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TOPIK 2 Grammar — 60 Topics & Common Mistakes

Every TOPIK 2 topic below gives you the key rule, real correct-vs-incorrect examples, and the mistakes learners actually make — covering connectors, verb usage, verb conjugation and more.

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TOPIK 2 / A2Verb conjugation

Past Tense with Irregular Stems (ㅂ, ㄷ, ㅅ, 르, 으, ㄹ-drop)

과거 시제 불규칙

When you put irregular verbs into the past tense (-았/었어요), the same stem changes you saw in present tense apply. (1) ㅂ-irregular: 춥다 → 추웠어요, 어렵다 → 어려웠어요. (2) ㄷ-irregular: 듣다 → 들었어요, 걷다 → 걸었어요. (3) ㅅ-irregular: 짓다 → 지었어요, 낫다 → 나았어요. (4) 르-irregular: 모르다 → 몰랐어요, 다르다 → 달랐어요. (5) 으-drop: 바쁘다 → 바빴어요, 예쁘다 → 예뻤어요. (6) ㄹ-drop: 살다 → 살았어요 (no drop here — ㄹ stays before 았/었!). KEY POINT: The same vowel-harmony and irregularity rules from present tense (-아/어요) carry over directly to past tense (-았/었어요). So 추워요 (present) → 추웠어요 (past); 들어요 → 들었어요. The 으-drop rule applies fully: 바쁘다 + 았어요 → 바ㅃ + 았어요 → 바빴어요. PRONUNCIATION REMINDER: past forms keep the ㅂ-/ㄷ-irregular changes from present.

Key rule

Past tense -았/었어요 follows the same stem-change rules as present -아/어요 for ㅂ, ㄷ, ㅅ, 르, 으-drop, ㅎ irregulars. ㄹ STAYS in past (no drop before vowel endings). ㅅ-irregulars: ㅅ drops, vowels combine without contraction (지었어요, 나았어요).

Examples

  • 어제 정말 추웠어요. (Eoje jeongmal chuwosseoyo.) — Yesterday was really cold.
    어제 정말 춥었어요.

    ㅂ-irregular: 춥 + 었 → 추 + 우 + 었 → 추웠어요.

  • 음악을 들었어요. (Eumag-eul deureosseoyo.) — I listened to music.
    음악을 듣었어요.

    ㄷ-irregular: 듣 + 었 → 들 + 었 → 들었어요.

  • 한국어를 잘 몰랐어요. (Hangugeo-reul jal mollasseoyo.) — I didn't know Korean well.
    한국어를 잘 모르았어요.

    르-irregular: 모르 + 았 → 몰 + 랐 → 몰랐어요.

Common mistakes

  • Treating irregulars as regular in past

    춥었어요, 듣었어요, 모르았어요
    추웠어요, 들었어요, 몰랐어요

    Same irregularity rules from present apply to past.

  • Dropping ㄹ in past forms (it shouldn't)

    삼았어요, 만으었어요
    살았어요, 만들었어요

    ㄹ stays before vowel-initial endings; only drops before -ㅂ-, -ㅅ-, -ㄴ-.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb conjugation

-는 중이다 — In the Middle of Doing

-는 중이다

-는 중이다 emphasizes that an action is IN PROGRESS / RIGHT IN THE MIDDLE of happening — slightly stronger than -고 있다. Attach -는 중이다 to the verb stem and conjugate 이다 (the copula) at the end. Examples: 공부하는 중이에요 ('I'm in the middle of studying'); 회의 중이에요 ('I'm in a meeting' — with noun 회의); 책을 읽는 중이에요 ('I'm in the middle of reading a book'); 자는 중이에요 ('She's in the middle of sleeping'). NUANCE vs -고 있다: (1) -고 있다 = neutral 'is doing' (action in progress). (2) -는 중이다 = 'is RIGHT NOW in the middle of doing' (more emphatic on the temporary, ongoing nature). Both can be interchangeable in many contexts, but -는 중이다 emphasizes 'right now / during this moment'. PAST: -는 중이었어요 ('was in the middle of doing'). NEGATIVE: -지 않는 중이다 (rare) — usually rephrased. With NOUNS that refer to activities (회의, 식사, 공부), 중이에요 attaches directly: 식사 중이에요 ('I'm having a meal'), 운전 중이에요 ('I'm driving'), 회의 중이에요 ('I'm in a meeting'). Common with phone politeness: 통화 중이에요 ('I'm on the phone').

Key rule

-는 중이다 = emphatic 'in the middle of doing'. Verb stem + -는 중 + 이다. NOUN + 중이에요 also works for activity nouns (회의 중, 식사 중, 통화 중). Action verbs only.

Examples

  • 지금 공부하는 중이에요. (Jigeum gongbuhaneun jung-ieyo.) — I'm in the middle of studying right now.
    지금 공부 중에 있어요.

    Standard: -는 중이에요. The fixed expression.

  • 회의 중이에요. (Hoeui jung-ieyo.) — I'm in a meeting.
    회의를 하는 중이에요. (acceptable but 회의 중이에요 is more idiomatic)

    Activity noun + 중이에요 is the natural form.

  • 운전 중이에요. (Unjeon jung-ieyo.) — I'm driving.
    운전하는 중이에요. (also OK)

    Both work; 운전 중이에요 is the common 'don't text me' phrase.

Common mistakes

  • Adding tense to the verb stem before -는 중

    공부했는 중, 갔는 중
    공부하는 중, 가는 중

    -는 중 attaches to the BARE STEM. Tense lives on 이다.

  • Using -는 중이다 with descriptive verbs

    예쁜 중이에요, 비싼 중이에요
    Use -아/어요 directly: 예뻐요, 비싸요

    Progressive doesn't apply to states.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb conjugation

Future / Speaker Intention -(으)ㄹ게요

-(으)ㄹ게요

-(으)ㄹ게요 expresses the SPEAKER'S INTENTION or PROMISE to do something — typically TO/FOR the listener's benefit or in response to them. Attach to vowel-ending stems as -ㄹ게요; consonant-ending stems as -을게요. Example: 제가 도와 드릴게요 ('I'll help you'). 잠깐만 기다려 주세요. 곧 갈게요. ('Wait a moment. I'll go right away.') Used: (1) when promising or volunteering to do something. (2) when telling someone what you're about to do. (3) only with 1st person (I/we) — never 'you' or 'he'. KEY DIFFERENCE from -(으)ㄹ 거예요 (general future): -(으)ㄹ 거예요 = 'I will (factual prediction)'; -(으)ㄹ게요 = 'I'll (do this for you/now)'. Examples: 내일 비가 올 거예요 (general future, prediction); 내일 다시 올게요 (speaker's commitment, 'I'll come again tomorrow'). Pronunciation: -(으)ㄹ게요 is pronounced [-ㄹ께요] (tensified 게 → 께). Hapsyoche: -(으)ㄹ게요 → -(으)ㄹ게요 doesn't exist; use -겠습니다 instead for formal speaker-intention.

Key rule

-(으)ㄹ게요 = first-person speaker intention/promise. Vowel-stem: -ㄹ게요. Consonant-stem: -을게요. ㄹ-final: just 게요. Pronounced [-ㄹ께요]. Only for I/we; declarative only. Hapsyoche: -겠습니다.

Examples

  • 제가 도와 드릴게요. (Jega dowa deurilgeyo.) — I'll help you.
    제가 도와 드릴 거예요. (= 'I will help' — neutral future, less personal)

    Speaker commitment to listener → -(으)ㄹ게요.

  • 잠깐만 기다리세요. 곧 갈게요. (Jamkkanman gidariseyo. Got galgeyo.) — Wait a moment. I'll go right away.
    잠깐만 기다리세요. 곧 갈 거예요.

    Promising listener → -(으)ㄹ게요.

  • 내일 다시 올게요. (Naeil dasi olgeyo.) — I'll come again tomorrow.
    내일 다시 올 거예요. (more neutral; less commitment)

    Personal commitment with listener-benefit → -(으)ㄹ게요.

Common mistakes

  • Using -(으)ㄹ게요 with third-person subject

    친구가 갈게요. / 동생이 도와줄게요.
    친구가 갈 거예요. / 동생이 도와줄 거예요.

    First-person only. Third person uses -(으)ㄹ 거예요.

  • Using -(으)ㄹ게요 in a question

    갈게요? (intending 'shall I go?')
    갈까요? (-(으)ㄹ까요? for proposals/wonderings)

    -(으)ㄹ게요 is statement-only.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb conjugation

-(으)ㄹ까요? — Shall We? / I Wonder

-(으)ㄹ까요?

-(으)ㄹ까요? has TWO main meanings: (1) PROPOSAL — 'Shall we?', 'Should I?', 'Should we?'. 같이 갈까요? ('Shall we go together?'), 뭐 먹을까요? ('What shall we eat?'), 도와드릴까요? ('Shall I help you?'). (2) WONDERING / SPECULATION — 'I wonder', 'do you think...?'. 비가 올까요? ('I wonder if it'll rain / Do you think it'll rain?'), 친구가 올까요? ('I wonder if my friend will come?'). FORM: vowel-stem + -ㄹ까요?; consonant-stem + -을까요?; ㄹ-final + 까요? (drops, then 까요). Pronunciation: [-(으)ㄹ까요] (tense 까). Hapsyoche: -(으)ㄹ까요 → -(으)ㄹ까요 doesn't have a direct hapsyoche; for formal proposals use -(으)시겠습니까. KEY: -(으)ㄹ까요 with FIRST PERSON = proposing to do (Shall I/we?). With THIRD PERSON or impersonal subjects = wondering (I wonder if...). 우리 같이 영화 볼까요? = proposal. 그 영화 재미있을까요? = wondering.

Key rule

-(으)ㄹ까요? = (1) proposal 'Shall we / Shall I?' with 1st person, (2) wondering / speculation 'I wonder if?' with 3rd person or impersonal. Vowel-stem + -ㄹ까요?, consonant + -을까요?, ㄹ-final + 까요?. Pronounced [-(으)ㄹ까요].

Examples

  • 같이 영화 볼까요? (Gachi yeonghwa bolkkayo?) — Shall we watch a movie together?
    같이 영화 볼게요?

    Proposal → -(으)ㄹ까요?. -(으)ㄹ게요 is statement, not question.

  • 뭐 먹을까요? (Mwo meogeulkkayo?) — What shall we eat?
    뭐 먹을 거예요? (= 'What will you eat?', different)

    Proposal asks for collaboration. -(으)ㄹ 거예요 asks about facts.

  • 비가 올까요? (Biga olkkayo?) — I wonder if it'll rain.
    비가 올 거예요? (= 'Will it rain?', plain question)

    Wondering / speculation → -(으)ㄹ까요?. Not yes/no question form.

Common mistakes

  • Confusing proposal -(으)ㄹ까요? with commitment -(으)ㄹ게요

    같이 갈게요? (intending 'Shall we go?')
    같이 갈까요?

    -(으)ㄹ게요 is statement-form first-person commitment; -(으)ㄹ까요? is question-form proposal.

  • Using -(으)ㄹ까요? for plain yes/no future questions

    내일 학교에 갈까요? (when meaning 'Are you going to school tomorrow?')
    내일 학교에 갈 거예요? (plain question) / 가요? (haeyoche)

    -(으)ㄹ까요? specifically proposes or speculates; for plain queries, use -(으)ㄹ 거예요? or -아/어요?.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb conjugation

Suggestion -(으)ㅂ시다 (Let's — formal)

-(으)ㅂ시다

-(으)ㅂ시다 means 'Let's (do)' — a formal proposal to do something together. It belongs to the 합쇼체 (formal polite) register. Vowel-stem + -ㅂ시다, consonant-stem + -읍시다. Examples: 같이 갑시다 ('Let's go together'), 영화를 봅시다 ('Let's watch a movie'), 한국어를 공부합시다 ('Let's study Korean'), 시작합시다 ('Let's start'). KEY ISSUE: -(으)ㅂ시다, despite being formal, can sound MILDLY PRESUMPTUOUS or commanding when used to people OLDER or HIGHER in status. Use it with peers/colleagues/below-status, not bosses or elders. SAFER ALTERNATIVES TO HIGHER-STATUS LISTENERS: -(으)시겠습니까? ('Would you do?'), -(으)ㄹ까요? ('Shall we?'). HAEYOCHE EQUIVALENT: -아/어요 with proposal intonation/context (같이 가요!), or -(으)ㄹ까요?. CASUAL: -자 (covered next). NEGATIVE: -지 맙시다 ('Let's not'). 가지 맙시다 ('Let's not go'). PAST: not used (it's a proposal — future-oriented). Common formula in formal contexts: 시작합시다 (let's start), 끝냅시다 (let's finish).

Key rule

-(으)ㅂ시다 = formal 'Let's'. Vowel-stem + -ㅂ시다, consonant + -읍시다, ㄹ-final drops ㄹ + ㅂ시다. Pragmatically can feel slightly commanding; use with peers/below-status. For higher status, use -(으)ㄹ까요? or -(으)시겠습니까?.

Examples

  • 같이 갑시다. (Gachi gapsida.) — Let's go together.
    같이 가읍시다.

    Vowel-stem 가- + -ㅂ시다. Don't add -읍-.

  • 한국어를 공부합시다. (Hangugeo-reul gongbuhapsida.) — Let's study Korean.
    한국어를 공부하읍시다.

    공부하- (vowel-ending after 하) + -ㅂ시다.

  • 한국 음식을 먹읍시다. (Hanguk eumsig-eul meogeupsida.) — Let's eat Korean food.
    한국 음식을 먹ㅂ시다.

    Consonant-stem 먹- + -읍시다.

Common mistakes

  • Using -(으)ㅂ시다 with high-status listeners

    (To boss:) 회의 시작합시다.
    회의 시작하시겠습니까? / 회의 시작할까요?

    -(으)ㅂ시다 can sound presumptuous to seniors. Use -(으)시겠습니까? or -(으)ㄹ까요?.

  • Forgetting vowel/consonant attachment

    먹ㅂ시다 (consonant-stem with wrong attachment)
    먹읍시다

    Consonant-stem needs -읍시다.

TOPIK 2 / B1Verb conjugation

Casual Proposal/Intent -(으)ㄹ래(요), -자

-(으)ㄹ래요 / -자

Two casual ways to propose actions: (1) -(으)ㄹ래(요) — 'will you / shall we / I want to'. Casual to neutral-polite proposal or expression of intent. Vowel-stem + -ㄹ래요; consonant-stem + -을래요. Examples: 같이 갈래요? ('Will you go with me / Shall we go?'); 뭐 먹을래요? ('What do you want to eat / What shall we eat?'); 저는 안 갈래요 ('I don't want to go'). (2) -자 — 'Let's' (반말). Used among close friends or younger people. Just attach to verb stem: 가자 ('Let's go'), 먹자 ('Let's eat'), 보자 ('Let's see/watch'). KEY DIFFERENCES: (1) -(으)ㄹ래요? in question = 'Will you / shall we?' (asking listener's preference). (2) -(으)ㄹ래요 in statement = 'I want to / I will' (expressing one's preference). (3) -자 = casual 'Let's', requires close relationship. PAST: -았/었을래요 (rarely used; expresses 'I would have'). With NEGATIVE: 안 갈래요 ('I don't want to go'); 안 먹을래요 ('I don't want to eat'). USE: -(으)ㄹ래요 is a softer, more conversational alternative to -(으)ㄹ까요? and -(으)ㅂ시다.

Key rule

-(으)ㄹ래요 (casual proposal/preference): Q = 'Will you?' / 'Shall we?'; statement = 'I want to'. Vowel-stem + -ㄹ래요, consonant + -을래요, ㄹ-final + 래요. -자 = casual 'Let's' (반말). Negative -지 말자 / 안 -(으)ㄹ래요.

Examples

  • 같이 갈래요? (Gachi gallaeyo?) — Will you go with me?
    같이 갑시다? (intending 'Shall we go?', sounds presumptuous)

    -(으)ㄹ래요? is a friendly proposal.

  • 뭐 먹을래요? (Mwo meogeullaeyo?) — What do you want to eat?
    뭐 먹을 거예요?

    -(으)ㄹ래요? asks listener's preference; -(으)ㄹ 거예요? asks about facts.

  • 저는 안 갈래요. (Jeoneun an gallaeyo.) — I don't want to go.
    저는 안 갈게요. (more committed, 'I won't go')

    -(으)ㄹ래요 expresses preference; -(으)ㄹ게요 expresses commitment.

Common mistakes

  • Using -자 with strangers/elders

    (To shopkeeper:) 같이 가자!
    같이 가요! / 같이 갈래요? (haeyoche)

    -자 is 반말; only with close friends or younger.

  • Confusing -(으)ㄹ래요 (preference) with -(으)ㄹ게요 (commitment)

    Strict alternation between them based on contexts where one fits better
    Match nuance: -(으)ㄹ래요 = preference/wanting; -(으)ㄹ게요 = commitment. Some contexts allow either.

    Subtle but real difference.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb conjugation

Imperative -(으)세요 (polite) / -아/어 (informal) / -아/어라 (해라체)

명령형 어미

Korean has imperative endings at multiple politeness levels: (1) -(으)세요 — POLITE (해요체 honorific). The standard polite imperative; combines honorific -(으)시- with -어요. Vowel-stem + -세요; consonant-stem + -으세요. 가다 → 가세요, 먹다 → 먹으세요, 앉다 → 앉으세요. (2) -아/어 — CASUAL (반말 / 해체). Drop 요 from -아/어요. 가 → 가, 먹어 → 먹어. Used with close friends/younger. (3) -아/어라 — DIRECT/STRONG (해라체). Vowel/consonant + -아라/어라. 가다 → 가라, 먹다 → 먹어라. Used with children, in instructions, in commands. (4) -(으)십시오 — VERY FORMAL (합쇼체). 가십시오, 먹으십시오. Used in announcements, formal instructions. NEGATIVE IMPERATIVES: -지 마세요 (polite), -지 마 (casual), -지 말아라 (해라체), -지 마십시오 (very formal). KEY POINT: -(으)세요 already includes the honorific -시-, so it's polite by default. For descriptive verbs (예쁘다, 좋다), imperatives don't apply (you can't command someone to BE pretty).

Key rule

Imperatives by register: -(으)십시오 (very formal) > -(으)세요 (polite) > -아/어요 (haeyoche neutral) > -아/어 (casual banmal) > -아/어라 (direct, parent-to-child / written instructions). Negatives: -지 마세요 / -지 마 / -지 마라 / -지 마십시오.

Examples

  • 여기 앉으세요. (Yeogi anjeuseyo.) — Please sit here.
    여기 앉아라. (sounds blunt to a stranger)

    -(으)세요 = polite standard. -아/어라 is direct/strong, not for strangers.

  • 어서 오십시오. (Eoseo osipsio.) — Welcome (formal).
    어서 오세요. (also OK, slightly less formal)

    Service-staff to customer: 합쇼체 -(으)십시오.

  • (Mom to child:) 빨리 일어나라! (Ppalli ireonara!) — Get up quickly!
    (Mom to adult stranger:) 빨리 일어나라!

    -아/어라 is for parent-to-child or strong instruction.

Common mistakes

  • Using -아/어라 with strangers / superiors

    여기 앉아라. (to a customer)
    여기 앉으세요.

    -아/어라 is direct; reserve for close juniors/children.

  • Using -아/어 (banmal) with someone outside close circle

    같이 가. (to coworker)
    같이 가요. / 같이 가세요.

    Banmal needs established casual relationship.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb conjugation

으-Drop Rule (바쁘다 → 바빠요, 예쁘다 → 예뻐요)

으 탈락

Verbs whose stem ends in 으 DROP that 으 when followed by a vowel-initial ending (-아/어요, -았/었어요, -아/어서, etc.). Vowel harmony then determines -아 or -어 based on the SECOND-TO-LAST vowel. Examples: (1) 바쁘다 (busy) → stem 바ㅃ + 아요 → 바빠요 (preceding vowel 바 has ㅏ → 아). (2) 예쁘다 → 예ㅃ + 어요 → 예뻐요 (preceding 예 → 어). (3) 슬프다 → 슬ㅍ + 어요 → 슬퍼요. (4) 쓰다 → ㅆ + 어요 → 써요. (5) 크다 → ㅋ + 어요 → 커요. (6) 모으다 → 모 + 았어요 → 모았어요. (7) 잠그다 → 잠 + 갔어요 → 잠갔어요. KEY: when 으 is the ONLY vowel of a single-syllable stem (like 쓰다, 크다), there's no preceding syllable; in such cases, the connective is -어요 by default (썼어요, 커요). Past tense follows the same drop: 바빴어요, 예뻤어요. For -(으)면 / -(으)니까 / etc., the 으 STAYS (since the ending starts with 으 but the stem 으 is preserved). The drop applies only before -아/어 connectives.

Key rule

으-Drop: stems ending in 으 drop that 으 before -아/어-initial endings. Vowel harmony based on the SECOND-TO-LAST syllable's vowel. Single-syllable stems default to -어. Past: 바빴어요, 예뻤어요, 썼어요. Doesn't apply before -(으)면, -(으)니까, etc.

Examples

  • 오늘 정말 바빠요. (Oneul jeongmal bappayo.) — Today I'm really busy.
    오늘 정말 바쁘아요.

    으-drop: 바쁘 → 바ㅃ + 아요 (preceding 바 has ㅏ → -아).

  • 그 여자가 정말 예뻐요. (Geu yeoja-ga jeongmal yeppeoyo.) — That woman is really pretty.
    그 여자가 정말 예쁘어요.

    으-drop: 예쁘 → 예ㅃ + 어요 (preceding 예 → -어).

  • 어제 영화가 너무 슬펐어요. (Eoje yeonghwa-ga neomu seulpeosseoyo.) — Yesterday's movie was so sad.
    어제 영화가 너무 슬프었어요.

    으-drop in past: 슬프 → 슬ㅍ + 었어요.

Common mistakes

  • Failing to drop 으 before -아/어 endings

    바쁘아요, 예쁘어요, 슬프었어요
    바빠요, 예뻐요, 슬펐어요

    으-drop is obligatory before -아/어.

  • Wrong vowel harmony

    바쁘 + 어요 → 바뻐요 (using -어 incorrectly)
    바빠요 (-아 because preceding 바 has ㅏ)

    Vowel harmony based on the SECOND-TO-LAST syllable. 바 → ㅏ → -아.

TOPIK 2 / B1Verb conjugation

ㄹ-Drop Rule (살다 → 삽니다, 알다 → 아세요)

ㄹ 탈락

Verbs whose stem ends in ㄹ DROP that ㄹ before specific consonant-initial endings: -ㅂ니다, -ㅂ시다, -(으)세요, -(으)니까, -(으)ㄴ, -(으)ㄹ. Memorize the 'NIPS' rule: ㄹ drops before letters N, P, S (and similar consonant-initial endings). Examples: 살다 (live) → 삽니다, 사세요, 사니까, 사는, 살. 알다 (know) → 압니다, 아세요, 아니까. 만들다 (make) → 만듭니다, 만드세요. CRITICAL: ㄹ STAYS before vowel-initial endings (-아/어요, -았/었어요). 살 + 아요 → 살아요 (NOT 사요). 알 + 았어요 → 알았어요 (NOT 았어요). Common ㄹ-final verbs: 살다 (live), 알다 (know), 만들다 (make), 멀다 (far), 길다 (long), 놀다 (play), 울다 (cry), 팔다 (sell), 들다 (lift). PRONUNCIATION: ㄹ-drop is automatic and obligatory in standard Korean. The rule: drop ㄹ before any ending starting with ㄴ, ㅂ, ㅅ (and -(으)ㄹ, -(으)ㄴ as modifier endings).

Key rule

ㄹ-Drop: ㄹ-final stems drop ㄹ before ㄴ-, ㅂ-, ㅅ-, ㄹ-initial endings (-ㅂ니다, -ㅂ시다, -(으)세요, -(으)니까, -(으)ㄴ, -(으)ㄹ). ㄹ STAYS before vowel-initial (-아/어요) and most consonants (-고, -지만, -면).

Examples

  • 한국에 삽니다. (Hangug-e samnida.) — I live in Korea. (formal)
    한국에 살습니다.

    ㄹ drops before -ㅂ니다: 살 → 삽니다.

  • 그분은 한국어를 잘 아세요. (Geubun-eun hangugeo-reul jal aseyo.) — That person knows Korean well. (honorific)
    그분은 한국어를 잘 알세요.

    ㄹ drops before -(으)세요: 알 → 아세요.

  • 한국에 살아요. (Hangug-e sarayo.) — I live in Korea. (haeyoche)
    한국에 사요.

    ㄹ STAYS before -아/어요: 살 + 아요 → 살아요.

Common mistakes

  • Failing to drop ㄹ before -ㅂ니다 / -(으)세요 / -(으)니까

    살습니다, 알세요, 살니까
    삽니다, 아세요, 사니까

    ㄹ-drop is obligatory before ㄴ-, ㅂ-, ㅅ-initial endings.

  • Dropping ㄹ before vowel-initial endings

    사아요, 았어요
    살아요, 살았어요

    ㄹ STAYS before -아/어 endings.

TOPIK 2 / B1Verb conjugation

르-Irregular (모르다 → 몰라요, 다르다 → 달라요)

르 불규칙

Verbs whose stem ends in 르 follow a special rule: before -아/어 endings, the 으 of 르 DROPS, and ㄹ DOUBLES (one ㄹ stays as the final consonant of the previous syllable; another ㄹ becomes the initial consonant of the next syllable). Examples: (1) 모르다 (don't know) → 모ㄹ + 라요 → 몰라요. (2) 다르다 (different) → 다ㄹ + 라요 → 달라요. (3) 빠르다 (fast) → 빠ㄹ + 라요 → 빨라요. (4) 부르다 (call/sing) → 부ㄹ + 러요 → 불러요. (5) 가르다 (divide) → 가ㄹ + 라요 → 갈라요. VOWEL HARMONY: based on the SECOND-TO-LAST syllable. (1) 모 (ㅗ → ㅏ family) → -라/라요. (2) 부 (ㅜ → ㅓ family) → -러/러요. PAST: same drop + double + harmony. 몰랐어요, 달랐어요, 빨랐어요, 불렀어요. CRITICAL — DON'T CONFUSE WITH 으-DROP: 으-drop verbs end in 으 (without ㄹ), like 바쁘다, 예쁘다. 르-irregulars end in 르 (with ㄹ), like 모르다, 빠르다. Different patterns. Common 르-irregulars: 모르다, 다르다, 빠르다, 부르다, 누르다 (press), 흐르다 (flow), 자르다 (cut), 기르다 (raise), 고르다 (choose), 오르다 (rise/climb).

Key rule

르-irregular: stems ending in 르 → 으 drops + ㄹ doubles before -아/어 endings. Vowel harmony based on syllable BEFORE 르. Examples: 모르다 → 몰라요, 부르다 → 불러요. Past: 몰랐어요, 불렀어요. Doesn't apply before consonant-initial endings.

Examples

  • 그 사실을 잘 몰라요. (Geu sasil-eul jal mollayo.) — I don't know that fact well.
    그 사실을 잘 모르아요.

    르-irregular: 모르 + 아요 → 몰라요.

  • 한국 음식과 일본 음식은 달라요. (Hanguk eumsik-gwa ilbon eumsig-eun dallayo.) — Korean food and Japanese food are different.
    한국 음식과 일본 음식은 다르아요.

    다르 → 다 + ㄹ + ㄹ + 아요 → 달라요.

  • 지하철이 정말 빨라요. (Jihacheor-i jeongmal ppallayo.) — The subway is really fast.
    지하철이 정말 빠르아요.

    빠르 → 빨라요.

Common mistakes

  • Treating 르-irregular as regular

    모르아요, 다르아요, 빠르아요
    몰라요, 달라요, 빨라요

    르-irregular: 으 drops + ㄹ doubles.

  • Failing to double ㄹ

    모ㄹ아요 (only one ㄹ)
    몰라요 (ㄹ doubles: one as 받침, one as initial)

    Both ㄹs are needed: 몰 + 라요.

TOPIK 2 / A1Verb usage

Ability/Possibility -(으)ㄹ 수 있다/없다

-(으)ㄹ 수 있다/없다

-(으)ㄹ 수 있다/없다 expresses ABILITY ('can do') or POSSIBILITY ('it is possible to'). Attach -(으)ㄹ 수 (vowel-stem + -ㄹ 수, consonant-stem + -을 수, ㄹ-final + ㄹ 수) and follow with 있다 (can) or 없다 (cannot). Examples: 한국어를 할 수 있어요 ('I can speak Korean'); 매운 음식을 먹을 수 없어요 ('I can't eat spicy food'); 내일 갈 수 있어요? ('Can you go tomorrow?'). 수 here is a BOUND NOUN meaning 'possibility / way'. Pronunciation: -(으)ㄹ 수 is pronounced [-(으)ㄹ 쑤] (tense 수). KEY DISTINCTION FROM 못: 못 = inability due to circumstance ('can't due to obstacle'). -(으)ㄹ 수 없다 = lack of ability or impossibility ('cannot, in general'). Both translate to English 'can't' but cover different ground. PAST: -(으)ㄹ 수 있었어요 ('was able to'); -(으)ㄹ 수 없었어요. Hapsyoche: -(으)ㄹ 수 있습니다 / 없습니다. Negative-question: -(으)ㄹ 수 있어요? = 'can you?'. With ABILITIES: 한국어 할 수 있어요 (= 한국어 잘해요, both fine). With CIRCUMSTANCES: 시간이 없어서 갈 수 없어요. Pairs naturally with skill / opportunity / possibility verbs.

Key rule

-(으)ㄹ 수 있다/없다 = can / cannot (ability or possibility). Vowel-stem + -ㄹ 수, consonant + -을 수, ㄹ-final + ㄹ 수. Pronunciation: [-쑤]. Conjugate 있다/없다 normally. Pairs with 가 for emphasis: -(으)ㄹ 수가 없다.

Examples

  • 한국어를 할 수 있어요. (Hangugeo-reul hal su isseoyo.) — I can speak Korean.
    한국어를 하 수 있어요. / 한국어를 할 수 해요.

    Vowel-stem 하 + -ㄹ 수 + 있어요.

  • 매운 음식을 먹을 수 없어요. (Maeun eumsig-eul meogeul su eopseoyo.) — I can't eat spicy food.
    매운 음식을 먹 수 없어요.

    Consonant-stem 먹 + -을 수 + 없어요.

  • 내일 갈 수 있어요? (Naeil gal su isseoyo?) — Can you go tomorrow?
    내일 가 수 있어요?

    Vowel-stem 가 + -ㄹ 수 + 있어요?.

Common mistakes

  • Wrong attachment for vowel/consonant ending

    가 수 (vowel-stem missing -ㄹ), 먹 수 (consonant-stem missing -을)
    갈 수, 먹을 수

    Vowel-stem + -ㄹ 수; consonant-stem + -을 수.

  • Adding -을 to ㄹ-final stems

    살을 수, 만들을 수
    살 수, 만들 수

    ㄹ-final stems use existing ㄹ as modifier; no -을.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb usage

Know How to / Don't Know How to -(으)ㄹ 줄 알다/모르다

-(으)ㄹ 줄 알다/모르다

-(으)ㄹ 줄 알다/모르다 means 'know how to / don't know how to' — about LEARNED SKILL specifically. The bound noun 줄 means 'way / method'. Vowel-stem + -ㄹ 줄 알다; consonant + -을 줄 알다; ㄹ-final + ㄹ 줄 알다. Negative: 모르다 (don't know). Examples: 한국어를 할 줄 알아요 ('I know how to speak Korean'); 운전할 줄 몰라요 ('I don't know how to drive'); 김치를 만들 줄 알아요 ('I know how to make kimchi'); 자전거를 탈 줄 몰라요 ('I don't know how to ride a bike'). FOCUS: -(으)ㄹ 줄 알다 is specifically about LEARNED skill / know-how, distinct from -(으)ㄹ 수 있다 (general ability/possibility). 한국어를 할 줄 알아요 = 'I have learned how to speak Korean'. 한국어를 할 수 있어요 = 'I can speak Korean (in general)'. The two overlap but -(으)ㄹ 줄 알다 emphasizes acquired knowledge. PRONUNCIATION: -(으)ㄹ 줄 is pronounced [-(으)ㄹ 쭐] (tense). Past: -(으)ㄹ 줄 알았어요 / 몰랐어요. The 알다 / 모르다 here ALSO have a 'thought' meaning: 한국 사람인 줄 알았어요 = 'I thought (he) was Korean' (covered in T4). Don't confuse the SKILL meaning (-(으)ㄹ 줄 알다 = know how) with the EXPECTATION meaning (-(으)ㄴ 줄 알다 = thought).

Key rule

-(으)ㄹ 줄 알다/모르다 = know how to / don't know how to (LEARNED SKILL). Vowel-stem + -ㄹ 줄, consonant + -을 줄, ㄹ-final + ㄹ 줄. Negative uses 모르다 (suppletive). Pronounced [-쭐]. Distinguish from -(으)ㄴ 줄 알다 ('thought').

Examples

  • 한국어를 할 줄 알아요. (Hangugeo-reul hal jul arayo.) — I know how to speak Korean.
    한국어를 하 줄 알아요.

    Vowel-stem 하 + -ㄹ 줄 + 알아요.

  • 운전할 줄 몰라요. (Unjeonhal jul mollayo.) — I don't know how to drive.
    운전할 줄 안 알아요.

    Negative uses 모르다 (suppletive), not 안 알다.

  • 김치를 만들 줄 알아요. (Gimchi-reul mandeul jul arayo.) — I know how to make kimchi.
    김치를 만들을 줄 알아요.

    ㄹ-final 만들 + ㄹ 줄 (no -을).

Common mistakes

  • Using 안 알다 instead of 모르다

    운전할 줄 안 알아요.
    운전할 줄 몰라요.

    Suppletive: 알다's negative is 모르다.

  • Confusing -(으)ㄹ 줄 (skill) with -(으)ㄴ 줄 (thought)

    한국 사람일 줄 알았어요 (intending 'I thought he was Korean')
    한국 사람인 줄 알았어요.

    -(으)ㄹ 줄 = future modifier; -(으)ㄴ 줄 = past/state modifier. For 'thought he was', use -(으)ㄴ 줄.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb usage

Obligation -아/어야 되다 / -아/어야 하다

-아/어야 되다 / 하다

-아/어야 되다 (or -아/어야 하다) means 'must / have to / should'. Attach -아야 (after ㅏ/ㅗ stems) / -어야 (other) / -해야 (with 하다 verbs) to the verb stem and follow with 되다 or 하다 (interchangeable). Examples: 한국어를 공부해야 돼요 ('I have to study Korean'); 일찍 자야 돼요 ('I have to sleep early'); 책을 읽어야 해요 ('I have to read the book'). KEY POINTS: (1) 되다 and 하다 are interchangeable; 되다 is slightly more common in spoken Korean. (2) Past: -아/어야 됐어요 / 했어요 ('had to'). (3) Negative: -지 않아도 되다 (no need) — covered separately. To say 'mustn't', use -(으)면 안 되다 (covered separately). 안 -아/어야 되다 is rarely used. (4) Future: -아/어야 될 거예요. PRONUNCIATION: -아/어야 has no special tensification but is pronounced as written. CASUAL: -아/어야 돼 / -아/어야 해 (drop 요). FORMAL: -아/어야 됩니다 / -아/어야 합니다.

Key rule

-아/어야 되다 / -아/어야 하다 = must / have to. Vowel-harmony attachment of -아야/어야 (same as -아/어요), then 되다 or 하다. Past: -아/어야 됐어요/했어요. For 'don't have to' use -지 않아도 되다; for 'mustn't' use -(으)면 안 되다.

Examples

  • 한국어를 매일 공부해야 돼요. (Hangugeo-reul maeil gongbuhaeya dwaeyo.) — I have to study Korean every day.
    한국어를 매일 공부하야 돼요.

    -하다 verbs become -해야: 공부하 + -해야 → 공부해야.

  • 일찍 자야 돼요. (Iljjik jaya dwaeyo.) — I have to sleep early.
    일찍 자어야 돼요.

    Vowel-stem contraction: 자 + -아야 → 자야.

  • 책을 읽어야 해요. (Chaeg-eul ilgeoya haeyo.) — I have to read the book.
    책을 읽아야 해요.

    읽 has ㅣ → -어야.

Common mistakes

  • Wrong vowel harmony

    먹아야 돼요, 가어야 돼요
    먹어야 돼요, 가야 돼요

    Same vowel harmony as -아/어요.

  • Forgetting contraction for vowel-ending stems

    가아야 돼요, 보아야 돼요, 마시어야 돼요
    가야 돼요, 봐야 돼요, 마셔야 돼요

    Vowel contraction same as -아/어요.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb usage

Permission -아/어도 되다

-아/어도 되다

-아/어도 되다 means 'may / it's OK to / be allowed to' — granting or asking for permission. Attach -아도 (after ㅏ/ㅗ stems) / -어도 (other) / -해도 (with 하다 verbs) to the verb stem and follow with 되다. Examples: 여기 앉아도 돼요 ('You may sit here'); 사진을 찍어도 돼요? ('May I take a photo?'); 들어가도 돼요 ('You may enter'); 한국어로 말해도 돼요? ('May I speak in Korean?'). 되다 can also be replaced by 좋다 (less common) or 괜찮다 ('be OK'): -아/어도 좋아요 / 괜찮아요. PRONUNCIATION: -아/어도 has no special tensification. PAST: -아/어도 됐어요 ('was OK'). NEGATIVE: 안 -아/어도 되다 = 'don't have to' (covered separately as -지 않아도 되다 also). To say 'mustn't', use -(으)면 안 되다. CRUCIAL CONTRAST WITH -아/어야 되다 (obligation): one letter different (도 vs 야)! Different meanings: -아/어도 = may; -아/어야 = must. ASKING PERMISSION POLITELY: -아/어도 돼요? / -아/어도 될까요? (more deferent) / -아/어도 괜찮아요?. CASUAL: -아/어도 돼.

Key rule

-아/어도 되다 = may / it's OK to (permission). Vowel-harmony -아도/어도 (same as -아/어요), then 되다. Alternatives: -아/어도 좋다 / 괜찮다. Past: -아/어도 됐어요. Distinguish from -아/어야 되다 (must — one letter different).

Examples

  • 여기 앉아도 돼요. (Yeogi anjado dwaeyo.) — You may sit here.
    여기 앉야 돼요. (= 'You must sit here', different)

    도 vs 야: -아/어도 = may; -아/어야 = must.

  • 사진을 찍어도 돼요? (Sajin-eul jjigeodo dwaeyo?) — May I take a photo?
    사진을 찍아도 돼요?

    찍 has ㅣ → -어도.

  • 여기 들어가도 돼요? (Yeogi deureogado dwaeyo?) — May I enter here?
    여기 들어가야 돼요?

    Permission -도; if you say -야, it means 'must enter'.

Common mistakes

  • Confusing -아/어도 (may) with -아/어야 (must)

    여기 앉아야 돼요. (intending 'You may sit here')
    여기 앉아도 돼요.

    ONE letter changes meaning: 도 = may; 야 = must.

  • Wrong vowel harmony

    먹아도 돼요, 가어도 돼요
    먹어도 돼요, 가도 돼요

    Same harmony rules as -아/어요.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb usage

Prohibition -(으)면 안 되다

-(으)면 안 되다

-(으)면 안 되다 means 'must not / mustn't / shouldn't'. Literally 'if you do X, it's not OK'. Attach -(으)면 to the verb stem (vowel + -면, consonant + -으면) and follow with 안 되다. Examples: 들어가면 안 돼요 ('You mustn't enter'); 매운 음식을 먹으면 안 돼요 ('You mustn't eat spicy food'); 늦으면 안 돼요 ('You mustn't be late'); 거짓말하면 안 돼요 ('You mustn't lie'). PRONUNCIATION: -(으)면 안 has no special tensification. PAST: -(으)면 안 됐어요 ('mustn't have'). NEGATIVE-INVERSE: -(으)면 = 'if', so -(으)면 안 되다 literally = 'if you do X, it's not OK / not allowed'. KEY DIFFERENCES: (1) -(으)면 안 되다 = mustn't (DON'T do X). Used as prohibition / strong advice not to. (2) -지 마세요 = don't (imperative — direct command). 들어가면 안 돼요 = 'You mustn't enter (it's prohibited)'. 들어가지 마세요 = 'Don't enter' (direct request). Both convey prohibition but in different forms (declarative vs imperative). EQUIVALENCE: 가면 안 돼요 ≈ 가지 마세요 in many contexts; -(으)면 안 되다 is more rule-statement, -지 마세요 is more direct command.

Key rule

-(으)면 안 되다 = must not / shouldn't (prohibition). Vowel-stem -면, consonant-stem -으면, ㄹ-final -면. Then 안 되다 conjugates. Distinguish from -지 마세요 (direct command). Contrast: -아/어야 돼요 (must) ↔ -(으)면 안 돼요 (mustn't).

Examples

  • 여기 들어가면 안 돼요. (Yeogi deureogamyeon an dwaeyo.) — You mustn't enter here.
    여기 들어가야 안 돼요.

    Conditional -(으)면 + 안 되다, not -아/어야.

  • 수업 시간에 휴대폰을 보면 안 돼요. (Sueop sigan-e hyudaepon-eul bomyeon an dwaeyo.) — You mustn't look at your phone during class.
    수업 시간에 휴대폰을 봐야 안 돼요.

    Standard prohibition.

  • 거짓말하면 안 돼요. (Geojinmalhamyeon an dwaeyo.) — You mustn't lie.
    거짓말하지 마면 안 돼요.

    -하 + 면 → 하면. Don't combine -지 마 with -면 안 돼요.

Common mistakes

  • Wrong attachment for vowel/consonant ending

    가으면 안 돼요, 먹면 안 돼요
    가면 안 돼요, 먹으면 안 돼요

    Vowel-stem -면; consonant-stem -으면.

  • Adding -으면 to ㄹ-final stems

    살으면 안 돼요, 만들으면 안 돼요
    살면 안 돼요, 만들면 안 돼요

    ㄹ-final stems use just -면.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb usage

No Need to: -지 않아도 되다 / 안 -아/어도 되다

-지 않아도 되다

-지 않아도 되다 (or 안 -아/어도 되다) means 'don't have to / no need to'. Both forms are interchangeable. Examples: 가지 않아도 돼요 / 안 가도 돼요 ('You don't have to go'); 일찍 가지 않아도 돼요 / 일찍 안 가도 돼요 ('You don't have to go early'); 사지 않아도 돼요 / 안 사도 돼요 ('You don't have to buy it'); 공부하지 않아도 돼요 / 공부 안 해도 돼요 ('You don't have to study'). FORMATION: (1) -지 않아도 되다: stem + 지 않아도 + 되다. The 'long form' negation. (2) 안 -아/어도 되다: 안 + verb + -아/어도 되다. The 'short form' negation. KEY: -지 마세요 is for COMMANDS ('don't!'); -지 않아도 되다 is for STATEMENTS ('it's not necessary'). Compare: 가지 마세요 ('Don't go!') vs 안 가도 돼요 ('You don't have to go'). PAST: -지 않아도 됐어요 / 안 -아/어도 됐어요 ('didn't have to'). With -하다 verbs: 안 + -하다 splits as before: 공부 안 해도 돼요. CONNECTING: -지 않아도 되다 to -아/어도 되다 (permission): 'It's OK [if you don't / not to]' = no need.

Key rule

Both '-지 않아도 되다' (long) and '안 -아/어도 되다' (short) = 'don't have to / no need to'. Long form: stem + 지 않아도 되다. Short form: 안 + verb + -아/어도 되다. -하다 splits in short form (공부 안 해도 돼요).

Examples

  • 내일은 안 와도 돼요. (Naeil-eun an wado dwaeyo.) — You don't have to come tomorrow.
    내일은 안 와야 돼요. (= 'You must not come tomorrow', different)

    안 -아/어도 = 'no need'; 안 -아/어야 doesn't work for this.

  • 오늘은 일하지 않아도 돼요. (Oneur-eun ilhaji anhado dwaeyo.) — You don't have to work today.
    오늘은 안 일하야 돼요.

    Long form: -지 않아도 되다.

  • 이 책은 안 읽어도 돼요. (I chaeg-eun an ilgeodo dwaeyo.) — You don't have to read this book.
    이 책은 안 읽으면 돼요.

    Don't combine 안 + -(으)면 + 돼요 in this meaning.

Common mistakes

  • Using -지 마세요 for 'no need'

    내일 오지 마세요. (intending 'You don't have to come')
    내일 안 와도 돼요.

    -지 마세요 is a COMMAND ('don't!'). 안 -아/어도 돼요 is a STATEMENT ('no need').

  • Using -(으)면 안 되다 for 'no need'

    내일 오면 안 돼요. (intending 'don't have to come')
    내일 안 와도 돼요.

    -(으)면 안 돼요 = mustn't. Different meaning.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb usage

Purpose -(으)러 가다/오다 (motion + purpose)

-(으)러 가다/오다

-(으)러 가다/오다 means 'go/come (to do something)' — expressing the PURPOSE of motion. Attach -(으)러 to the verb stem of the action you're going/coming to do, then follow with 가다 (go), 오다 (come), or other motion verbs (다니다 'commute', 나가다 'go out'). Vowel-stem + -러; consonant-stem + -으러; ㄹ-final + -러. Examples: 한국어를 배우러 한국에 가요 ('I'm going to Korea to learn Korean'); 친구를 만나러 카페에 갔어요 ('I went to the cafe to meet a friend'); 점심을 먹으러 식당에 가요 ('I'm going to the restaurant to eat lunch'). KEY RULE: only works with MOTION VERBS (가다, 오다, 다니다, etc.). For non-motion purposes, use -기 위해(서) (TOPIK 3). PRONUNCIATION: -(으)러 has no special tensification. PAST: -(으)러 갔어요/왔어요. NEGATIVE: 안 가요 / 안 와요 (negate the motion verb). The purpose verb itself stays in -(으)러 form.

Key rule

-(으)러 가다/오다 = go/come (to do something). Vowel-stem -러, consonant-stem -으러, ㄹ-final -러. Only with motion verbs. For non-motion purposes, use -기 위해(서) (TOPIK 3).

Examples

  • 한국어를 배우러 한국에 가요. (Hangugeo-reul baeureo hangug-e gayo.) — I'm going to Korea to learn Korean.
    한국어를 배우려 한국에 가요.

    Standard form: -러 (with motion verb).

  • 친구를 만나러 카페에 갔어요. (Chingu-reul mannareo kape-e gasseoyo.) — I went to the cafe to meet a friend.
    친구를 만나러 카페에 만났어요.

    After -(으)러, you need a MOTION verb (갔어요), not the action verb again.

  • 점심 먹으러 가요. (Jeomsim meogeureo gayo.) — I'm going to eat lunch.
    점심 먹러 가요.

    Consonant-stem 먹 + -으러.

Common mistakes

  • Using -(으)러 with non-motion verbs in main clause

    한국어 배우러 시간이 있어요.
    한국어 배우려고 시간이 있어요. (or 한국어를 배우기 위해서 ~)

    -(으)러 only pairs with motion verbs. For non-motion purpose, use -(으)려고 or -기 위해서.

  • Using the action verb again instead of motion verb after -(으)러

    친구 만나러 카페에 만났어요.
    친구 만나러 카페에 갔어요.

    After -(으)러 + Location, the verb must be motion (가다/오다).

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb usage

Become / Get -아/어지다 (with descriptive verbs: 좋아지다, 예뻐지다)

-아/어지다 (변화)

-아/어지다 attaches to DESCRIPTIVE VERBS (adjectives) to express change of state — 'to become / to get [adjective]'. Vowel harmony: -아지다 (after ㅏ/ㅗ) / -어지다 (other) / -해지다 (with -하다 descriptive verbs). Examples: 좋아지다 (become good / get better) → 좋아져요 ('it's getting better'); 예뻐지다 (become pretty) → 예뻐졌어요 ('she became pretty'); 비싸지다 (become expensive) → 비싸졌어요 ('it got expensive'); 깨끗해지다 (become clean) → 깨끗해져요. CONJUGATION: 지다 + standard endings. -아/어지다 + -아/어요 → -아/어져요 (vowel contraction). Past: -아/어졌어요. Future: -아/어질 거예요. KEY: descriptive verb (state) + -아/어지다 = action verb (change to that state). 좋다 = is good (state). 좋아지다 = becomes good (change). The whole construction is conjugated as an action verb. WHERE -아/어지다 ALSO APPLIES: with action verbs, -아/어지다 forms a passive (TOPIK 3): 만들어지다 (be made). At TOPIK 2, focus on the descriptive verb + 'become' meaning.

Key rule

Descriptive verb + -아/어지다 = 'become / get [adjective]'. Vowel harmony -아지다/어지다, -하다 → -해지다. Apply other irregularities (으-drop, ㅂ-irreg, etc.) to the stem first. Conjugate -지다 as an action verb.

Examples

  • 한국어가 점점 좋아져요. (Hangugeo-ga jeomjeom joajyeoyo.) — Korean is gradually getting better.
    한국어가 점점 좋아요. (= 'is good', state, not change)

    -아/어지다 expresses change. 좋아요 alone is the state.

  • 어제부터 날씨가 추워졌어요. (Eojebuteo nalssi-ga chuwojyeosseoyo.) — It's gotten cold since yesterday.
    어제부터 날씨가 춥어졌어요.

    ㅂ-irreg: 춥 → 추 + 우 + 어 → 추워, then + 졌어요 → 추워졌어요.

  • 그 가수가 너무 예뻐졌어요. (Geu gasu-ga neomu yeppeojyeosseoyo.) — That singer became really pretty.
    그 가수가 너무 예쁘었어요.

    Past 'became': -아/어졌어요. 예쁘 → 예ㅃ + 어 → 예뻐, then + 졌어요.

Common mistakes

  • Using -아/어지다 with action verbs (in non-passive contexts)

    잘하다 → 잘해지다 (incorrect)
    잘하게 되다 (= came to do well) / 잘하다 + tense

    -아/어지다 with action verbs creates passive (TOPIK 3); for 'come to do', use -게 되다.

  • Forgetting irregularities (ㅂ, 으-drop, etc.) before -아/어지다

    춥아지다, 예쁘어지다, 어렵어지다
    추워지다, 예뻐지다, 어려워지다

    Apply the verb's normal -아/어 transformation first, then add 지다.

TOPIK 2 / A2Adjectives

Past Modifier -(으)ㄴ for action verbs (먹은 사과 = the apple I ate)

-(으)ㄴ (과거 관형형 — 동사)

When you want to put an action verb BEFORE a noun in PAST tense (English 'the X who Y-ed' or 'the Y that was X-ed'), use the modifier ending -(으)ㄴ. Examples: 먹다 → 먹은 사과 ('the apple (someone) ate'); 보다 → 본 영화 ('the movie (someone) watched'); 만나다 → 만난 친구 ('the friend (someone) met'); 하다 → 한 일 ('the thing (someone) did'). FORMATION: vowel-stem + -ㄴ; consonant-stem + -은; ㄹ-final stems drop ㄹ + -ㄴ. KEY DISTINCTION: this is for ACTION VERBS in PAST tense. Don't confuse with: (1) Descriptive verbs use -(으)ㄴ for PRESENT (covered at TOPIK 1): 좋은 책 ('good book'), 예쁜 옷. (2) Action verbs use -는 for PRESENT (TOPIK 1): 먹는 사과 ('the apple (someone) is eating'). (3) Action verbs use -(으)ㄹ for FUTURE: 먹을 사과 ('the apple to be eaten'). So action verbs have THREE tense modifiers: 먹는 (present), 먹은 (past), 먹을 (future). Examples: 어제 만난 친구 ('the friend I met yesterday'); 한국에서 산 옷 ('the clothes I bought in Korea'); 작년에 본 영화 ('the movie I watched last year').

Key rule

Action verb past modifier: stem + -(으)ㄴ. Vowel-stem -ㄴ; consonant-stem -은; ㄹ-final drops ㄹ + -ㄴ. Differs from action-present -는 and descriptive-present -(으)ㄴ. Examples: 어제 만난 친구, 한국에서 산 옷.

Examples

  • 어제 만난 친구가 한국 사람이에요. (Eoje mannan chinguga hanguk saram-ieyo.) — The friend I met yesterday is Korean.
    어제 만나는 친구가 한국 사람이에요. (= 'the friend I'm meeting' — present, mismatch with 어제)

    Past action modifier: 만나 + -ㄴ → 만난.

  • 한국에서 산 가방이에요. (Hangug-eseo san gabang-ieyo.) — It's the bag I bought in Korea.
    한국에서 사는 가방이에요. (= 'the bag I'm buying')

    Past: 사 + -ㄴ → 산.

  • 어제 먹은 김치가 정말 맛있었어요. (Eoje meogeun gimchi-ga jeongmal masisseosseoyo.) — The kimchi I ate yesterday was really delicious.
    어제 먹는 김치가 정말 맛있었어요.

    Past: 먹 + -은 → 먹은.

Common mistakes

  • Using -는 (present) for past actions

    어제 만나는 친구 (intending 'the friend I met yesterday')
    어제 만난 친구

    Past needs -(으)ㄴ for action verbs.

  • Using -(으)ㄴ (past) for present-ongoing actions

    지금 먹은 사과 (intending 'the apple I'm eating now')
    지금 먹는 사과

    Present-ongoing action verb uses -는.

TOPIK 2 / A2Adjectives

Future / Prospective Modifier -(으)ㄹ (먹을 사과 = apple I will eat)

-(으)ㄹ (미래 관형형)

-(으)ㄹ is the FUTURE / PROSPECTIVE modifier. Attach to the verb stem to mean 'the X that will be Y-ed' or 'the X to do Y'. Vowel-stem + -ㄹ; consonant-stem + -을; ㄹ-final + -ㄹ (existing ㄹ acts as the modifier). Examples: 내일 먹을 음식 ('the food (someone) will eat tomorrow'); 만날 친구 ('the friend (someone) will meet'); 살 집 ('the house (someone) will live in'); 할 일 ('things to do'). USE: (1) FUTURE — talking about future actions/events. (2) PROSPECTIVE / TO-BE-DONE — listing things, planning, intentions. -(으)ㄹ also serves as the modifier base for many compounds: -(으)ㄹ 수 있다 (can), -(으)ㄹ 거예요 (will), -(으)ㄹ 때 (when), -(으)ㄹ까 (shall I/we?), -(으)ㄹ게요 (I'll), -(으)ㄹ 만하다 (worth doing). Pronunciation: -(으)ㄹ + 거 → [-(으)ㄹ 꺼] (tense). The future modifier is often combined with bound nouns 거 (thing), 때 (time), 일 (work), 곳 (place): 갈 곳 (a place to go), 할 일 (work to do), 살 사람 (the person who will live). For non-finite uses (= 'in order to'), see -(으)러 가다 (TOPIK 2) and -(으)려고 (TOPIK 3).

Key rule

Future / prospective modifier: action-verb stem + -(으)ㄹ. Vowel-stem -ㄹ, consonant-stem -을, ㄹ-final -ㄹ (existing). Pronounced [-(으)ㄹ 꺼/쑤/쭐] before tensified bound nouns. Base for many TOPIK 1-4 patterns.

Examples

  • 내일 먹을 음식을 준비해야 돼요. (Naeil meogeul eumsig-eul junbihaeya dwaeyo.) — I have to prepare the food I'll eat tomorrow.
    내일 먹은 음식을 준비해야 돼요.

    Future event → -(으)ㄹ. 먹은 = past.

  • 내일 만날 친구가 누구예요? (Naeil mannal chinguga nuguyeyo?) — Who's the friend I'll meet tomorrow?
    내일 만난 친구가 누구예요? (= the friend I met)

    Future: 만나 + -ㄹ → 만날.

  • 한국에서 살 집을 찾고 있어요. (Hangug-eseo sal jib-eul chatgo isseoyo.) — I'm looking for a house to live in in Korea.
    한국에서 살을 집을 찾고 있어요.

    ㄹ-final 살 + -ㄹ (existing): 살 (no extra -을).

Common mistakes

  • Confusing -(으)ㄹ (future) with -(으)ㄴ (past)

    어제 먹을 사과 (intending 'the apple I ate')
    어제 먹은 사과

    Past needs -(으)ㄴ; future needs -(으)ㄹ. Past time markers go with past modifier; future time markers go with future modifier.

  • Adding -을 to ㄹ-final stems

    살을 집, 만들을 음식
    살 집, 만들 음식

    ㄹ-final stems use existing ㄹ; no extra -을.

TOPIK 2 / A2Adjectives

Comparison: A는 B보다 더/덜 — More / Less Than

비교 표현 (보다 + 더/덜)

Korean comparisons use the particle 보다 (than) attached to the COMPARED-TO item, with 더 (more) or 덜 (less) modifying the descriptive verb. Pattern: A는 B보다 더 X (= 'A is more X than B'); A는 B보다 덜 X (= 'A is less X than B'). Examples: 사과는 배보다 더 달아요 ('Apples are sweeter than pears'); 한국어는 일본어보다 더 어려워요 ('Korean is harder than Japanese'); 이 가방은 저 가방보다 덜 비싸요 ('This bag is less expensive than that bag'). 보다 attaches DIRECTLY to a noun (no 은/는). 더 / 덜 are adverbs that go before the descriptive verb. WORD ORDER: A 은/는 + B 보다 + 더/덜 + descriptive verb. The 더 (or 덜) is OPTIONAL when the comparison is clear from context: 사과는 배보다 달아요 still means 'Apples are sweeter than pears'. Negative comparison: 'less' uses 덜; English 'not as X' = 보다 덜 X / 보다 안 X / 만큼 X 안 (covered later). Pronunciation: 보다 [bo-da], 더 [deo], 덜 [deol]. Common collocations: 더 좋다, 더 비싸다, 덜 매워요, 더 잘하다.

Key rule

Comparison: A 은/는 B보다 더/덜 [descriptive verb]. 보다 attaches directly to the compared-to noun; 더 (more) / 덜 (less) modify the verb. 더/덜 are optional when comparison is clear. Use 훨씬 / 조금 / 약간 for magnitude.

Examples

  • 사과는 배보다 더 달아요. (Sagwa-neun bae-boda deo darayo.) — Apples are sweeter than pears.
    사과는 배는보다 달아요.

    보다 attaches directly to the noun, no extra 은/는.

  • 한국어는 일본어보다 더 어려워요. (Hangugeo-neun ilboneo-boda deo eoryeowoyo.) — Korean is harder than Japanese.
    한국어는 일본어보다 더 어려워요. (correct as written; just confirming)

    Standard pattern.

  • 이 가방은 저 가방보다 덜 비싸요. (I gabang-eun jeo gabang-boda deol bissayo.) — This bag is less expensive than that bag.
    이 가방은 저 가방보다 안 비싸요. (= 'isn't expensive', different)

    덜 = less; 안 = not.

Common mistakes

  • Adding 은/는 before 보다

    사과는 배는보다 달아요.
    사과는 배보다 달아요.

    보다 attaches directly to the compared-to noun.

  • Confusing 덜 (less) with 안 (not)

    덜 비싸요 (= 'less expensive') vs 안 비싸요 (= 'not expensive')
    Use according to meaning: 덜 = comparative; 안 = negation.

    Different meanings.

TOPIK 2 / A2Adjectives

Superlative: 가장 / 제일

최상급 (가장 / 제일)

Korean superlatives use the adverbs 가장 (most) or 제일 (most / number-one) before a descriptive verb. Both mean 'the most' and are interchangeable; 가장 is slightly more formal/written, 제일 is more spoken-friendly. Examples: 한국어가 가장 어려워요 ('Korean is the most difficult'); 김치찌개가 제일 맛있어요 ('Kimchi stew is the most delicious'); 이게 가장 좋아요 ('This is the best'). With NOUN PHRASES specifying the GROUP: ~ 중에서 + 가장/제일 + descriptive verb. 한국 음식 중에서 김치찌개가 제일 맛있어요 ('Of Korean foods, kimchi stew is the most delicious'). FORMATION: simple — just place 가장 or 제일 before the descriptive verb. PRONUNCIATION: 가장 [가장], 제일 [제일]. With ACTION verbs: 가장/제일 + 잘 + 동사 = 'do X best'. 한국어를 제일 잘해요 ('Speaks Korean best'). KEY: 가장 vs 제일 — interchangeable in most contexts; pick by feel. Both can be used in writing and speech.

Key rule

Superlative: 가장 / 제일 + descriptive verb (or + adverb + action verb). 가장 is slightly more formal; 제일 more conversational; both interchangeable. To specify the group, use ~ 중에서. Negative superlative: 가장 + 안 + verb (least X).

Examples

  • 한국어가 가장 어려워요. (Hangugeo-ga gajang eoryeowoyo.) — Korean is the most difficult.
    한국어가 어려워요 가장.

    가장 goes BEFORE the descriptive verb.

  • 김치찌개가 제일 맛있어요. (Gimchijjigae-ga jeil masisseoyo.) — Kimchi stew is the most delicious.
    김치찌개가 가장 더 맛있어요. (가장 + 더 redundant)

    Don't combine 가장/제일 with 더 (comparative). Pick one.

  • 한국 음식 중에서 김치찌개가 제일 맛있어요. (Hanguk eumsik jung-eseo gimchijjigae-ga jeil masisseoyo.) — Out of Korean foods, kimchi stew is the most delicious.
    한국 음식 중에서 김치찌개가 가장 더 맛있어요.

    중에서 specifies group; just 가장/제일 — no 더.

Common mistakes

  • Combining 가장/제일 with 더 (comparative)

    가장 더 좋아요, 제일 더 비싸요
    가장 좋아요, 제일 비싸요

    Superlative implies the highest; 더 is for comparison between two.

  • Wrong word order

    어려워요 가장, 좋아요 제일
    가장 어려워요, 제일 좋아요

    가장/제일 goes BEFORE the descriptive verb.

TOPIK 2 / A2Adjectives

이렇다 / 그렇다 / 저렇다 / 어떻다 — Like This / How

이렇다 / 그렇다 / 저렇다 / 어떻다

Korean has FOUR demonstrative-state predicates that mean 'be like this / that / that-yonder / how': 이렇다 (be like this), 그렇다 (be like that), 저렇다 (be like that over there), 어떻다 (be how / be what). They're descriptive verbs and conjugate as ㅎ-irregular: 이렇다 → 이래요, 그렇다 → 그래요, 저렇다 → 저래요, 어떻다 → 어때요. Examples: 한국 사람들은 이래요 ('Korean people are like this'); 그래요? ('Is that so?'); 그건 저래요 ('That over there is like that'); 오늘 날씨가 어때요? ('How's the weather today?'). MODIFIER FORMS: 이런 (like this), 그런 (like that), 저런 (like that over there), 어떤 (which / what kind of). Examples: 이런 책 ('this kind of book'); 어떤 사람 ('what kind of person'); 그런 일 ('that kind of thing'). USE: very common in conversation. 그래요 / 그래요? are extremely frequent — set responses meaning 'Right / Is that so?'. 어때요? is the standard 'how is it?' question.

Key rule

이렇다/그렇다/저렇다/어떻다 = ㅎ-irregular demonstrative predicates. Conjugations: 이래요, 그래요, 저래요, 어때요. Modifiers: 이런/그런/저런/어떤. Adverbs: 이렇게/그렇게/저렇게/어떻게. 그래요? = 'Really?'; 어때요? = 'How is it?'.

Examples

  • 오늘 날씨가 어때요? (Oneul nalssi-ga eottaeyo?) — How's the weather today?
    오늘 날씨가 어떻아요?

    ㅎ-irregular: 어떻 + 아요 → 어때요.

  • 그래요? 정말요? (Geuraeyo? Jeongmaryo?) — Is that so? Really?
    그렇아요? 정말요?

    그렇 + 아요 → 그래요.

  • 한국 사람들은 보통 그래요. (Hanguk saramdeur-eun botong geuraeyo.) — Koreans are usually like that.
    한국 사람들은 보통 그렇어요.

    그렇 → 그래요 (ㅎ-irregular).

Common mistakes

  • Treating ㅎ-irregular as regular

    이렇아요, 그렇어요, 어떻아요
    이래요, 그래요, 어때요

    ㅎ-irregular: ㅎ drops + vowel changes.

  • Wrong modifier form

    이렇은 사람, 그렇은 책, 어떻은 음식
    이런 사람, 그런 책, 어떤 음식

    ㅎ-irregular modifier: drop ㅎ + -ㄴ (NOT -은).

TOPIK 2 / B1Adjectives

ㅎ-Irregular Verbs (Advanced — past, modifier, connective forms)

ㅎ 불규칙 (응용)

Building on TOPIK 1 ㅎ-irregular basics, TOPIK 2 covers the FULL paradigm: PAST forms, MODIFIER forms, and CONNECTIVE forms for ㅎ-irregular descriptive verbs (이렇다, 그렇다, 빨갛다, 노랗다, 파랗다, 까맣다, 하얗다, etc.). RULES: (1) BEFORE VOWEL-INITIAL ENDINGS (-아/어요, -았/었어요, -아/어서, -아/어도): ㅎ DROPS + stem vowel + 어/아 → ㅐ (or ㅑ → ㅒ). 빨갛 → 빨개 + ㅆ어요 → 빨갰어요 (was red); 그렇 → 그래 + ㅆ어요 → 그랬어요 (was so). (2) BEFORE CONSONANT-INITIAL ENDINGS (-고, -지만, -습니다, -겠어요): ㅎ STAYS. 빨갛고, 빨갛지만, 빨갛습니다, 빨갛겠어요. (3) MODIFIER -ㄴ: ㅎ DROPS + -ㄴ. 빨간 사과, 노란 꽃, 그런 사람, 어떤 책. (4) -으-INITIAL ENDINGS (-(으)면, -(으)니까, -(으)러): ㅎ DROPS + 으 contraction. 빨갛 + (으)면 → 빨가면 (rare); usually rephrased. NOT ALL ㅎ-FINAL VERBS ARE IRREGULAR: 좋다 (regular), 놓다 (regular), 넣다 (regular), 닿다 (regular). Only the demonstrative-state verbs (이렇다, 그렇다 etc.) and 5 colors (빨갛다, 노랗다, 파랗다, 까맣다, 하얗다) plus a few others (등으렇다, 커다랗다, 조그맣다) are irregular.

Key rule

Full ㅎ-irregular paradigm: ㅎ DROPS before vowel-initial endings (with vowel change to ㅐ/ㅒ); ㅎ STAYS before consonant-initial endings; modifier ㅎ DROPS + -ㄴ. Derives common connectors: 그래서, 그러면, 그러니까. Only specific verbs (demonstratives + 5 colors etc.) are ㅎ-irregular.

Examples

  • 어제 단풍이 빨갰어요. (Eoje danpung-i ppalgaesseoyo.) — Yesterday the autumn leaves were red.
    어제 단풍이 빨갛았어요.

    Past ㅎ-irregular: 빨갛 → 빨개 + ㅆ → 빨갰어요.

  • 그래서 어제 늦게 잤어요. (Geuraeseo eoje neutge jasseoyo.) — So yesterday I went to bed late.
    그렇아서 어제 늦게 잤어요.

    그렇 + 아서 → 그래서 (ㅎ-irregular connective).

  • 비가 와요. 그러면 안 가요. (Biga wayo. Geureomyeon an gayo.) — It's raining. Then I won't go.
    비가 와요. 그러면 안 가요. (this is correct)

    그렇 + (으)면 → 그러면. Standard sentence-initial connector.

Common mistakes

  • Treating ㅎ-irregular past as regular

    빨갛았어요, 그렇었어요
    빨갰어요, 그랬어요

    ㅎ-irregular: ㅎ drops + vowel transforms.

  • Wrong modifier form

    이렇은 사람, 빨갛은 사과
    이런 사람, 빨간 사과

    Modifier: ㅎ-drop + -ㄴ.

TOPIK 2 / A2Particles

에게 / 한테 / 께 — To (a person; written/spoken/honorific)

에게 / 한테 / 께

Korean uses THREE register-graded particles for 'to (a person)' — marking the recipient of an action, gift, message, etc. (1) 에게 — neutral / written. 친구에게 책을 줬어요 ('I gave a book to my friend'). (2) 한테 — spoken / casual. 친구한테 전화했어요 ('I called my friend'). Identical meaning to 에게, just more conversational. (3) 께 — HONORIFIC. Used when the recipient deserves respect (elder, teacher, boss). 선생님께 편지를 드렸어요 ('I gave a letter to the teacher'). With 께, the giving verb often shifts to 드리다 (humble give) instead of 주다. ATTACHMENT: directly to the noun referring to the person — no consonant/vowel split. With ANIMALS or INANIMATE recipients, 에 is used instead: 학교에 보내요 ('I send to the school'). 에게/한테/께 are PERSON-SPECIFIC. PRONUNCIATION: standard. KEY: pick by register — 한테 with friends, 에게 in writing/news, 께 with elders/superiors. Common verbs: 주다 (give), 드리다 (humble give), 보내다 (send), 말하다 (tell), 묻다 (ask), 가르치다 (teach), 빌리다 (borrow / lend).

Key rule

에게 / 한테 / 께 = 'to (a person)'. 에게 (neutral/written), 한테 (casual/spoken), 께 (honorific). Person-only — for institutions/places use 에. With 께, the verb often shifts to humble form (드리다, 여쭙다).

Examples

  • 친구에게 책을 줬어요. (Chingu-ege chaeg-eul jwosseoyo.) — I gave a book to my friend.
    친구께 책을 줬어요. (= sounds odd unless friend is honorific)

    Friend is peer → 에게/한테. 께 is for honorific recipients.

  • 친구한테 전화했어요. (Chingu-hante jeonhwahaesseoyo.) — I called my friend. (casual)
    친구에게 전화했어요. (correct but slightly more written)

    Both work; 한테 is more conversational.

  • 선생님께 편지를 드렸어요. (Seonsaengnim-kke pyeonji-reul deuryeosseoyo.) — I gave a letter to the teacher. (honorific)
    선생님께 편지를 줬어요.

    With 께, use humble verb 드리다 instead of 주다.

Common mistakes

  • Using 에 instead of 에게/한테 with persons

    친구에 책을 줬어요.
    친구에게/한테 책을 줬어요.

    Persons take 에게/한테/께. 에 is for places/things.

  • Using 에게/한테 with institutions

    회사에게 이력서를 보냈어요.
    회사에 이력서를 보냈어요.

    Institutions take 에.

TOPIK 2 / A2Particles

에게서 / 한테서 — From (a person)

에게서 / 한테서

에게서 / 한테서 means 'from (a person)' — the source from whom you received or learned something. (1) 에게서 — neutral / written. 친구에게서 책을 받았어요 ('I received a book from my friend'). (2) 한테서 — spoken / casual. 친구한테서 들었어요 ('I heard from my friend'). Identical to each other; 한테서 is more conversational. NO HONORIFIC FORM: there's no '께서' for 'from (honorific person)' — 께서 is the subject marker. For honorific 'from', use 에게서 with care or restructure with subject honorific. WITH INSTITUTIONS: use 에서 (the regular spatial/source particle): 회사에서 받았어요 ('Received from the company'). PERSON only takes 에게서/한테서. PRACTICAL TIP: in casual speech, 에게서 is often shortened to just 한테 (without 서) — 친구한테 들었어요 ('I heard from my friend'). The 서 is sometimes dropped in spoken Korean. PAST: typically used in past contexts (received, heard, learned). PAIRED VERBS: 받다 (receive), 듣다 (hear), 배우다 (learn), 빌리다 (borrow).

Key rule

에게서 / 한테서 = 'from (a person)'. 에게서 (neutral/written), 한테서 (casual/spoken). Person-only; institutions use 에서. No honorific form (no 께서서); use 에게서 or restructure. Often shortened to 에게/한테 in casual speech.

Examples

  • 친구한테서 책을 받았어요. (Chingu-hanteseo chaeg-eul badasseoyo.) — I received a book from my friend.
    친구에 책을 받았어요.

    From person: 에게서/한테서. 에 is for destination/location.

  • 동료에게서 그 소식을 들었어요. (Dongryo-egeseo geu sosig-eul deureosseoyo.) — I heard the news from a colleague. (formal)
    동료에서 그 소식을 들었어요.

    Person source: 에게서/한테서; 에서 is for places.

  • 어머니한테서 한국 요리를 배웠어요. (Eomeoni-hanteseo hanguk yori-reul baewosseoyo.) — I learned Korean cooking from my mother. (casual)
    어머니한테 한국 요리를 배웠어요. (acceptable in casual; 한테서 explicit; 한테 + 서 dropped)

    Both work in casual speech; -서 sometimes drops.

Common mistakes

  • Using 에 with persons (intending 'from')

    친구에 들었어요.
    친구한테서 / 친구에게서 들었어요.

    에 is destination/location; for 'from a person', use 에게서/한테서.

  • Using 에서 with persons

    친구에서 받았어요.
    친구한테서/에게서 받았어요.

    에서 is for places; person source: 에게서/한테서.

TOPIK 2 / A2Particles

(으)로 — By Means of / Toward / In (the role of)

조사 (으)로

(으)로 is a versatile particle covering THREE main meanings: (1) MEANS / INSTRUMENT — 'by, with, using'. 펜으로 써요 ('Write with a pen'); 한국어로 말해요 ('Speak in Korean'); 지하철로 가요 ('Go by subway'). (2) DIRECTION — 'toward, to'. 학교로 가요 ('Go toward school'); 한국으로 떠나요 ('Leave for Korea'). Note: 에 also means 'to' (destination); (으)로 emphasizes direction or alternative routes. (3) ROLE / CAPACITY — 'as'. 친구로 만났어요 ('Met as a friend'); 선생님으로 일해요 ('Work as a teacher'). ATTACHMENT: vowel-ending nouns + -로; consonant-ending nouns + -으로; ㄹ-final nouns + -로 (no -으-). Examples: 펜으로 (consonant), 자전거로 (vowel), 칼로 (ㄹ-final). (으)로 also appears in many idioms: -(으)로 인해 (due to), -(으)로 인해서 (because of), -(으)로부터 (from, formal). Pronunciation: [(으)로] standard, no special change.

Key rule

(으)로 = means/instrument ('by, with, in'), direction ('toward'), role ('as'), material ('made of'). Vowel-stem -로, consonant-stem -으로, ㄹ-final -로 (no -으-). 펜으로 (with pen), 한국어로 (in Korean), 학교로 (toward school), 친구로 (as friends).

Examples

  • 펜으로 글을 써요. (Pen-euro geur-eul sseoyo.) — Write with a pen.
    펜에 글을 써요.

    Means/instrument: (으)로. 에 doesn't fit.

  • 한국어로 말해 주세요. (Hangugeo-ro malhae juseyo.) — Please speak in Korean.
    한국어에 말해 주세요.

    Language as means: -로 (vowel-stem 한국어 → 한국어로).

  • 지하철로 학교에 가요. (Jihacheor-ro hakgyo-e gayo.) — Go to school by subway.
    지하철에 학교에 가요.

    By means of subway: -로.

Common mistakes

  • Wrong attachment for vowel/consonant ending

    펜로, 자전거으로
    펜으로, 자전거로

    Vowel-stem -로, consonant-stem -으로.

  • Adding -으- to ㄹ-final nouns

    칼으로, 술으로
    칼로, 술로

    ㄹ-final nouns just take -로.

TOPIK 2 / A2Particles

에서 ~ 까지 — From ~ To (place pairs, time pairs)

에서 ~ 까지

에서 ~ 까지 marks a SPATIAL OR TIME SPAN — 'from X to Y'. The starting point takes 에서; the ending point takes 까지. Examples: 서울에서 부산까지 ('from Seoul to Busan'); 집에서 학교까지 ('from home to school'); 9시에서 5시까지 ('from 9 to 5' — also possible with 부터). KEY DISTINCTION FROM 부터 ~ 까지: (1) 에서 ~ 까지: SPATIAL spans (place to place) most naturally. Also OK for time spans. (2) 부터 ~ 까지: TIME / SEQUENCE spans (yesterday to today, page 1 to 100) more naturally. (3) Some overlap: 9시에서 5시까지 / 9시부터 5시까지 — both fine for clock times. (4) For days/months/years/sequences, 부터 is more standard. Examples: (1) 서울에서 부산까지 KTX로 갔어요 ('Went from Seoul to Busan by KTX'). (2) 집에서 학교까지 30분 걸려요 ('It takes 30 minutes from home to school'). (3) 1쪽에서 100쪽까지 ('from page 1 to 100' — but 1쪽부터 is more standard for pages). 에서 alone works for spatial origin (action-source location); 까지 alone for limit/destination.

Key rule

에서 ~ 까지 = 'from ~ to' (typically SPATIAL spans). 부터 ~ 까지 preferred for TIME/SEQUENCE spans. Both work for clock times. 에서 marks origin; 까지 marks limit. Pair with 걸리다 to express duration.

Examples

  • 서울에서 부산까지 KTX로 갔어요. (Seoul-eseo Busan-kkaji KTX-ro gasseoyo.) — Went from Seoul to Busan by KTX.
    서울부터 부산까지 KTX로 갔어요. (acceptable but 에서 is more natural for spatial)

    Spatial span: 에서 ~ 까지 preferred.

  • 집에서 학교까지 30분 걸려요. (Jib-eseo hakgyo-kkaji samsipbun geollyeoyo.) — It takes 30 minutes from home to school.
    집부터 학교까지 30분 걸려요.

    Spatial span.

  • 9시에서 5시까지 일해요. (Ahopsi-eseo daseotsi-kkaji ilhaeyo.) — I work from 9 to 5.
    (also OK:) 9시부터 5시까지 일해요.

    Clock-time span: both 에서 and 부터 work.

Common mistakes

  • Using 부터 with spatial spans (over-using time-form for places)

    서울부터 부산까지 갔어요. (acceptable but less natural)
    서울에서 부산까지 갔어요.

    Spatial spans use 에서 ~ 까지 preferentially.

  • Using 에서 with sequential / time-unit spans

    어제에서 오늘까지
    어제부터 오늘까지

    Time-unit spans (days/months) prefer 부터.

TOPIK 2 / A2Particles

에 대해(서) / 에 대한 — About / Concerning

에 대해(서) / 에 대한

에 대해(서) and 에 대한 mean 'about / concerning' — used to specify the TOPIC of discussion, thought, or activity. (1) 에 대해(서) — used with VERBS (말하다, 생각하다, 알다, 쓰다, 공부하다 etc.). 한국 문화에 대해서 공부해요 ('I study about Korean culture'). The (서) is optional. (2) 에 대한 — used MODIFYING A NOUN. 한국 문화에 대한 책 ('a book about Korean culture'). The -한 is the modifier-form of 에 대하- + the modifier ending. ATTACHMENT: directly to the noun being talked about. KEY: -해(서) before verbs; -한 before nouns. Examples: 한국에 대해서 잘 알아요 ('I know well about Korea'); 그 일에 대한 의견이 있어요 ('I have an opinion about that matter'); 자기 자신에 대해서 이야기해 보세요 ('Talk about yourself'). Don't confuse with 에 대하다 (verb to face/handle) — different meaning.

Key rule

에 대해(서) before verbs ('about', as adverbial); 에 대한 before nouns (modifier). Same root 대하다 ('to face/concern'). Synonym: 에 관해(서) / 에 관한 (more formal).

Examples

  • 한국 문화에 대해서 공부해요. (Hanguk munhwa-e daehaeseo gongbuhaeyo.) — I study about Korean culture.
    한국 문화에 대한 공부해요.

    Before verb (공부하다) → 대해(서).

  • 한국 문화에 대한 책을 읽었어요. (Hanguk munhwa-e daehan chaeg-eul ilgeosseoyo.) — I read a book about Korean culture.
    한국 문화에 대해서 책을 읽었어요. (acceptable but 대한 directly modifies 책)

    Modifier form before noun: 대한.

  • 그 사람에 대해 잘 알아요. (Geu saram-e daehae jal arayo.) — I know well about that person.
    그 사람에 대한 잘 알아요.

    Before verb 알다: 대해.

Common mistakes

  • Confusing 대해(서) and 대한

    한국에 대한 공부해요. (verb context, used noun-form)
    한국에 대해(서) 공부해요.

    대해(서) for verbs; 대한 for nouns.

  • Using 에 대해(서) before a noun

    한국에 대해서 책
    한국에 대한 책

    Modifying a noun: 대한.

TOPIK 2 / A2Particles

처럼 / 같이 — Like / Same as

처럼 / 같이

처럼 and 같이 are particles meaning 'like / same as' — used to compare or describe similarity. (1) 처럼 — the more standard / written form. 친구처럼 ('like a friend'); 한국 사람처럼 ('like a Korean person'). (2) 같이 — also means 'like / same as', and ALSO means 'together' (different function). 친구같이 ('like a friend'); 같이 가요 (= 'let's go together' — adverb meaning). Both attach to a noun and indicate 'in the manner of / similar to'. Examples: 한국 사람처럼 한국어를 잘해요 ('Speaks Korean like a Korean person'); 친구같이 친한 사람 ('a person close like a friend'); 새처럼 날아요 ('Flies like a bird'). KEY DISTINCTION: 처럼 is unambiguous — always 'like'. 같이 has dual function: with a noun = 'like'; standalone or with 와/과/하고 = 'together'. EXAMPLES: 가족과 같이 ('with family' = together); 가족같이 ('like family' = comparison). RELATED FORM: 같다 (verb 'to be the same / similar'). 같이 is the adverbial form.

Key rule

처럼 / 같이 = 'like / same as'. Both attach directly to noun + descriptive/action verb. 처럼: pure 'like'. 같이: dual ('like' + 'together'). Use 처럼 unambiguously; 같이 has 'together' meaning when standalone or with 와/과/하고. 같이 pronounced [가치].

Examples

  • 한국 사람처럼 한국어를 잘해요. (Hanguk saram-cheoreom hangugeo-reul jalhaeyo.) — Speaks Korean well like a Korean person.
    한국 사람과 같이 한국어를 잘해요. (= 'speaks Korean together with a Korean person', different)

    Comparison: 처럼. 같이 with 과 = together (companion).

  • 가수처럼 노래해요. (Gasu-cheoreom noraehaeyo.) — Sings like a singer.
    가수같이 노래해요. (acceptable; 같이 is OK with noun)

    Both work; 처럼 is more standard.

  • 친구같이 친한 사람이에요. (Chingu-gachi chinhan saram-ieyo.) — A person close like a friend.
    친구처럼 친한 사람이에요. (also OK)

    같이 attached to noun = 'like'.

Common mistakes

  • Confusing 같이 (like) vs 같이 (together)

    친구같이 갈래요? (intending 'want to go together?', but ambiguous)
    같이 갈래요? (standalone 같이 = 'together') / 친구처럼 행동해요 ('like a friend')

    Standalone 같이 = together; 같이 attached to noun = like.

  • Adding 에 / 을/를 before 처럼/같이

    친구를 처럼, 한국에 처럼
    친구처럼, 한국처럼

    처럼/같이 attach DIRECTLY to a noun.

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TOPIK 2 / B1Particles

은/는 — Contrastive Topic Use & Topic Shift in Discourse

은/는 (대조·담화 기능)

Beyond marking the basic topic (covered at TOPIK 1), 은/는 also marks CONTRAST and TOPIC SHIFT in discourse. (1) CONTRAST: when comparing two items, both can take 은/는 to highlight the contrast. 저는 한국 음식을 좋아해요. 동생은 안 좋아해요. ('I like Korean food. (My sibling, however,) doesn't.') (2) TOPIC SHIFT: 은/는 marks a switch to a new topic in conversation or narrative. (3) ON OBJECTS / ELEMENTS BESIDES SUBJECT: 은/는 can attach to ANY noun phrase (object, location, time) to mark contrast on that element. 저는 김치는 좋아해요 ('Kimchi (specifically), I like'); 학교에서는 한국어를 가르쳐요 ('At school (specifically), they teach Korean'). The 은/는 here is contrastive, not the basic topic marker. (4) PARTIAL ASSERTION: 은/는 can imply 'X but maybe not others'. 김치는 매워요 ('Kimchi is spicy (but maybe not other things)'). KEY POINT: when 은/는 attaches to non-subject elements, it almost always carries CONTRAST. Be aware of this nuance to interpret Korean correctly. ATTACHMENT: 은 (after consonant), 는 (after vowel) — same as basic topic marker. Combines with case particles like 에서, 에게, 한테: 학교에서는, 친구한테는, 어제는.

Key rule

은/는 marks (1) topic (TOPIK 1 basics), (2) CONTRAST when comparing or shifting focus, (3) attaches to non-subject elements (object 김치는, location 학교에서는, time 어제는) for contrast, (4) implies partial assertion 'X but maybe not Y'. Combines with case particles: 에서는, 에게는, 부터는.

Examples

  • 저는 가지만 친구는 안 가요. (Jeoneun gajiman chinguneun an gayo.) — I'm going, but my friend isn't.
    저가 가지만 친구가 안 가요.

    Contrast → 은/는 on each subject, not 이/가.

  • 저는 김치는 좋아해요. (Jeoneun gimchineun joahaeyo.) — I (do) like kimchi (specifically).
    저는 김치를 좋아해요. (= general 'I like kimchi', no contrast)

    Object 김치는 implies 'kimchi specifically' contrast.

  • 학교에서는 한국어를 가르쳐요. (Hakgyo-eseoneun hangugeo-reul gareuchyeoyo.) — At school, they teach Korean (specifically).
    학교에서 한국어를 가르쳐요. (= neutral location, no contrast)

    에서는 = contrastive location ('at school in contrast to elsewhere').

Common mistakes

  • Treating contrastive 은/는 as just 'topic marker' (missing the contrast)

    Reading 김치는 좋아해요 as 'I like kimchi' (basic statement)
    Recognize the contrast: 'Kimchi (specifically) I like (but other things, less sure)'

    Object + 은/는 carries contrastive force.

  • Failing to use 은/는 for explicit contrast

    저는 가요. 친구는 안 가요. → mistakenly 저는 가요. 친구가 안 가요.
    Both subjects take 은/는 for contrast.

    Contrast pair needs 은/는 on each side.

TOPIK 2 / A2Particles

요 — Post-Noun Politeness Particle (저요, 학교에요?)

요 (조사적 사용)

요 attached to a NOUN (or other non-verb element) makes a brief, polite reply or question. It's a post-particle politeness marker that converts a single word into a complete polite utterance. Examples: 저요? ('Me?' — pointing to oneself, polite). 학교요. ('School.' — answering 'where are you going?'). 한국어요. ('Korean.' — answering 'what are you studying?'). 어디요? ('Where?'). 누구요? ('Who?'). USE: instead of formulating a full sentence, you can answer with just a noun + 요. This is the politest way to give a brief reply. ATTACHMENT: directly to a noun or noun phrase. Doesn't change the noun's meaning; just adds politeness. CASUAL EQUIVALENT: drop 요. 저? (= 'me?' casual). 학교 (= 'school' casual). 누구? (= 'who?' casual). KEY: this is the SAME 요 that ends -아/어요 verb forms. It's a politeness marker. Korean uses 요 generously to soften and polish utterances. PRONUNCIATION: 요 with rising intonation for questions, falling for statements.

Key rule

요 attached to NOUNS / non-verb elements = polite brief reply or question. 저요? (Me?), 학교요. (School.). Same 요 as in -아/어요 verb endings. Drop 요 for casual. Don't combine with hapsyoche.

Examples

  • Q: 어디 가세요? A: 학교요. (Eodi gaseyo? — Hakgyoyo.) — Q: Where are you going? A: To school.
    A: 학교. (casual; OK with friends but not strangers)

    Polite brief answer: noun + 요.

  • Q: 뭐 공부해요? A: 한국어요. (Mwo gongbuhaeyo? — Hangugeoyo.) — Q: What do you study? A: Korean.
    A: 한국어.

    Polite + 요.

  • 저요? 제가요? (Jeoyo? Jegayo?) — Me? Me as the subject?
    저? 내가? (casual)

    Polite self-reference question.

Common mistakes

  • Forgetting 요 in polite context (sounds rude)

    (To stranger:) Q: 어디 가세요? A: 학교.
    학교요.

    With strangers/superiors, add 요 for politeness.

  • Using 요 in 합쇼체 contexts

    (In formal interview:) Q: 어디에서 오셨습니까? A: 미국요.
    미국에서 왔습니다. (full hapsyoche sentence)

    합쇼체 doesn't use 요-particle answers; use full sentences.

TOPIK 2 / A2Pronouns demonstratives

Third Person 그 / 그녀 / 그분 / 그들 (mostly written register)

3인칭 대명사

Korean has DEDICATED third-person pronouns, but they're used MUCH LESS than English 'he/she/they'. The forms: (1) 그 — 'he' (general, mostly written/literary). (2) 그녀 — 'she' (mostly written/literary). (3) 그분 — 'that respected person' (honorific, polite). (4) 그들 — 'they' (plural, mostly written). REALITY CHECK: spoken Korean RARELY uses 그 / 그녀 in conversation. Instead, Koreans use: name + 씨, kinship terms (오빠/언니/형/누나), titles (선생님/사장님), or just drop the subject entirely (pro-drop). 그분 IS used in speech for honorific reference. EXAMPLES (in writing): 그는 한국 사람이에요 ('He is Korean'); 그녀는 의사예요 ('She is a doctor'); 그들이 왔어요 ('They came'). EXAMPLES (in speech, more natural): 김 선생님이에요 (using name + title); 그분이 한국 사람이세요 (using 그분 honorific); 친구가 왔어요 (using term). USE 그 / 그녀 in writing, translation contexts, novels, news. AVOID them in casual speech. Use 그분 in any spoken context with honorific reference. Use 그들 in writing for plural; in speech, prefer name+들 (e.g., 친구들이).

Key rule

Korean third-person pronouns: 그 (he, lit.), 그녀 (she, lit.), 그분 (he/she honorific, spoken+written), 그들 (they, lit.). 그/그녀/그들 are mostly WRITTEN. In speech, prefer name+씨, titles, kinship terms, 그분 for honorific, or pro-drop.

Examples

  • (In a novel:) 그는 매일 아침 일찍 일어났다. (Geuneun maeil achim iljjik ireonatda.) — He woke up early every morning. (literary 한다체)
    (In conversation:) 그는 매일 아침 일찍 일어나요. (sounds bookish)

    그 in literary context OK; in casual speech, use name or pro-drop.

  • 그분이 한국 사람이세요. (Geubun-i hanguk saram-iseyo.) — That (respected) person is Korean. (honorific)
    그가 한국 사람이세요. (mismatch — 그 isn't honorific)

    Honorific third-person → 그분.

  • (News:) 그녀는 한국 최초의 여성 우주인이다. (Geunyeoneun hanguk choechoui yeoseong ujuin-ida.) — She is Korea's first female astronaut.
    (In casual chat with friends:) 그녀는 한국 사람이에요. (sounds translated/bookish)

    그녀 in news/written OK; in casual speech, use name + 씨.

Common mistakes

  • Using 그 / 그녀 in casual conversation

    그는 제 친구예요. (intending 'he is my friend' in casual speech)
    (name) 민수는 제 친구예요. / 제 친구예요. (drop subject)

    그/그녀 are mostly written. In speech, use names, kinship, or pro-drop.

  • Using 그 for honorific reference

    할아버지께서 그가 한국 사람이세요. (mismatch)
    할아버지께서 한국 사람이세요. (drop subject) / 그분이 한국 사람이세요. (using 그분)

    그 isn't honorific. Use 그분 for honorific reference, or restructure.

TOPIK 2 / B1Pronouns demonstratives

Indefinite Pronouns (누군가, 무언가/뭔가, 어디(엔)가, 아무도)

부정대명사 (누군가·뭔가·아무도)

Korean indefinite pronouns are formed by adding 가 or 도 to question words: (1) 누군가 (= 누구 + ㄴ가) — 'someone'. (2) 뭔가 (= 무엇 + ㄴ가) / 무언가 — 'something'. (3) 어디(엔)가 — 'somewhere'. (4) 언젠가 — 'sometime'. (5) 어떻게든 — 'somehow'. With 도 + NEGATION: (1) 아무도 — 'no one' (with negative verb). 아무도 안 와요. (2) 아무것도 — 'nothing' (with negative). 아무것도 없어요. (3) 어디에도 — 'nowhere' (with negative). 어디에도 안 가요. (4) 한 번도 — 'not even once' (with negative). 한 번도 안 갔어요. KEY: indefinites with 가 are POSITIVE ('some-'). Indefinites with 도 + NEGATIVE = 'no-/none-'. Examples: 누군가 왔어요 ('Someone came'); 누구도 안 왔어요 ('Nobody came'); 뭔가 봤어요 ('I saw something'); 아무것도 못 봤어요 ('I didn't see anything'). PRONUNCIATION: 무언가 [무언가] / 뭔가 [뭔가]. 뭔가 is the spoken contraction.

Key rule

Positive indefinite: question word + -ㄴ가/-인가 (누군가, 뭔가, 어딘가, 언젠가). Negative indefinite: -도 + negative verb (아무도, 아무것도, 어디에도, 한 번도, 누구도). 'Anyone/anything (positive)' = 누구나, 뭐든.

Examples

  • 누군가 왔어요. (Nuguna wasseoyo.) — Someone came.
    누구가 왔어요. (= 'Who came?', different)

    Indefinite: 누구 + ㄴ가 → 누군가.

  • 뭔가 잘못됐어요. (Mwonga jalmoddwaesseoyo.) — Something went wrong.
    뭐가 잘못됐어요. (= 'What went wrong?', interrogative)

    Indefinite: 무엇 + ㄴ가 → 뭔가.

  • 어딘가에 가고 싶어요. (Eodinga-e gago sipeoyo.) — I want to go somewhere.
    어디에 가고 싶어요. (= 'Where do you want to go?')

    Indefinite: 어디 + ㄴ가 → 어딘가.

Common mistakes

  • Confusing positive 누군가 with question 누가

    누군가 왔어요? (intending 'Who came?')
    누가 왔어요? (interrogative)

    누군가 = 'someone' (statement); 누가 = 'who' (question).

  • Using positive indefinite without negative-paired

    아무도 왔어요. (= ungrammatical)
    아무도 안 왔어요. ('no one came')

    Negative indefinites REQUIRE negative verb.

TOPIK 2 / A2Syntax

Basic Relative Clauses (Pre-nominal Modification)

관형절 (기본)

Korean relative clauses are PRE-NOMINAL (placed BEFORE the noun) and use modifier endings (-는 / -(으)ㄴ / -(으)ㄹ — covered in T1-T2 modifier tags). The relative clause includes its own subject, verb, and tense marking. Examples: 친구가 만든 김치 ('the kimchi (that) my friend made'); 어제 본 영화 ('the movie I watched yesterday'); 한국에 사는 사람 ('a person who lives in Korea'); 내일 만날 친구 ('the friend I'll meet tomorrow'). KEY: NO RELATIVE PRONOUN like English 'who/that/which' — the modifier ending alone connects the clause to the noun. STRUCTURE: [Subject + (object/adverbial) + verb-modifier] + Head Noun. Subject of the relative clause typically takes 이/가 (NOT 은/는, which is for main-clause topic). EXAMPLES: (1) 친구가 사는 집 (friend-가 + lives + house = 'the house where (my) friend lives'). (2) 제가 좋아하는 음식 (I-가 + like + food = 'the food I like'). (3) 어제 본 영화 (yesterday + watched + movie = 'the movie I watched yesterday' — subject dropped). The subject of the relative clause can be dropped if context clear. WORD ORDER: Korean is HEAD-FINAL: modifier comes BEFORE the noun. This is the OPPOSITE of English's 'the X that Y' order.

Key rule

Relative clause: [Subject 이/가 + verb-modifier-ending] + Head Noun. Modifier endings: -는 (action present), -(으)ㄴ (action past or descriptive), -(으)ㄹ (action future). Subject of relative clause uses 이/가 (not 은/는). No relative pronoun — modifier ending alone connects clause to noun.

Examples

  • 친구가 만든 김치가 정말 맛있어요. (Chinguga mandeun gimchi-ga jeongmal masisseoyo.) — The kimchi (that) my friend made is really delicious.
    친구가 김치 만든이 정말 맛있어요.

    Korean: subject + modified verb + head noun. Modifier 만든 immediately before 김치.

  • 어제 본 영화 어땠어요? (Eoje bon yeonghwa eottaesseoyo?) — How was the movie you watched yesterday?
    영화 어제 본 어땠어요?

    Modifier 어제 본 + head 영화. Order: modifier first, head noun second.

  • 한국에 사는 사람이 많아요. (Hangug-e saneun saram-i manhayo.) — There are many people who live in Korea.
    한국에 사는 사람들이 많아요. (acceptable, with -들 plural marker)

    ㄹ-final 살 → 사는 (modifier present).

Common mistakes

  • Wrong word order (English-style)

    김치 친구가 만든 (= 'kimchi + friend made')
    친구가 만든 김치

    Korean is head-final: modifier BEFORE noun.

  • Using 은/는 on relative-clause subject

    친구는 사는 집
    친구가 사는 집

    Subordinate clauses use 이/가 for subject, not topic 은/는.

TOPIK 2 / B1Syntax

Embedded Questions with -는지 / -(으)ㄴ지

간접의문문 (기본)

-는지 / -(으)ㄴ지 / -(으)ㄹ지 turns a question into an EMBEDDED CLAUSE inside a larger sentence. Use it with verbs of knowing, asking, wondering, telling: 알다 (know), 모르다 (not know), 묻다 (ask), 궁금하다 (be curious), 말하다 (tell), 가르치다 (teach). FORMATION: (1) -는지 — present action verb (먹는지, 가는지). (2) -(으)ㄴ지 — past action verb / present descriptive (먹은지 [past], 좋은지 [descriptive]). (3) -(으)ㄹ지 — future action / future descriptive (갈지, 좋을지). The wh-word stays in-situ inside the embedded clause. Examples: 친구가 어디에 사는지 알아요 ('I know where my friend lives'); 그분이 어디에서 왔는지 모르겠어요 ('I don't know where they came from'); 친구가 올지 안 올지 모르겠어요 ('I don't know whether my friend is coming or not'). With YES/NO: -(으)ㄹ지 / -는지 + alternating clause = whether or not. NOUN COMPLEMENT: -는지 ALSO acts as a nominalizer with question content. Often paired with 알다/모르다.

Key rule

Embedded question: stem + -는지 (action present) / -(으)ㄴ지 (action past or descriptive present) / -(으)ㄹ지 (future). Wh-word stays in-situ. Pairs with 알다 (know), 모르다 (not know), 묻다 (ask), 궁금하다 (curious). Yes/no whether-or-not: A는지 안 A는지.

Examples

  • 친구가 어디에 사는지 알아요. (Chinguga eodi-e saneunji arayo.) — I know where my friend lives.
    친구가 어디에 살 알아요.

    Embedded Q needs -는지 ending.

  • 그분이 한국 사람인지 모르겠어요. (Geubun-i hanguk saram-inji moreugesseoyo.) — I don't know whether (he/she) is Korean.
    그분이 한국 사람이 모르겠어요.

    Copula 이다 → 인지.

  • 어제 누가 왔는지 알아요? (Eoje nuga wanneunji arayo?) — Do you know who came yesterday?
    어제 누가 왔지 알아요?

    Past + embedded: 왔는지.

Common mistakes

  • Forgetting the -지 ending entirely

    친구가 어디에 살아 알아요.
    친구가 어디에 사는지 알아요.

    Embedded question needs -는지/(으)ㄴ지/(으)ㄹ지 ending.

  • Wrong tense/verb-type ending

    한국 사람이는지 (using -는지 with copula)
    한국 사람인지 (copula with -ㄴ지)

    Copula 이다 takes -ㄴ지.

TOPIK 2 / A2Syntax

Nominalisation with -는 것 / -(으)ㄴ 것

명사화 (-는 것)

-는 것 (or -(으)ㄴ 것 / -(으)ㄹ 것) NOMINALIZES a verb / clause — turns it into a noun phrase. The structure: [Modifier-form verb] + 것 ('thing/fact'). Examples: 가는 것 ('the act of going / going'); 먹는 것 ('eating / food/the thing eaten'); 한국어를 공부하는 것 ('studying Korean / the act of studying Korean'). USES: (1) AS SUBJECT or OBJECT of a verb. 한국어를 공부하는 것이 어려워요 ('Studying Korean is hard'); 한국어를 공부하는 것을 좋아해요 ('I like studying Korean'). (2) IDIOMATIC: -는 것 같다 ('seems like'); -는 것이다 (emphatic 'is the (case that)'). (3) CASUAL CONTRACTION: -는 것 → -는 거 in spoken Korean. 가는 거예요. CASE PARTICLE CONTRACTIONS: 것이 → 게; 것은 → 건; 것을 → 걸. So 가는 게, 가는 건, 가는 걸. TENSE: -는 것 (present action), -(으)ㄴ 것 (past action / descriptive present), -(으)ㄹ 것 (future). KEY: -는 것 turns a CLAUSE into a noun. Different from -기 (another nominalizer): -는 것 is more concrete / referential; -기 is more abstract / activity-name. Both work in many contexts, but -는 것 is more spoken-friendly.

Key rule

-는 것 / -(으)ㄴ 것 / -(으)ㄹ 것 = nominalizer ('the X-ing / the X-ed / the to-be-X'). Casual: -는 거. Particle contractions: 것이 → 게; 것은 → 건; 것을 → 걸. Used as subject/object/complement.

Examples

  • 한국어를 공부하는 것이 어려워요. (Hangugeo-reul gongbuhaneun geos-i eoryeowoyo.) — Studying Korean is hard.
    한국어를 공부하는 어려워요.

    Need 것 to nominalize the clause.

  • 한국어를 공부하는 게 어려워요. (Hangugeo-reul gongbuhaneun ge eoryeowoyo.) — (casual) Studying Korean is hard.
    한국어를 공부하는 거 어려워요. (without particle)

    Casual 게 = 것이.

  • 한국 음식 먹는 걸 좋아해요. (Hanguk eumsik meongneun geol joahaeyo.) — I like eating Korean food. (casual)
    한국 음식 먹는 거를 좋아해요. (acceptable; 걸 is contracted)

    Casual 걸 = 것을.

Common mistakes

  • Forgetting 것 to nominalize

    한국어를 공부하는 어려워요.
    한국어를 공부하는 것이 어려워요.

    A clause needs 것 to function as a subject/object.

  • Using 것 with non-modifier-form verbs

    한국어를 공부해요 것이 어려워요.
    한국어를 공부하는 것이 어려워요.

    것 needs a MODIFIER ending (-는 / -(으)ㄴ / -(으)ㄹ), not a finite verb.

TOPIK 2 / B1Syntax

Nominalisation with -기 (-기 좋다, -기 쉽다)

명사화 (-기)

-기 nominalizes a verb / clause to express the ABSTRACT ACT or SKILL of doing something. Attach -기 directly to the verb stem (no modifier ending). Examples: 한국어 말하기 ('speaking Korean'); 책 읽기 ('reading books'); 운동하기 ('exercising'); 가기 ('going'). USES: (1) ACTIVITY/SKILL NAMES: 한국어 듣기, 한국어 말하기, 한국어 읽기, 한국어 쓰기 — the four language skills. (2) WITH 좋다/쉽다/어렵다/편하다 — common 'easy/good/hard/convenient to': -기 좋다 ('good for ~'), -기 쉽다 ('easy to ~'), -기 어렵다 ('hard to ~'). 한국어는 배우기 어려워요 ('Korean is hard to learn'). (3) AS SUBJECT/OBJECT — less common than -는 것 in casual speech but used in formal/written contexts. (4) IN HEADINGS/TITLES: 한국어 배우기 ('Learning Korean'). KEY DIFFERENCE FROM -는 것: -기 is more ABSTRACT / activity-name / set-phrase. -는 것 is more REFERENTIAL / 'the thing of doing'. Many contexts allow both, but specific verbs prefer one or the other. With 좋다/쉽다/편하다/위해 — use -기. With 좋아하다/싫어하다 — both work, -는 것 / -는 걸 is more common in casual speech.

Key rule

-기 = abstract nominalizer / activity name. Stem + 기 (no modifier ending, no tense). Common with 좋다/쉽다/어렵다/편하다 (-기 좋다/쉽다 'good/easy to'). Distinguish from -는 것 (referential). Used in skill names (말하기, 읽기), titles, formal contexts.

Examples

  • 한국어는 배우기 어려워요. (Hangugeo-neun baeugi eoryeowoyo.) — Korean is hard to learn.
    한국어는 배우는 것 어려워요.

    Set collocation: -기 어렵다.

  • 김치는 만들기 쉬워요. (Gimchi-neun mandeulgi swiwoyo.) — Kimchi is easy to make.
    김치는 만드는 것 쉬워요. (acceptable but -기 fits better)

    -기 쉽다 is the standard collocation.

  • 한국어 말하기가 어려워요. (Hangugeo malhagi-ga eoryeowoyo.) — Speaking Korean is hard.
    한국어 말하는 것이 어려워요. (acceptable; both work)

    Skill names typically use -기.

Common mistakes

  • Using -는 것 where -기 collocations are standard

    한국어는 배우는 것 어려워요.
    한국어는 배우기 어려워요.

    -기 어렵다 is the conventional collocation.

  • Using -기 where -는 것 / -는 거 is more natural

    한국 음식 먹기 좋아해요.
    한국 음식 먹는 걸 좋아해요.

    With 좋아하다, casual speech prefers -는 걸 / 것.

TOPIK 2 / A1Connectors

Conditional -(으)면 — If / When

연결어미 -(으)면

-(으)면 means 'if' or 'when' — attaches to the verb stem of the conditional clause. Vowel-stem + -면; consonant-stem + -으면; ㄹ-final + -면 (no -으-). Examples: 비가 오면 안 갈 거예요 ('If it rains, I won't go'); 한국에 가면 김치를 먹을 거예요 ('When/if I go to Korea, I'll eat kimchi'); 시간이 있으면 도와주세요 ('If you have time, please help'). DUAL MEANING: (1) IF (hypothetical / conditional). (2) WHEN (general / habitual time). Context disambiguates. PAST CONDITIONAL: -았/었으면 ('if (I) had ~') — typically with COUNTERFACTUAL or wishful meaning + -좋겠다/-(으)ㄹ 텐데 (TOPIK 3-4). At TOPIK 2, focus on present and future conditional. NEGATIVE: 안 -(으)면. 안 가면 = 'if (you) don't go'. WITH WANT/SHOULD: -(으)면 좋겠다 ('I wish / I'd like') is a common collocation: 한국에 가면 좋겠어요 ('I wish I could go to Korea'). PAIRS WITH MAIN-CLAUSE PREDICTIONS: -(으)면 + -(으)ㄹ 거예요 / -(으)ㄹ게요 / -아/어야 돼요 / -지 마세요. The conditional clause sets up the situation; the main clause states the consequence/action.

Key rule

-(으)면 = 'if' / 'when' (conditional/habitual). Vowel-stem + -면; consonant-stem + -으면; ㄹ-final + -면. Used with hypothetical situations, habitual time clauses. Idiom: -(으)면 좋겠다 ('wish/hope').

Examples

  • 비가 오면 안 갈 거예요. (Biga omyeon an gal geoyeyo.) — If it rains, I won't go.
    비가 와면 안 갈 거예요.

    Vowel-stem 오 + -면 → 오면. (Wait: 오 is vowel-ending → -면. 와면 doesn't apply.) Use 오면.

  • 시간이 있으면 도와주세요. (Sigan-i isseumyeon dowajuseyo.) — If you have time, please help.
    시간이 있면 도와주세요.

    Consonant-stem 있 + -으면.

  • 한국에 살면 한국어가 늘어요. (Hangug-e salmyeon hangugeo-ga neureoyo.) — If/when (you) live in Korea, your Korean improves.
    한국에 살으면 한국어가 늘어요.

    ㄹ-final 살 + -면 (no -으-).

Common mistakes

  • Wrong attachment for vowel/consonant ending

    가으면, 먹면
    가면, 먹으면

    Vowel-stem -면; consonant-stem -으면.

  • Adding -으- to ㄹ-final stems

    살으면, 만들으면
    살면, 만들면

    ㄹ-final stems just take -면.

TOPIK 2 / A2Connectors

Sentence-Initial 그래서 / 그러니까 / 그러면 — So / Therefore / Then

그래서 / 그러니까 / 그러면

Three sentence-initial connectors derived from 그렇다 (be like that): (1) 그래서 (= 그렇 + -아서) — 'so / therefore' (cause-result). 비가 왔어요. 그래서 안 갔어요. ('It rained. So I didn't go.'). (2) 그러니까 / 그러니 (= 그렇 + -(으)니까) — 'so / because of that' (subjective explanation, often emphatic). 시간이 없어요. 그러니까 빨리 가요. ('No time. So let's go quickly.'). (3) 그러면 / 그럼 (= 그렇 + -(으)면) — 'then / in that case' (consequence/conditional). 비가 와요. 그러면 안 갈 거예요. ('It's raining. Then I won't go.'). 그럼 is the casual contraction of 그러면. KEY DIFFERENCES: (1) 그래서: factual cause-and-effect ('it happened, therefore'). (2) 그러니까: subjective reason ('I told you so / since that's the case'). Often used to emphasize. (3) 그러면: conditional follow-up ('if so, then'). All three are SENTENCE-INITIAL — they connect TWO SEPARATE SENTENCES. Don't use them WITHIN one sentence (use -아/어서, -(으)니까, -(으)면 as in-clause connectives instead).

Key rule

Sentence-initial connectors from 그렇- + connectives: 그래서 (so/therefore, factual), 그러니까 (so/because/I told you, subjective), 그러면/그럼 (then/in that case, conditional). All START new sentences. In-clause equivalents: -아/어서, -(으)니까, -(으)면.

Examples

  • 비가 왔어요. 그래서 안 갔어요. (Biga wasseoyo. Geuraeseo an gasseoyo.) — It rained. So I didn't go.
    비가 와서 그래서 안 갔어요. (mixing forms)

    Either: 비가 와서 안 갔어요 (one sentence) OR 비가 왔어요. 그래서 안 갔어요. (two sentences). Don't combine.

  • 시간이 없어요. 그러니까 빨리 가요. (Sigan-i eopseoyo. Geureonikka ppalli gayo.) — No time. So let's go quickly.
    시간이 없어요 그러니까 빨리 가요. (without period)

    그러니까 starts a new sentence; punctuate accordingly.

  • 비가 와요. 그럼 안 갈 거예요. (Biga wayo. Geureom an gal geoyeyo.) — It's raining. Then I won't go.
    비가 오면 그럼 안 갈 거예요.

    Don't combine -(으)면 with 그럼.

Common mistakes

  • Combining sentence-initial form with in-clause connective

    비가 와서 그래서 안 갔어요.
    비가 와서 안 갔어요. / 비가 왔어요. 그래서 안 갔어요.

    Pick one: -아/어서 (in-clause) OR 그래서 (sentence-initial). Don't combine.

  • Using 그래서 / 그러니까 within one sentence

    비가 그래서 안 갔어요.
    비가 와서 안 갔어요. / 비가 왔어요. 그래서 안 갔어요.

    Sentence-initial connectors START new sentences.

TOPIK 2 / A2Connectors

그런데 / 근데 — However / By the Way

그런데 / 근데

그런데 (formal/full) / 근데 (casual contraction) means 'however / but / by the way'. It connects two sentences with a CONTRAST or TOPIC SHIFT. Examples: 비가 와요. 그런데 갈 거예요. ('It's raining. However, I'll go.'); 한국어가 어려워요. 근데 재미있어요. ('Korean is hard. But it's fun.'); 그런데 어디 가세요? ('By the way, where are you going?'). KEY USES: (1) MILD CONTRAST: opposite of 'and' — introduces an unexpected or contrasting follow-up. (2) TOPIC SHIFT: 'by the way' — introduces a new topic or change of subject. CASUAL CONTRACTION: 그런데 → 근데. Both are common; 근데 is more conversational. PRONUNCIATION: 그런데 [그런데], 근데 [근데]. RELATED IN-CLAUSE FORM: -는데 / -(으)ㄴ데 (within one sentence — covered next). 그런데 is the sentence-initial version of -는데. Don't confuse with 그렇지만 (formal 'but'), which is more strongly contrastive. 그런데 is softer than 그렇지만, often serving as a transition rather than a strong contrast.

Key rule

그런데 (formal) / 근데 (casual) = however / but / by the way. Sentence-initial. (1) Mild contrast. (2) Topic shift. Softer than 그렇지만. In-clause equivalent: -는데 / -(으)ㄴ데.

Examples

  • 비가 와요. 그런데 갈 거예요. (Biga wayo. Geureonde gal geoyeyo.) — It's raining. However, I'll go.
    비가 와요 그런데 갈 거예요. (without period)

    그런데 starts a new sentence; punctuate.

  • 한국어가 어려워요. 근데 재미있어요. (Hangugeo-ga eoryeowoyo. Geunde jaemiisseoyo.) — Korean is hard. But it's fun.
    한국어가 어려운데 그런데 재미있어요.

    Either in-clause -는데 or sentence-initial 그런데. Don't combine.

  • 근데, 어디 가세요? (Geunde, eodi gaseyo?) — By the way, where are you going?
    그래서, 어디 가세요? (sounds like cause-effect, doesn't fit)

    Topic shift: 그런데/근데. 그래서 implies cause-effect.

Common mistakes

  • Using 그런데 / 근데 within one sentence (instead of -는데)

    비가 그런데 갔어요.
    비가 오는데 갔어요. / 비가 왔어요. 그런데 갔어요.

    그런데 is sentence-initial. Within a sentence, use -는데 / -(으)ㄴ데.

  • Confusing 그런데 (mild contrast) with 그렇지만 (strong contrast)

    Random alternation in formal contexts
    Pick by register: 그런데/근데 (conversational); 그렇지만/하지만 (formal/written).

    Different registers.

TOPIK 2 / A2Connectors

그리고 ('and/furthermore', sentence-initial)

그리고

그리고 means 'and' / 'and then' / 'furthermore' and connects two sentences. It is sentence-initial — never inside a single clause the way English 'and' joins two nouns.

Key rule

그리고 = sentence-initial 'and'. Use -고 to join clauses inside ONE sentence; use 와/과/하고 to join NOUNS; use 그리고 only between two SEPARATE sentences.

Examples

  • 어제 영화를 봤어요. 그리고 친구를 만났어요.
    사과 그리고 바나나를 샀어요.

    Sequential: action 1 → action 2. Translation: Yesterday I watched a movie. And (then) I met a friend. Romanization: Eoje yeonghwa-reul bwasseoyo. Geurigo chingu-reul mannasseoyo.

  • 한국어는 재미있어요. 그리고 유용해요.
    밥을 먹었어요 그리고 잤어요.

    Additive: parallel statements. Translation: Korean is fun. And (also) useful. Romanization: Hangugeo-neun jaemiisseoyo. Geurigo yuyonghaeyo.

  • 시장에서 사과를 샀어요. 그리고 우유도 샀어요.
    공부했어요 그리고 피곤했어요.

    Additive with 도 reinforcing. Translation: I bought apples at the market. And I bought milk too. Romanization: Sijang-eseo sagwa-reul sasseoyo. Geurigo uyu-do sasseoyo.

Common mistakes

  • wrong_connector_for_nouns

    사과 그리고 바나나를 샀어요.
    사과하고 바나나를 샀어요.

    그리고 doesn't join bare nouns. Use 와/과/하고/(이)랑.

  • missing_sentence_break

    밥을 먹었어요 그리고 잤어요.
    밥을 먹고 잤어요. / 밥을 먹었어요. 그리고 잤어요.

    Either use -고 inside one sentence OR end the first sentence and start the next with 그리고. Don't blend.

TOPIK 2 / B1Connectors

-는데 / -(으)ㄴ데 (setting/background, mild contrast, in-clause)

-는데 / -(으)ㄴ데

-는데 / -(으)ㄴ데 sets up background, gives a setting, or marks mild contrast for whatever comes next. It is the in-clause counterpart of 그런데. Verbs use -는데; descriptive verbs (adjectives) use -(으)ㄴ데; past tense uses -았/었는데.

Key rule

Verb → -는데. Adjective → -(으)ㄴ데. Past → -았/었는데. Functions: setting, mild contrast, softening. ㄹ-final stems drop ㄹ before -는데.

Examples

  • 어제 영화를 봤는데 정말 재미있었어요.
    이 옷이 비싸는데 예뻐요.

    Past background → main clause. Translation: I watched a movie yesterday — it was really fun. Romanization: Eoje yeonghwa-reul bwanneunde jeongmal jaemiisseosseoyo.

  • 이 식당은 비싼데 맛은 별로예요.
    어제 갔는데요 사람이 많았어요.

    Adjective + -(으)ㄴ데 — mild contrast. Translation: This restaurant is expensive but the taste is so-so. Romanization: I sikdang-eun bissaneunde mas-eun byeollo-yeyo.

  • 지금 도서관에 가는데 같이 갈래요?
    만들는데 시간이 걸려요.

    Setting + invitation. Translation: I'm going to the library now — wanna come? Romanization: Jigeum doseogwan-e ganeunde gachi gallaeyo?

Common mistakes

  • verb_vs_adjective_ending

    이 옷이 비싸는데 예뻐요.
    이 옷이 비싼데 예뻐요.

    비싸다 is an adjective → -(으)ㄴ데, NOT -는데. Verbs take -는데; adjectives take -(으)ㄴ데.

  • midsentence_yo_misuse

    어제 갔는데요 사람이 많았어요.
    어제 갔는데 사람이 많았어요.

    Don't put -요 in the MIDDLE of a sentence on a connector. Sentence-final -는데요 is fine; mid-sentence is not.

TOPIK 2 / B2Connectors

Indirect speech: -ㄴ/는다고, -(이)라고, -자고, -(으)라고, -냐고

-ㄴ/는다고 / -(이)라고 / -자고 / -(으)라고 / -냐고

Korean reports speech indirectly with sentence-type-specific endings: STATEMENT → -ㄴ/는다고 (verb) or -다고 (adjective) or -(이)라고 (이다); SUGGESTION → -자고; COMMAND → -(으)라고; QUESTION → -냐고. Then add a quotative verb like 하다, 말하다, 그러다.

Key rule

Pick by SENTENCE TYPE: statement -ㄴ/는다고 / -다고 / -(이)라고 (past -았/었다고); suggestion -자고; command -(으)라고; question -냐고. Then attach 하다 / 말하다 / 묻다.

Examples

  • 민수가 내일 학교에 간다고 했어요.
    민수가 학교에 가다고 했어요.

    Statement, vowel stem 가다 → 간다고. Translation: Minsu said he'll go to school tomorrow. Romanization: Minsu-ga naeil hakgyo-e ganda-go haesseoyo.

  • 친구가 한국 음식이 맛있다고 말했어요.
    친구가 의사다고 했어요.

    Adjective 맛있다 → -다고. Translation: My friend said Korean food is delicious. Romanization: Chingu-ga hanguk eumsig-i masitda-go marhaesseoyo.

  • 그 사람이 의사라고 들었어요.
    선생님이 공부하다고 하셨어요.

    이다 → -(이)라고; vowel-final noun → -라고. Translation: I heard that person is a doctor. Romanization: Geu saram-i uisa-rago deureosseoyo.

Common mistakes

  • missing_n_neun_for_verbs

    민수가 학교에 가다고 했어요.
    민수가 학교에 간다고 했어요.

    VERB statements need -ㄴ/는다고, NOT plain -다고. -다고 is for adjectives. Vowel-stem verbs → -ㄴ다고; consonant-stem verbs → -는다고.

  • wrong_ida_quotation

    친구가 의사다고 했어요.
    친구가 의사라고 했어요.

    이다 reports as -(이)라고, not -다고. After vowel-final nouns, just -라고.

TOPIK 2 / A2Connectors

-기 전에 / -(으)ㄴ 후에 / -(으)ㄴ 다음에 (before / after)

-기 전에 / -(으)ㄴ 후에 / -(으)ㄴ 다음에

To say 'before doing X' attach -기 전에 to a verb stem (밥을 먹기 전에 = 'before eating'). To say 'after doing X' attach -(으)ㄴ 후에 or -(으)ㄴ 다음에 (밥을 먹은 후에 / 먹은 다음에 = 'after eating'). Note: BEFORE uses verb stem alone; AFTER uses the past-modifier form -(으)ㄴ.

Key rule

BEFORE = stem + -기 전에 (no past marker). AFTER = stem + -(으)ㄴ + 후에 / 다음에 (the -(으)ㄴ does the past job — don't add 았/었). NOUN + 전에 / 후에 / 다음에 also works. ㄹ-stems drop ㄹ before -(으)ㄴ.

Examples

  • 밥을 먹기 전에 손을 씻으세요.
    밥을 먹었기 전에 손을 씻었어요.

    Verb + -기 전에. Translation: Wash your hands before eating. Romanization: Bab-eul meokgi jeone son-eul ssiseuseyo.

  • 수업 전에 커피를 마셨어요.
    수업 끝난 후에 만났어요.

    NOUN + 전에. Translation: I drank coffee before class. Romanization: Sueop jeone keopi-reul masyeosseoyo.

  • 삼 년 전에 한국에 왔어요.
    밥을 먹는 후에 산책했어요.

    Time amount + 전에 = 'X ago'. Translation: I came to Korea three years ago. Romanization: Sam nyeon jeone hangug-e wasseoyo.

Common mistakes

  • past_in_before_clause

    밥을 먹었기 전에 손을 씻었어요.
    밥을 먹기 전에 손을 씻었어요.

    Don't past-mark the -기 전에 clause. The structure itself signals 'before' — past marker is wrong. Tense is on the main clause only.

  • missing_subject_particle

    수업 끝난 후에 만났어요.
    수업이 끝난 후에 만났어요.

    수업 끝나다 needs subject marker on 수업: 수업이 끝나다. Don't drop 이/가 from the embedded clause.

TOPIK 2 / A2Connectors

-는 동안(에) ('while/during', simultaneous, two subjects allowed)

-는 동안(에)

-는 동안(에) means 'while X is happening' / 'during the time X'. Attach -는 동안 to a verb stem. Unlike -(으)면서 (same-subject simultaneous), -는 동안 happily takes TWO different subjects.

Key rule

VERB stem + -는 동안(에) for 'while X-ing' (subjects can differ). NOUN + 동안 for 'during NOUN'. ㄹ-stems drop ㄹ. Use -(으)면서 only when the SAME subject does both actions.

Examples

  • 제가 자는 동안 동생이 공부했어요.
    제가 자면서 동생이 공부했어요.

    Different subjects — 동안 works; 면서 wouldn't. Translation: While I was sleeping, my younger sibling studied. Romanization: Je-ga janeun dongan dongsaeng-i gongbuhaesseoyo.

  • 엄마가 요리하는 동안 저는 청소했어요.
    한 시간을 동안 기다렸어요.

    Different subjects. Translation: While Mom cooked, I cleaned. Romanization: Eomma-ga yorihaneun dongan jeoneun cheongsohaesseoyo.

  • 방학 동안 한국에 갔어요.
    사는 동안에 동안 한국 친구를 사귀었어요.

    NOUN + 동안. Translation: I went to Korea during the vacation. Romanization: Banghak dongan hangug-e gasseoyo.

Common mistakes

  • different_subject_with_myeonseo

    제가 자면서 동생이 공부했어요.
    제가 자는 동안 동생이 공부했어요.

    -(으)면서 needs the SAME subject. Different subjects → use -는 동안. Here '제가' and '동생이' are different.

  • extra_object_particle

    한 시간을 동안 기다렸어요.
    한 시간 동안 기다렸어요.

    Don't put 을/를 before 동안 with time amounts. Just NUMBER + COUNTER + 동안.

TOPIK 2 / B1Connectors

-(으)면서 ('while' — same subject, two simultaneous actions)

-(으)면서

-(으)면서 means 'while doing X' when ONE PERSON does two things at the same time. Vowel-stem + -면서, consonant-stem + -으면서. Same subject only — for two different subjects use -는 동안.

Key rule

Vowel/ㄹ-stem + -면서; consonant-stem + -으면서. Same subject for both clauses. No past marker on the -(으)면서 clause itself. For different subjects → use -는 동안.

Examples

  • 밥을 먹으면서 TV를 봐요.
    친구가 자면서 제가 공부했어요.

    Same subject ('I'); consonant stem 먹다. Translation: I watch TV while eating. Romanization: Bab-eul meogeumyeonseo TV-reul bwayo.

  • 음악을 들으면서 운전해요.
    밥을 먹었으면서 TV를 봤어요.

    ㄷ-irregular: 듣다 → 들으면서. Translation: I drive while listening to music. Romanization: Eumag-eul deureumyeonseo unjeonhaeyo.

  • 친구하고 이야기하면서 커피를 마셨어요.
    음악을 듣면서 운전해요.

    Vowel stem (하다). Translation: I drank coffee while chatting with my friend. Romanization: Chingu-hago iyagihamyeonseo keopi-reul masyeosseoyo.

Common mistakes

  • different_subject_with_myeonseo

    친구가 자면서 제가 공부했어요.
    친구가 자는 동안 제가 공부했어요.

    Different subjects — must use -는 동안, not -(으)면서.

  • past_in_myeonseo_clause

    밥을 먹었으면서 TV를 봤어요.
    밥을 먹으면서 TV를 봤어요.

    Don't past-mark the -(으)면서 clause. Tense only on the main clause.

TOPIK 2 / A2Connectors

-거나 ('or' between verbs/clauses; 이나 between nouns)

-거나 / (이)나

To say 'A or B' between VERBS / CLAUSES use -거나 (밥을 먹거나 빵을 먹어요 = 'I eat rice or bread'). Between NOUNS use (이)나 (사과나 바나나 = 'apples or bananas'). Don't mix them.

Key rule

VERB / ADJECTIVE + -거나 for clausal 'or'. NOUN + 이나 (after consonant) / 나 (after vowel) for nominal 'or'. -거나 takes no 으. Never use -거나 between bare nouns or (이)나 between bare verbs.

Examples

  • 주말에 영화를 보거나 운동을 해요.
    사과거나 바나나를 좋아해요.

    Verb -거나. Translation: On weekends I watch movies or exercise. Romanization: Jumare yeonghwa-reul bogeona undong-eul haeyo.

  • 사과나 바나나를 좋아해요.
    영화를 보나 운동을 해요.

    Vowel-final noun + 나. Translation: I like apples or bananas. Romanization: Sagwa-na banana-reul joahaeyo.

  • 밥이나 빵을 드세요.
    먹으거나 자거나 해요.

    Consonant-final noun + 이나. Translation: Please have rice or bread. Romanization: Bab-i-na ppang-eul deuseyo.

Common mistakes

  • wrong_or_for_nouns

    사과거나 바나나를 좋아해요.
    사과나 바나나를 좋아해요.

    Between NOUNS use (이)나, not -거나. -거나 attaches only to verb/adjective stems.

  • wrong_or_for_verbs

    영화를 보나 운동을 해요.
    영화를 보거나 운동을 해요.

    Between VERBS / clauses use -거나, not 나. 나 is the noun-coordinator.

TOPIK 2 / A2Connectors

-지(요)? / -죠? (seeking agreement / confirmation)

-지(요)? / -죠?

-지(요)? added to a stem turns a statement into a soft tag-question seeking agreement: 'right? / isn't it?'. 한국어가 어렵지요? = 'Korean is hard, right?'. -죠 is the contracted spoken form of -지요.

Key rule

Stem + -지(요)? for soft 'right? / isn't it?'. Past = -았/었지요?. 이다 = -이지요?. Spoken = -죠?. The -요 polite ending is required outside 반말. Don't use it for genuine open questions.

Examples

  • 한국어가 어렵지요?
    한국어를 처음 배우지요?

    Adjective + -지요?, seeks agreement. Translation: Korean is hard, right? Romanization: Hangugeo-ga eoryeopjiyo?

  • 오늘 날씨가 좋죠?
    어제 갔어지요?

    Spoken contraction -죠. Translation: Today's weather is nice, isn't it? Romanization: Oneul nalssi-ga jotjyo?

  • 어제 친구를 만났지요?
    그분이 학생지요?

    Past + -지요?. Translation: You met your friend yesterday, right? Romanization: Eoje chingu-reul mannatjiyo?

Common mistakes

  • jiyo_for_genuine_question

    한국어를 처음 배우지요?
    한국어를 처음 배워요? / 한국어를 처음 배우세요?

    If you don't know the answer, use a plain question. -지요? is for things you already think are true and just want confirmed.

  • extra_eo

    어제 갔어지요?
    어제 갔지요?

    Past-marking goes inside -지요?: stem + 았/었 + 지요. Don't add 아 again — 갔지요 (NOT 갔어지요).

TOPIK 2 / A2Connectors

-네(요) (mild realization / mild surprise / observation)

-네(요)

-네(요) attached to a stem expresses a mild realization or observation about something just noticed: 'oh, it's ~!'. 비가 오네요 = 'oh, it's raining'. 한국어를 잘하시네요 = 'you speak Korean well, I see'.

Key rule

Stem + -네(요) for mild realization 'oh, ~!'. ㄹ-stems drop ㄹ. Past = -았/었네요. 이다 = -이네(요). For agreement-seeking use -지요?; for reflective acknowledgment use -군요. -네요 is for the moment of noticing.

Examples

  • 비가 오네요.
    비가 와네요.

    Realization on noticing rain. Translation: Oh, it's raining. Romanization: Bi-ga oneyo.

  • 한국어를 정말 잘하시네요!
    한국어 잘하네요요.

    Compliment on observed skill. Translation: Wow, you speak Korean really well! Romanization: Hangugeo-reul jeongmal jalhasineyo!

  • 이 음식 맛있네요.
    만들네요.

    Reaction to taste. Translation: Oh, this food's tasty. Romanization: I eumsik masinneyo.

Common mistakes

  • wrong_base_for_neyo

    비가 와네요.
    비가 오네요.

    -네요 attaches to the STEM, not the conjugated -아/어요 form. 오다 → 오네요 (NOT 와네요).

  • double_yo

    한국어 잘하네요요.
    한국어 잘하네요.

    Don't double the polite -요. 잘하 + 네 + 요 = 잘하네요.

TOPIK 2 / B1Connectors

-군요 / -는군요 / -구나 (reflective realization, 'I see / oh!')

-군요 / -는군요 / -구나

-군요 / -는군요 / -구나 expresses absorbed realization — 'oh, I see / so that's how it is'. Verbs use -는군요; adjectives and 이다 use -군요. -구나 is the casual 반말 version. Slightly more reflective than -네요.

Key rule

VERB + -는군요. ADJ / 이다 + -군요 / -이군요. Past (any) = -았/었군요. Future = -겠군요. ㄹ-stems drop ㄹ before -는군요. 반말 = -구나 / -는구나. Use for absorbed realization, often after explanation.

Examples

  • 아, 그래서 늦으셨군요.
    한국어를 잘하군요.

    Absorbed realization after explanation; past + 시 + -군요. Translation: Ah, so that's why you were late. Romanization: A, geuraeseo neujeusyeotgunyo.

  • 한국어를 정말 잘하시는군요!
    이 음식이 매워는군요.

    Verb 잘하다 → -는군요 (with 시). Translation: Oh, you really do speak Korean well! Romanization: Hangugeo-reul jeongmal jalhasi-neungunyo!

  • 이 음식이 맵군요.
    한국에 살는군요.

    Adjective + -군요. Translation: Oh, this food is spicy. Romanization: I eumsig-i maepgunyo.

Common mistakes

  • verb_vs_adjective_ending

    한국어를 잘하군요.
    한국어를 잘하는군요. / 한국어를 잘하시는군요.

    VERBS need -는군요, NOT -군요. -군요 alone is for adjectives and 이다. 잘하다 is a verb → 잘하는군요.

  • verb_vs_adjective_ending

    이 음식이 매워는군요.
    이 음식이 맵군요.

    맵다 is an adjective (descriptive verb) → -군요, NOT -는군요. Verbs take -는군요; adjectives take -군요.

TOPIK 2 / B1Honorifics register

Honorific verb pairs (드시다, 주무시다, 계시다, 돌아가시다, 말씀하시다)

드시다 / 주무시다 / 계시다 / 돌아가시다 / 말씀하시다

A small set of high-frequency verbs has SUPPLETIVE honorific forms — entirely different words used when the SUBJECT deserves respect: 먹다 → 드시다 / 잡수시다, 자다 → 주무시다, 있다(person) → 계시다, 죽다 → 돌아가시다, 말하다 → 말씀하시다, 마시다 → 드시다.

Key rule

Memorize as SUPPLETIVE pairs: 먹다/마시다→드시다, 자다→주무시다, 있다(person)→계시다, 없다(person)→안 계시다, 죽다→돌아가시다, 말하다→말씀하시다. Possession 있다/없다→있으시다/없으시다 (regular -시-). No double-시-.

Examples

  • 할아버지께서 식사를 드세요.
    할아버지께서 밥을 먹으세요.

    먹다 → 드시다. Translation: Grandfather is having a meal. Romanization: Harabeoji-kkeseo siksa-reul deuseyo.

  • 어머니께서 아직 주무세요.
    어머니께서 자세요.

    자다 → 주무시다. Translation: Mom is still asleep. Romanization: Eomeoni-kkeseo ajik jumuseyo.

  • 선생님께서 교실에 계세요.
    선생님께서 시간이 계세요?

    있다 (person 'is at') → 계시다. Translation: The teacher is in the classroom. Romanization: Seonsaengnim-kkeseo gyosil-e gyeseyo.

Common mistakes

  • missing_suppletive_form

    할아버지께서 밥을 먹으세요.
    할아버지께서 식사를 드세요.

    Use suppletive 드시다, not 먹다 + -시-. 먹으세요 to a grandfather sounds disrespectful even with -시-. (밥 → 식사 also more polite.)

  • missing_suppletive_form

    어머니께서 자세요.
    어머니께서 주무세요.

    자다 has the suppletive 주무시다 — 자세요 to one's mother is wrong.

TOPIK 2 / B1Particles

께서 / 께서는 (honorific subject particle)

께서 / 께서는

께서 is the HONORIFIC version of 이/가 — used as the subject marker when the subject deserves respect (parents, teachers, bosses, customers). For honorific topic, use 께서는.

Key rule

Respected SUBJECT + 께서 (replaces 이/가) or + 께서는 (replaces 은/는). Verb MUST be honorific (-(으)시- or suppletive). Don't confuse with 께 (dative). Never use 께서 for self / friends / animals / inanimate things.

Examples

  • 할아버지께서 신문을 읽으세요.
    할아버지께서 신문을 읽어요.

    께서 + -(으)시-. Translation: Grandfather is reading the newspaper. Romanization: Harabeoji-kkeseo sinmun-eul ilgeuseyo.

  • 어머니께서는 지금 집에 안 계세요.
    선생님이 가르치세요.

    께서는 (topic) + 계시다. Translation: (As for) Mother, she's not home right now. Romanization: Eomeoni-kkeseoneun jigeum jib-e an gyeseyo.

  • 선생님께서 한국어를 가르치세요.
    저께서는 학생이에요.

    께서 + -(으)시-. Translation: The teacher teaches Korean. Romanization: Seonsaengnim-kkeseo hangugeo-reul gareuchi-seyo.

Common mistakes

  • non_honorific_verb_after_kkeseo

    할아버지께서 신문을 읽어요.
    할아버지께서 신문을 읽으세요.

    께서 demands honorific verb (-(으)시-). 읽어요 alone is non-honorific and clashes with 께서.

  • non_honorific_subject_particle

    선생님이 가르치세요.
    선생님께서 가르치세요.

    If the verb is honorified, the subject particle should be 께서, not 이/가. Mismatch sounds inconsistent.

TOPIK 2 / B1Honorifics register

-(으)시- (subject-honorific suffix on regular verbs)

-(으)시-

Add -(으)시- inside the verb to honor the SUBJECT. Vowel-stem + -시-, consonant-stem + -으시-. In 해요체 the form usually surfaces as -(으)세요. Past = -(으)셨-. Use this for every verb where the subject is older/respected and there's no suppletive form.

Key rule

Vowel/ㄹ-stem + -시-; consonant-stem + -으시-. ㄹ-stems drop ㄹ. Use suppletive forms (드시다, 주무시다, 계시다) where they exist. Past = -(으)셨-. Haeyo = -(으)세요. Don't honorify yourself or inanimate objects.

Examples

  • 선생님께서 한국어를 가르치세요.
    저는 한국어를 공부하세요.

    Vowel stem + -세요. Translation: The teacher teaches Korean. Romanization: Seonsaengnim-kkeseo hangugeo-reul gareuchiseyo.

  • 할머니께서 책을 읽으세요.
    할아버지께서 밥을 먹으세요.

    Consonant stem + -으세요. Translation: Grandmother reads books. Romanization: Halmeoni-kkeseo chaeg-eul ilgeuseyo.

  • 부모님께서 부산에 사세요.
    어머니께서 살으세요.

    ㄹ-drop: 살다 → 사세요. Translation: My parents live in Busan. Romanization: Bumonim-kkeseo busan-e saseyo.

Common mistakes

  • self_honorification

    저는 한국어를 공부하세요.
    저는 한국어를 공부해요.

    Don't honorify YOURSELF. -(으)시- is for respected OTHERS only.

  • missing_suppletive

    할아버지께서 밥을 먹으세요.
    할아버지께서 식사를 드세요.

    Use the SUPPLETIVE 드시다 instead of 먹다 + -(으)시-. 먹으시다 exists as a form but is rude in this context.

TOPIK 2 / A2Verb usage

-(으)ㄹ게요 (first-person promise / commitment)

-(으)ㄹ게요

-(으)ㄹ게요 expresses a FIRST-PERSON promise or commitment to the listener: 'I'll do X (and you can count on it)'. Vowel-stem + -ㄹ게요, consonant-stem + -을게요. Subject is always 'I' (or 'we' implicitly).

Key rule

Vowel/ㄹ-stem + -ㄹ게요; consonant-stem + -을게요. FIRST-PERSON subject ONLY. Used to commit to an action with the listener in mind. Not for questions, not for third persons, not for past.

Examples

  • 제가 갈게요.
    친구가 내일 갈게요.

    Vowel stem 가다 → 갈게요. Translation: I'll go (you can count on me). Romanization: Je-ga galgeyo.

  • 내일 일찍 일어날게요.
    내일 갈게요?

    Promise to self/listener. Translation: I'll get up early tomorrow. Romanization: Naeil iljjik ireonalgeyo.

  • 이거 제가 먹을게요.
    어제 갈게요.

    Consonant stem 먹다 → 먹을게요. Translation: I'll eat this. Romanization: Igeo je-ga meogeulgeyo.

Common mistakes

  • third_person_with_eulgeyo

    친구가 내일 갈게요.
    친구가 내일 갈 거예요.

    -(으)ㄹ게요 only with FIRST-PERSON subjects. Third-person future → -(으)ㄹ 거예요.

  • question_with_eulgeyo

    내일 갈게요?
    내일 갈 거예요? / 내일 갈래요?

    -(으)ㄹ게요 doesn't form questions. To ask use -(으)ㄹ 거예요? or -(으)ㄹ래요?.

TOPIK 2 / B2Verb usage

-았/었으면 좋겠다 ('I wish / I hope', counterfactual or hopeful)

-았/었으면 좋겠다

-았/었으면 좋겠다 expresses a wish or hope: '(I) wish that ~ / I hope ~'. Despite the past-shape -았/었-, the meaning is HYPOTHETICAL or future-oriented. Use the past stem + -으면 좋겠다.

Key rule

STEM + -았/었- + -으면 좋겠다 = wish / hope. -았/었- here is HYPOTHETICAL, not past. Use 좋겠어요 (polite) / 좋겠습니다 (formal). For controllable actions of self use -고 싶다; for hopes about states or others use -았/었으면 좋겠다.

Examples

  • 한국어를 잘했으면 좋겠어요.
    한국어를 잘하으면 좋겠어요.

    Self-improvement wish. Translation: I wish I were good at Korean. Romanization: Hangugeo-reul jalhaesseumyeon jokesseoyo.

  • 내일 날씨가 좋았으면 좋겠어요.
    한국어를 잘하고 싶어요. (intended: 'I wish I were good')

    Future hope (state). Translation: I hope the weather is good tomorrow. Romanization: Naeil nalssi-ga joasseumyeon jokesseoyo.

  • 시간이 더 많았으면 좋겠어요.
    비가 오면 좋아요.

    Counterfactual. Translation: I wish I had more time. Romanization: Sigan-i deo manasseumyeon jokesseoyo.

Common mistakes

  • missing_past_marker

    한국어를 잘하으면 좋겠어요.
    한국어를 잘했으면 좋겠어요.

    Use the PAST -았/었- form: 잘하다 → 잘했으면. The hypothetical -았/었으면 is the standard wish shape; without it the wish reads weaker/simpler.

  • wrong_wish_form

    한국어를 잘하고 싶어요. (intended: 'I wish I were good')
    한국어를 잘하고 싶어요. (= 'I want to do well') / 한국어를 잘했으면 좋겠어요. (= 'I wish I were good')

    Both are grammatical but different: 고 싶다 = active desire to perform; 았/었으면 좋겠다 = wish about a state. Pick by meaning.

TOPIK 2 / B1Verb usage

-(으)ㄴ 적이 있다/없다 ('have / haven't ever done')

-(으)ㄴ 적이 있다 / 없다

-(으)ㄴ 적이 있다 means 'have ever done X / there's been a time when X'. -(으)ㄴ 적이 없다 = 'have never done X'. Vowel-stem + -ㄴ 적, consonant-stem + -은 적. Used for life-experience questions and answers.

Key rule

Vowel/ㄹ-stem + -ㄴ 적이 있다/없다; consonant-stem + -은 적이 있다/없다. ㄹ-stems drop ㄹ. Means 'there has been an occasion of ~'. Frequency with 번. Negative = 적이 없다. Embed 았/었던 for stronger past-ness.

Examples

  • 한국에 간 적이 있어요.
    한국에 갔 적이 있어요.

    Vowel stem 가다 → 간. Translation: I've been to Korea (before). Romanization: Hanguk-e gan jeog-i isseoyo.

  • 김치를 먹은 적이 있어요?
    김치를 먹는 적이 있어요?

    Consonant stem 먹다 → 먹은. Translation: Have you ever eaten kimchi? Romanization: Gimchi-reul meogeun jeog-i isseoyo?

  • 그 영화를 본 적이 없어요.
    한국 음식을 만들은 적이 있어요?

    Negative experience. Translation: I've never seen that movie. Romanization: Geu yeonghwa-reul bon jeog-i eopseoyo.

Common mistakes

  • wrong_modifier

    한국에 갔 적이 있어요.
    한국에 간 적이 있어요.

    Use the PAST-MODIFIER form -(으)ㄴ, not the conjugated 갔. 가다 → 간 적이 있어요.

  • wrong_modifier

    김치를 먹는 적이 있어요?
    김치를 먹은 적이 있어요?

    Use PAST-modifier -(으)ㄴ, not present-modifier -는. -는 적이 있다 doesn't exist with this meaning.

TOPIK 2 / A2Counters numbers

Counter expansion (병/잔/장/마리/대/켤레/그릇/조각)

병 / 잔 / 장 / 마리 / 대 / 켤레 / 그릇 / 조각

Korean uses different counters for different categories of nouns. Beyond 명/개 (T1), T2 adds: 병 (bottles), 잔 (cups/glasses), 장 (sheets/papers/tickets), 마리 (animals), 대 (machines/vehicles), 켤레 (pairs of shoes/socks), 그릇 (bowls of food), 조각 (pieces/slices). Use NATIVE numbers 1–99 with these counters.

Key rule

NOUN + NATIVE NUMBER + COUNTER. 한/두/세/네/스무 contract; 다섯+ don't. Match counter to noun category: 병(bottle), 잔(cup), 장(sheet), 마리(animal), 대(machine), 켤레(pair shoes), 그릇(bowl), 조각(slice). Question = 몇 + counter.

Examples

  • 맥주 두 병 주세요.
    맥주 두 개 주세요.

    병 for bottles. Translation: Two bottles of beer, please. Romanization: Maekju du byeong juseyo.

  • 커피 한 잔 주세요.
    고양이 두 명을 키워요.

    잔 for cups. Translation: One cup of coffee, please. Romanization: Keopi han jan juseyo.

  • 표 세 장 샀어요.
    차 두 마리 있어요.

    장 for tickets / flat objects. Translation: I bought three tickets. Romanization: Pyo se jang sasseoyo.

Common mistakes

  • wrong_counter

    맥주 두 개 주세요.
    맥주 두 병 주세요.

    Beer comes in bottles → 병, not generic 개. Match counter to noun.

  • wrong_animal_counter

    고양이 두 명을 키워요.
    고양이 두 마리를 키워요.

    Animals NEVER take 명 (people-counter). Always 마리.

TOPIK 2 / A2Vocabulary usage

Frequency adverbs (자주/가끔/항상/보통/별로/전혀)

자주 / 가끔 / 항상 / 늘 / 보통 / 거의 / 별로 / 전혀

Frequency adverbs describe how often something happens. Core T2 set: 항상/늘 (always), 보통 (usually), 자주 (often), 가끔 (sometimes), 거의 (rarely / hardly), 별로 (not really — needs negative), 전혀 (not at all — needs negative). Place them BEFORE the verb.

Key rule

Place frequency adverb BEFORE the verb. 별로 / 전혀 REQUIRE a negative predicate (안, -지 않다, 못). 항상/늘 = always; 보통 = usually; 자주 = often; 가끔 = sometimes; 거의 (+안) = hardly; 별로/전혀 (+안) = not really / not at all.

Examples

  • 저는 항상 7시에 일어나요.
    별로 좋아해요.

    항상 before verb. Translation: I always wake up at 7. Romanization: Jeoneun hangsang ilgop-si-e ireonayo.

  • 보통 아침에 운동해요.
    전혀 마셔요.

    보통 clause-initial. Translation: I usually exercise in the morning. Romanization: Botong achim-e undonghaeyo.

  • 한국 영화를 자주 봐요.
    안 자주 가요.

    자주 directly before verb. Translation: I often watch Korean movies. Romanization: Hanguk yeonghwa-reul jaju bwayo.

Common mistakes

  • missing_negative_with_byeollo

    별로 좋아해요.
    별로 안 좋아해요. / 별로 좋아하지 않아요.

    별로 REQUIRES a negative predicate. Standalone with affirmative is wrong.

  • missing_negative_with_jeonhyeo

    전혀 마셔요.
    전혀 안 마셔요. / 전혀 마시지 않아요.

    전혀 also requires a negative predicate. Standalone with affirmative is ungrammatical.

TOPIK 2 / A2Vocabulary usage

Time vocabulary expansion (요일, 매~, 작년/올해/내년, 평일/주말, 새벽/아침/낮/저녁/밤)

월요일~일요일 / 매일·매주·매달·매년 / 작년·올해·내년 / 평일·주말 / 새벽·아침·낮·저녁·밤

T2 expands time vocabulary: days of the week (월·화·수·목·금·토·일요일), 매~ ('every ~') prefixes, year reference (작년/올해/내년), weekday/weekend (평일/주말), and parts of the day (새벽 dawn / 아침 morning / 낮 daytime / 저녁 evening / 밤 night).

Key rule

요일 (days) take 에 (월요일에). 매일/매주/매년 take NO 에. 올해 typically without 에; 작년/내년 with 에. Parts of day with 에 (아침에, 저녁에, 밤에). Question for day-of-week = 무슨 요일.

Examples

  • 오늘이 무슨 요일이에요?
    매일에 한국어를 공부해요.

    Question with 무슨 요일. Translation: What day is it today? Romanization: Oneul-i museun yoil-ieyo?

  • 저는 월요일에 학교에 가요.
    올해에 한국에 갔어요.

    요일 + 에. Translation: I go to school on Monday. Romanization: Jeoneun woryoil-e hakgyo-e gayo.

  • 매일 한국어를 공부해요.
    월요일 학교에 가요.

    매일 — no 에. Translation: I study Korean every day. Romanization: Maeil hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeyo.

Common mistakes

  • extra_e_with_mae

    매일에 한국어를 공부해요.
    매일 한국어를 공부해요.

    매-prefix words (매일/매주/매년) act adverbially and take NO 에.

  • register_unusual

    올해에 한국에 갔어요.
    올해 한국에 갔어요. (or: 올해에 — both possible but 올해 alone is more common).

    올해 typically appears without 에 in everyday usage. 작년/내년 take 에.

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