병). Native numbers stop at 99 — beyond that, Korean uses Sino-Korean numbers (백, 천...). USE NATIVE NUMBERS for: counting people, hours of clock time, ages (under 100), counted objects (with most counters), 'how many' questions with counters. Limit: 1–99 only. Numbers from 100 up always use Sino-Korean.

Key rule

Native Korean numbers 1–99 (하나, 둘, ... 아흔아홉). Used for people, hours, ages, counted objects. SHORTEN before counters: 하나→한, 둘→두, 셋→세, 넷→네, 스물→스무. Limited to 99; from 100 use Sino-Korean.

Examples

한 사람 (han saram) — one person.
하나 사람
Before a counter (사람), 하나 shortens to 한.
스무 살이에요. (Seumu sar-ieyo.) — I'm 20 years old.
스물 살이에요.
스물 → 스무 before counter 살.
두 시예요. (Du si-yeyo.) — It's 2 o'clock.
둘 시예요.
Hours use native numbers; 둘 → 두 before 시.

Common mistakes

Forgetting to shorten 하나/둘/셋/넷/스물 before counters
하나 명, 둘 시, 셋 개, 넷 사람, 스물 살
한 명, 두 시, 세 개, 네 사람, 스무 살
These five forms shorten obligatorily before counters.
Trying to use native numbers for 100+ quantities
백 사람을 세었어요 — wait, this is sino + counter, OK. But 백 in counting big numbers is fine.
Native is limited to 1–99. Use Sino for 100+.
Native system stops at 아흔아홉 (99); larger quantities switch to Sino.

TOPIK 1 / A1Counters numbers

Sino-Korean Numbers 1–99 (일, 이, 삼…)

한자어 수 (1–99)

Sino-Korean numbers (한자어 수) are borrowed from Chinese. They're used for: minutes, money, dates, phone numbers, addresses, math, large numbers (100+). 1 = 일, 2 = 이, 3 = 삼, 4 = 사, 5 = 오, 6 = 육, 7 = 칠, 8 = 팔, 9 = 구, 10 = 십. Compounds: 11 = 십일, 12 = 십이, ..., 19 = 십구. 20 = 이십, 30 = 삼십, ..., 99 = 구십구. Note: tens are formed by 'ones' + 십 (이십 = 'two ten' = 20); ones come AFTER (이십일 = 21). Important pronunciation: when 6 (육) follows certain consonants, it can become 룩 (e.g., 육월 → 유월 'June' irregular). Sino numbers DO NOT shorten before counters. Used with: 분 (minutes), 원 (won), 월 (month), 일 (day), 호 (issue/number), 층 (floor). Examples: 1시 30분 (one o'clock 30 minutes — hour native, minute sino); 만 원 (10,000 won); 5월 6일 (May 6th).

Key rule

Sino-Korean numbers 1–99 (일, 이, 삼, 사, 오, 육, 칠, 팔, 구, 십). Used for minutes, money, dates, phone, addresses, math. NO shortening before counters. 1 typically dropped at start (100 = 백, not 일백).

Examples

삼십 분이에요. (Samsip bun-ieyo.) — It's 30 minutes.
서른 분이에요.
Minutes use Sino-Korean (삼십), not native (서른).
한 시 삼십 분이에요. (Han si samsip bun-ieyo.) — It's 1:30.
일 시 삼십 분이에요. / 한 시 서른 분이에요.
Hour native (한), minute Sino (삼십). Mixed system.
오월 오일이에요. (Owol o-ir-ieyo.) — It's May 5.
다섯 월 다섯 일이에요.
Months and dates use Sino-Korean only.

Common mistakes

Trying to shorten Sino numbers like native ones
한 분 (intending '1 minute') / 두 원 (intending '2 won')
일 분 / 이 원
Sino numbers do NOT shorten. 한 분 means '1 honorific person', not '1 minute'.
Using native numbers for minutes/money/dates
두 시 다섯 분 (intending '2:05')
두 시 오 분 (1=native hour, 5=sino minute)
Hours = native; minutes = Sino. Don't mix up.

TOPIK 1 / A2Counters numbers

Sino-Korean Large Numbers (백, 천, 만, 억)

한자어 큰 수

Sino-Korean numbers handle EVERYTHING from 100 up. Key place values: 백 (100), 천 (1,000), 만 (10,000 — the BIG difference from English), 십만 (100,000), 백만 (1,000,000), 천만 (10,000,000), 억 (100,000,000), 조 (1 trillion). Critical concept: Korean groups numbers in units of 10,000 (만), NOT 1,000 like English. So 100,000 is '십만' (10 × 만), not 'one hundred thousand'. 1,000,000 is '백만' (100 × 만). KEY RULE: when 1 starts a place-value sequence, it's DROPPED. So 100 = 백 (not 일백), 1,000 = 천 (not 일천), 10,000 = 만 (not 일만), 100,000,000 = 억 (not 일억). But INTERNAL 1s are typically retained: 110 = 백십 OR 백일십 (the 일 here is sometimes dropped, sometimes kept). Examples: 1,234 = 천이백삼십사; 12,345 = 만이천삼백사십오; 50,000 = 오만; 200,000 = 이십만; 1 million = 백만; 1 billion = 십억. PRACTICE: think in 만-groups: 1만 (10K), 100만 (1M = 'hundred ten-thousands'). 한국 has its own number-grouping logic.

Key rule

Sino-Korean large numbers: 백 (100), 천 (1K), 만 (10K), 억 (100M), 조 (1T). Group by 10,000 (만), not 1,000. Drop leading 1 (100 = 백, not 일백). Korean numbers think in 만-units.

Examples

백 원이에요. (Baek won-ieyo.) — It's 100 won.
일백 원이에요. (overly explicit; only OK in formal writing)
Drop the leading 1.
만 원이에요. (Man won-ieyo.) — It's 10,000 won.
일만 원이에요.
Drop leading 1; 만 alone = 10,000.
십만 원이에요. (Simman won-ieyo.) — It's 100,000 won.
백천 원이에요.
Korean groups by 만: 10만 = 십만. NOT '백천' (which doesn't make sense in Korean).

Common mistakes

Translating English '1,000' or '100,000' literally
백천 (intending 100,000)
십만 (10 × 만)
Korean has no separate place value for 100K beyond 십만. Group by 만.
Adding leading 1 to 백/천/만/억
일백, 일천, 일만, 일억 in casual speech
백, 천, 만, 억 (drop the 1)
Leading 1 dropped in normal usage; only retained in very formal/legal writing.

TOPIK 1 / A2Counters numbers

Native vs Sino: Which to Use

고유어와 한자어의 사용 구분

Korean's TWO NUMBER SYSTEMS pair with DIFFERENT counters and contexts. Master the choice: USE NATIVE NUMBERS (한, 두, 세, ...) for: (1) PEOPLE (with 명, 사람, 분): 두 명. (2) HOURS in clock time: 한 시. (3) AGES (under 100, with 살): 스무 살. (4) MOST OBJECTS (with 개, 장, 권, 병, 잔, 마리, etc.): 책 두 권. (5) COUNTING UP TO 99 in everyday quantities. USE SINO-KOREAN NUMBERS (일, 이, 삼, ...) for: (1) MINUTES in clock time: 30분. (2) MONTHS (월) and DATES (일): 5월 6일. (3) MONEY (원, 달러, 엔): 만 원. (4) PHONE/ID NUMBERS, addresses: 010-1234. (5) FLOORS (층): 3층. (6) GRADES, ISSUES: 1학년. (7) MATHEMATICAL CONTEXTS. (8) ALL NUMBERS 100+. MEMORIZATION TIP: pair counters with their fixed number system. The MOST COMMON cause of error is mixing them — '두 분' (two minutes? or two honorific people?) is ambiguous; '이 분' = 2 minutes, '두 분' = 2 honorific people. CLOCK TIME is the trickiest — it MIXES both: hour is native, minute is Sino. 두 시 삼십 분 = '2:30'. Master this combination first.

Key rule

Native numbers: people, hours, ages, most objects (1–99). Sino numbers: minutes, dates, money, phone, floors, grades, math, all 100+. Time MIXES: hour native + minute Sino (한 시 삼십 분).

Examples

두 사람이 와요. (Du saram-i wayo.) — Two people are coming.
이 사람이 와요. (intending two; sounds like 'this person')
People take native: 두. Sino 이 here means 'this'.
한 시 삼십 분이에요. (Han si samsip bun-ieyo.) — It's 1:30.
일 시 삼십 분 / 한 시 서른 분
Hour native (한), minute Sino (삼십). Mix is the rule.
스무 살이에요. (Seumu sar-ieyo.) — I'm 20 years old.
이십 살이에요. (sometimes acceptable in formal but native is standard)
Age uses native; 스무 (shortened 스물).

Common mistakes

Using Sino numbers for people / hours / age / objects
이 명, 일 시, 이십 살, 일 개
두 명, 한 시, 스무 살, 한 개
These contexts demand native numbers.
Using native numbers for minutes / dates / money / floor / grade
다섯 분 (minute), 다섯 월, 백 원에서 다섯 백 (intending 500), 셋 학년
오 분, 오 월, 오백 원, 삼 학년
These contexts demand Sino.

TOPIK 1 / A2Counters numbers

Ordinal Numbers (첫째 / 둘째 native; 첫 번째 / 두 번째 with 번째)

서수 (첫째 / 첫 번째)

Korean has TWO main ways to express ordinal numbers ('first', 'second', 'third'...): (1) NATIVE ORDINAL FORMS — 첫째 (1st), 둘째 (2nd), 셋째 (3rd), 넷째 (4th), 다섯째 (5th), and so on. These are noun-like and used for: family birth order ('the firstborn'), ranking ('first place'), and as standalone ordinals ('first, second, third — listing'). (2) NUMBER + 번째 — the modular form: 첫 번째 (1st time/place), 두 번째 (2nd), 세 번째 (3rd), 네 번째, 다섯 번째. This pairs the (often-shortened) native number with 번째 ('-th time'). Used for: ordering events, sequences, position in a list. KEY DIFFERENCE: 첫째/둘째 are STANDALONE words ('the firstborn' / 'the second'); 첫 번째/두 번째 typically MODIFY a noun ('the first time / the first child'). 첫째 is a noun: '저는 둘째예요' = 'I'm the second-born'. 첫 번째 is more like an adjective: '첫 번째 학생' = 'the first student'. CRUCIAL IRREGULARITY: '1st' = 첫째 / 첫 번째 (NOT 한째 / 한 번째). The '1st' form uses 첫, not the regular shortening 한. From 2nd onward, the pattern is regular: 둘째 → 두 번째 (or sometimes 둘째 번). For TOPIK 1, focus on 첫째–다섯째 and 첫 번째–다섯 번째.

Key rule

Two ordinal systems: (1) -째 forms (첫째, 둘째, 셋째 — standalone ordinal nouns). (2) 번째 forms (첫 번째, 두 번째, 세 번째 — modifying ordinals before a noun). 1st is irregular: 첫 (not 한). From 2nd, use shortening rule.

Examples

저는 우리 집 둘째예요. (Jeoneun uri jip duljjae-yeyo.) — I'm the second child in my family.
저는 우리 집 두째예요.
Standalone ordinal: 둘째 (NOT 두째). Note 둘 stays as 둘 in -째 form.
첫 번째 학생이 누구예요? (Cheot beonjjae haksaeng-i nuguyeyo?) — Who's the first student?
한 번째 학생이 누구예요?
1st = 첫 (irregular), NOT 한.
두 번째 만남이에요. (Du beonjjae mannam-ieyo.) — This is the second meeting.
둘 번째 만남이에요.
Before 번째: 둘 → 두 (shortened).

Common mistakes

Using 한째 / 한 번째 instead of 첫째 / 첫 번째
한째 학생, 한 번째 자리
첫째 학생, 첫 번째 자리
1st is irregular: 첫, not 한.
Forgetting to shorten 둘/셋/넷 before 번째
둘 번째, 셋 번째, 넷 번째
두 번째, 세 번째, 네 번째
Apply native-number shortening rule.

TOPIK 1 / A1Counters numbers

Counters for People (명, 사람, 분 honorific)

사람 단위 (명·사람·분)

Korean has THREE counters for people, all paired with NATIVE Korean numbers: (1) 명 — neutral, the most common counter for people in everyday Korean. 친구 두 명 ('two friends'), 학생 다섯 명 ('five students'). (2) 사람 — literal 'person', more general/spoken-friendly. 두 사람 ('two people'). Often interchangeable with 명. (3) 분 — HONORIFIC counter, used when the people deserve respect (elders, teachers, customers, esteemed guests). 손님 세 분 ('three guests, honorific'). MEMORIZATION: 명 and 사람 are roughly equivalent for casual contexts; 분 marks respect. NUMBER PATTERN: native + counter, with shortening (한 명, 두 명, 세 명, 네 명, 다섯 명, ..., 스무 명). For 1: 한 명 / 한 사람 / 한 분 (NOT 하나 명). The number 'how many people' question: 몇 명이에요? (neutral) / 몇 분이세요? (honorific). Common in restaurants, cafes — '저희 일행은 4명입니다' ('our party is 4'). FAMILY CONTEXTS: 가족 = family; 가족이 몇 명이에요? = 'How many family members?' Answer: 네 명이에요 ('four people'). Don't use 분 with your own family (humble convention).

Key rule

People counters with native numbers: 명 (neutral, most common), 사람 (general, slightly informal), 분 (honorific). Standard pattern: native number + counter. Use 분 with elders/customers/teachers; 명 for general/family.

Examples

친구가 두 명 와요. (Chinguga du myeong wayo.) — Two friends are coming.
친구가 이 명 와요.
People counter takes native: 두 명.
손님 세 분 오셨어요. (Sonnim se bun osyeosseoyo.) — Three guests have arrived. (honorific)
손님 세 명 오셨어요. (acceptable casually but 분 fits the honorific context)
Customers/guests deserve 분.
우리 가족은 네 명이에요. (Uri gajog-eun ne myeong-ieyo.) — My family has four members.
우리 가족은 네 분이에요. (using 분 for own family — over-honorific, breaks humility)
Don't use 분 for your own family.

Common mistakes

Using Sino numbers with people counters
이 명, 삼 명, 사 명
두 명, 세 명, 네 명
People counters require native numbers.
Using 분 for own family (over-honorific, humble violation)
우리 가족은 네 분이에요.
우리 가족은 네 명이에요.
Speaking about own family humbly; use 명.

TOPIK 1 / A2Counters numbers

Basic Object Counters (개, 장, 권, 병, 잔, 마리)

기본 단위 명사

Korean uses COUNTERS (단위 명사 / 'unit nouns') for objects, just like Japanese. The counter depends on the type of object. Six essential TOPIK 1 counters, all paired with NATIVE numbers: (1) 개 (gae) — general items / pieces. The most versatile. 사과 두 개 ('two apples'), 가방 하나 — wait, 가방 한 개 ('one bag'). (2) 장 (jang) — flat sheets (paper, photos, tickets, cards). 종이 세 장 ('three sheets of paper'). (3) 권 (gwon) — books, volumes, notebooks. 책 한 권 ('one book'). (4) 병 (byeong) — bottles. 맥주 두 병 ('two beers'). (5) 잔 (jan) — cups/glasses (drinks). 커피 한 잔 ('one cup of coffee'). (6) 마리 (mari) — animals (mammals, fish, birds, insects). 강아지 두 마리 ('two puppies'), 물고기 세 마리 ('three fish'). KEY RULE: number + counter, with shortening (한, 두, 세, 네, 스무). 물건 + 개 is the SAFE DEFAULT if you don't know the specific counter — 개 works for almost any concrete object. Used position: NOUN + (particle) + NUMBER + COUNTER + (rest of sentence). 사과를 두 개 샀어요 ('I bought two apples'). The number+counter often follows the noun in Korean.

Key rule

Native numbers + counter. Six basic: 개 (general items), 장 (flat sheets), 권 (books), 병 (bottles), 잔 (cups), 마리 (animals). Standard order: NOUN + (particle) + NUMBER + COUNTER. 개 is the safe default.

Examples

사과를 두 개 샀어요. (Sagwa-reul du gae sasseoyo.) — I bought two apples.
사과를 둘 사 / 사과 두 개를 샀어요. (acceptable but the counter takes the case marker on the noun)
Standard: noun + particle + number + counter. 사과 + 를 + 두 + 개.
책이 다섯 권 있어요. (Chaeg-i daseot gwon isseoyo.) — There are 5 books.
책이 다섯 개 있어요. (acceptable but 권 is more specific for books)
Books take 권. 개 is generic but 권 is preferred.
맥주 두 병 주세요. (Maekju du byeong juseyo.) — Two beers, please.
맥주 두 잔 주세요. (= 'two glasses of beer' — different)
Bottle vs cup distinction. 병 = bottle; 잔 = cup/glass.

Common mistakes

Using 개 for things that have a specific counter
책 두 개, 맥주 두 개, 강아지 두 개
책 두 권, 맥주 두 병, 강아지 두 마리
개 is generic; specific counters are preferred when applicable.
Mixing 병 and 잔 (bottle vs cup)
맥주 한 잔 (intending 'one bottle of beer')
맥주 한 병
병 = bottle; 잔 = cup. Different vessels.

TOPIK 1 / A1Counters numbers

Telling Time (시 native + 분 sino)

시간 말하기 (시·분)

Telling time in Korean MIXES both number systems: HOUR uses NATIVE numbers, MINUTE uses SINO numbers. Pattern: NATIVE + 시 + SINO + 분. 한 시 (1 o'clock), 두 시 삼십 분 (2:30), 다섯 시 십오 분 (5:15), 열두 시 (12 o'clock). Hour shortenings (1-4): 한 시, 두 시, 세 시, 네 시. AM/PM markers: 오전 (AM, before noon), 오후 (PM, after noon). 오전 9시 = 9 AM; 오후 3시 = 3 PM. Common time words: 정각 (exactly), 반 (half past, e.g., 두 시 반 = 2:30), 삼십 분 = 30 minutes (= 반). Asking time: 지금 몇 시예요? ('What time is it now?'). Common minute multiples: 5 minutes = 오 분, 10 = 십 분, 15 = 십오 분, 20 = 이십 분, 25 = 이십오 분, 30 = 삼십 분 / 반, 45 = 사십오 분. Korean uses 24-hour time in formal contexts (15시 = 3 PM in writing) but spoken Korean prefers 오후 + 12-hour. NOON = 정오 (12:00 PM); MIDNIGHT = 자정 (12:00 AM).

Key rule

Telling time: NATIVE hour + 시 + SINO minute + 분. Hour shortens (한, 두, 세, 네, 열두). 오전 = AM, 오후 = PM. 반 = 30 min (half past). 정각 = exactly. 시간 (duration) takes native; 분 (minute) takes Sino.

Examples

지금 두 시 삼십 분이에요. (Jigeum du si samsip bun-ieyo.) — It's now 2:30.
지금 이 시 서른 분이에요.
Hour native (두), minute Sino (삼십). Mix is mandatory.
오전 아홉 시에 회의가 있어요. (Ojeon ahop si-e hoeui-ga isseoyo.) — There's a meeting at 9 AM.
9 AM에 회의가 있어요.
AM = 오전 (placed before time).
오후 다섯 시 반에 만나요. (Ohu daseot si ban-e mannayo.) — Let's meet at 5:30 PM.
오후 다섯 시 삼십 분에 만나요. (also OK; 반 is more conversational)
5:30 PM = 오후 + 다섯 시 + 반 (or 삼십 분).

Common mistakes

Using Sino for hours
이 시예요. (intending 2 o'clock)
두 시예요.
Hour → native.
Using native for minutes
삼십 분 → 서른 분 (intending '30 minutes')
삼십 분
Minute → Sino.

TOPIK 1 / A1Counters numbers

Dates (월, 일) and Days of Week (월요일~일요일)

날짜와 요일

Dates in Korean use SINO-KOREAN numbers throughout. (1) MONTHS: 월 (wol). 1월 = 일월, 2월 = 이월, 3월 = 삼월, 4월 = 사월, 5월 = 오월, 6월 = 유월 (irregular!), 7월 = 칠월, 8월 = 팔월, 9월 = 구월, 10월 = 시월 (irregular!), 11월 = 십일월, 12월 = 십이월. ONLY June and October are irregular. (2) DAYS OF MONTH: 일 (il). 1일 = 일 일, 2일 = 이 일, 5일 = 오 일, 15일 = 십오 일, 25일 = 이십오 일, 31일 = 삼십일 일. (3) YEAR: 년 (nyeon). 2025년 = 이천이십오년. (4) DAYS OF WEEK: each ends in 요일 (yo-il, 'day-of-the-week'). 월요일 (Mon, 'moon-day'), 화요일 (Tue, 'fire-day'), 수요일 (Wed, 'water-day'), 목요일 (Thu, 'wood-day'), 금요일 (Fri, 'metal/gold-day'), 토요일 (Sat, 'earth-day'), 일요일 (Sun, 'sun-day'). The week starts with Monday in Korea. STANDARD ORDER: YEAR + MONTH + DAY + DAY-OF-WEEK. 2025년 5월 15일 목요일. With particles: 5월 15일에 만나요 ('Let's meet on May 15'). KEY: dates take 에 for 'on/at'.

Key rule

Dates use Sino numbers + 월 / 일 / 년. Irregularities: 6월 = 유월, 10월 = 시월. Days of week end in -요일 (월/화/수/목/금/토/일). Order: 년 + 월 + 일 + 요일. Use 에 for 'on (date/day)'.

Examples

오늘은 5월 15일이에요. (Oneur-eun owol sib-o ir-ieyo.) — Today is May 15.
오늘은 다섯월 십오일이에요.
Months and days use Sino-Korean exclusively.
유월에 한국에 가요. (Yuwor-e hangug-e gayo.) — I'm going to Korea in June.
육월에 한국에 가요.
June = 유월 (irregular).
시월 9일은 한글날이에요. (Siwol guir-eun Hangeullar-ieyo.) — October 9 is Hangul Day.
십월 9일은 한글날이에요.
October = 시월 (irregular).

Common mistakes

Using native numbers for months/days
다섯 월, 다섯 일
오월, 오 일
Months and days are Sino throughout.
Saying 육월 / 십월 (regular Sino)
육월에 갈게요. / 십월이 좋아요.
유월에 갈게요. / 시월이 좋아요.
June and October have irregular forms (유월, 시월).

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TOPIK 1 Grammar — 65 Topics & Common Mistakes

Polite Informal Present 해요체 (-아/어요)

Formal Polite Present 합쇼체 (-(스)ㅂ니다 / -(스)ㅂ니까)

Past Tense (-았/었어요 / -았/었습니다)

Future / Probability (-(으)ㄹ 거예요 / -(으)ㄹ 겁니다)

Copula 이다 / 아니다 (-이에요/예요, 아니에요)

있다 / 없다 — Existence and Possession

Short-Form Negation: 안 + verb

Long-Form Negation: -지 않다

Inability Negation: 못 + verb / -지 못하다

Negative Imperative -지 마세요 / -지 말다

Basic Irregular Stems (ㅂ, ㄷ — 춥다/덥다, 듣다)

Want to Do (-고 싶다 / -고 싶어하다)

Try Doing (-아/어 보다)

Present Progressive (-고 있다)

Resultative State (-아/어 있다)

Polite Request: -아/어 주세요

잘하다 / 못하다 — Be Good / Bad At

Descriptive Verbs as Sentence Endings

Modifying a Noun: -(으)ㄴ for adj, -는 for action verbs (present)

Intensifiers (너무, 아주, 잘, 많이, 조금, 별로)

Color Descriptive Verbs (빨갛다, 노랗다, 파랗다, 까맣다, 하얗다)

ㅎ-Irregular Descriptive Verbs (이렇다, 그렇다, 빨갛다 → 빨개요) — Basic

Topic Particle 은/는

Subject Particle 이/가

은/는 vs 이/가 — Basic Contrast

Object Particle 을/를

Genitive 의 — Possessive Marker

에 — Static Location, Destination (with motion verbs), and Time Point

에서 — Location of Action / Origin

에 vs 에서 — Contrast (existence vs action)

도 — Also / Too

만 — Only

와/과, 하고, (이)랑 — With / And (three register variants)

부터 / 까지 — From / Until (places, times)

Basic Personal Pronouns (저/나, 너/당신, 그/그녀, 우리/저희)

이것 / 그것 / 저것 / 어느 것 — Thing Demonstratives

여기 / 거기 / 저기 / 어디 — Place Demonstratives

이 / 그 / 저 + Noun (Demonstrative Determiners)

무엇 / 누구 / 어디 / 언제 — Basic Question Words

어떻게 / 왜 / 얼마 / 몇 — Manner, Cause, Quantity Question Words

Basic SOV Word Order

Subject / Topic Omission in Context

Yes/No Questions in 해요체 (rising intonation)

Position of Question Words (in-situ)

Coordination -고 — And / And Then (sequence)

Coordination -지만 — But

-아서 / -어서 — Because / And Then (sequential cause) — Basic

Hangul: Consonants and Vowels (자음과 모음)

Hangul Syllable Block Structure (CV / CVC / CVCC)

Batchim — Final Consonants and Their Seven Pronunciations

Double Consonants (ㄲ/ㄸ/ㅃ/ㅆ/ㅉ) and Diphthongs

Korean Spacing Rules (Basic 띄어쓰기)

Punctuation (Korean conventions: . , ? ! 「」『』)

존댓말 vs 반말 — Concept and When to Use

해요체 vs 합쇼체 — When to Use Which

Formulaic Greetings (안녕하세요, 감사합니다, 죄송합니다, 잘 먹겠습니다, 잘 부탁드립니다)

Native Korean Numbers 1–99 (하나, 둘, 셋…)

Sino-Korean Numbers 1–99 (일, 이, 삼…)

Sino-Korean Large Numbers (백, 천, 만, 억)

Native vs Sino: Which to Use

Ordinal Numbers (첫째 / 둘째 native; 첫 번째 / 두 번째 with 번째)

Counters for People (명, 사람, 분 honorific)

Basic Object Counters (개, 장, 권, 병, 잔, 마리)

Telling Time (시 native + 분 sino)

Dates (월, 일) and Days of Week (월요일~일요일)