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Connectors
- -(์ผ)๋๊น (because โ subjective reason; allows commands/suggestions)
- -๋๋ฐ๋ / -(์ผ)ใด๋ฐ๋ (even though / despite โ situational concession)
- -์/์ด๋ (even if / even though โ hypothetical or actual concession)
- -(์ผ)ใน์๋ก (the more ~, the more ~)
- ๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ / ๋๊ตฌ๋ / ๋ํ (in addition / furthermore / on top of that)
- -๋๋ก (in order to / so that / to the extent)
- -(์ผ)ใน ํ ๋ฐ (probably will / should but / expected to but)
- -๊ธฐ ์ํด(์) / -๊ธฐ ์ํ (in order to / for the purpose of)
- -๊ฒ (manner adverb / so that โ adjective โ adverb / verb โ result)
- -๋์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค / -(์ผ)ใน์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค (might / possibly)
- -๋ ๋ณด๋ค / -(์ผ)ใด๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ค (it seems / apparently โ based on evidence)
- -(์ผ)ใน ์๋ฐ์ ์๋ค (have no choice but to / inevitably)
- -์ ์ํ๋ฉด / -์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด (according to โ citing a source)
- ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ / ๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ๋ฐ / ์ด์จ๋ (in the end / that said / anyway โ discourse markers)
- -๋ (์ง) -๋ (์ง) / -๊ฑฐ๋ -๊ฑฐ๋ (either... or, whichever)
- ๋ฐ๋ก / ์ญ์ / ์ด์จ๋ / ์ฌ์ค (discourse markers: focus / agreement / dismissal / actually)
Verb usage
- -๊ฒ ๋๋ค (end up / come to / turn out)
- -์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค (looks / appears + ADJ)
- Contracted reported speech -๋์ / -๋์ / -๋ฌ์ / -์ฌ์
- -๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค (decide to / agree to / promise to)
- -๊ณค ํ๋ค (recurring past habit / used to do)
- -(์ผ)๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ) (was about to / tried to but stopped)
- -์๋ง์ (as soon as)
- -๋ค(๊ฐ) (doing X and then switched / interrupted)
- -๋ ์ฒํ๋ค / -(์ผ)ใด ์ฒํ๋ค / -(์ผ)ใน ์ฒํ๋ค (pretend to / act like)
- Giving verbs: ์ฃผ๋ค / ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค (humble) / ์ฃผ์๋ค (honorific) + -์/์ด ์ฃผ๋ค benefactive
Verb conjugation
- Passive suffixes -์ด-/-ํ-/-๋ฆฌ-/-๊ธฐ- (๋ณด์ด๋ค, ๋ซํ๋ค, ๋ค๋ฆฌ๋ค, ์๊ธฐ๋ค)
- Passive -์/์ด์ง๋ค (productive passive with action verbs)
- Passive ๋๋ค (with Sino-Korean noun stems)
- Causative suffixes -์ด-/-ํ-/-๋ฆฌ-/-๊ธฐ-/-์ฐ-/-์ถ- (๋จน์ด๋ค, ์ ํ๋ค, ์ด๋ฆฌ๋ค)
- Causative -๊ฒ ํ๋ค (productive 'make / let someone do')
- -์/์ด ๋๋ค / -์/์ด ๋๋ค (action done & state maintained)
- -์/์ด ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค (completion / regret / relief)
- -(์ผ)๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค (intend to / be about to)
- -๋/(์ผ)ใด/(์ผ)ใน ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (seems like / probably โ three tense slots)
Particles
- ์กฐ์ฐจ / ๋ง์ / ๊น์ง (even / up to / to the point of)
- (์ด)๋ผ๋ (at least / even / something like)
- (์ด)๋ผ๋ฉด (if it is / if it were / when it comes to)
- ๋ผ๋ฆฌ (amongst, group-internal: ์ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ, ์น๊ตฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ)
- ๋ง๋ค (every / each)
- ๋ฐ์ + negative (nothing but / only โ needs negative predicate)
- (์ด)๋ผ๊ณ (quote marker โ calling X / naming X)
Honorifics register
- Seven speech levels overview (ํ์์ / ํฉ์ผ / ํด์ / ํ์ค / ํ๊ฒ / ํด๋ผ / ํด)
- Choosing between ํ์ค์ฒด / ํ๊ฒ์ฒด (recognition + limited use)
- Workplace register basics (์ ๋ฐฐ/ํ๋ฐฐ, titles, ๋ณด๊ณ expressions)
- Softening strategies (-(์ผ)ใน ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค, -์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค, -์์์, hedging adverbs)
- Age-based address disambiguation (์ค๋น /ํ/๋๋/์ธ๋/์ ๋ฐฐ advanced)
- In-group / out-group kinship โ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ vs ์ ํฌ (์ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ์ฌ vs ์ ํฌ ํ์ฌ)
- Email / letter openings & closings (basic templates)
Vocabulary usage
- Intermediate Sino-Korean word formation (-์, -์, -์ค, -์ฅ, -์ suffixes)
- Idioms with body parts (๋์ด ๋๋ค, ์์ด ํฌ๋ค, ๋ฐ์ด ๋๋ค, ์ ์ด ๋ฌด๊ฒ๋ค)
- Basic proverbs (์๋ด) โ 10 high-frequency examples
- Basic mimetics (์์ฑ์ด sound symbolism, ์ํ์ด manner symbolism)
- Advanced Konglish (์ฌ์ด๋ค, ์๋น์ค, ๋งค๋ํ์ด, ์ ์นด โ pseudo-English)
- Choosing synonyms by register (๋ฐฅ vs ์์ฌ vs ์ง์ง)
Syntax
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Passive suffixes -์ด-/-ํ-/-๋ฆฌ-/-๊ธฐ- (๋ณด์ด๋ค, ๋ซํ๋ค, ๋ค๋ฆฌ๋ค, ์๊ธฐ๋ค)
ํผ๋ ์ ๋ฏธ์ฌ -์ด-/-ํ-/-๋ฆฌ-/-๊ธฐ-
A subset of Korean transitive verbs forms a passive by inserting one of four suffixes -์ด-, -ํ-, -๋ฆฌ-, -๊ธฐ- between the stem and ๋ค: ๋ณด๋ค โ ๋ณด์ด๋ค, ๋ซ๋ค โ ๋ซํ๋ค, ๋ฃ๋ค โ ๋ค๋ฆฌ๋ค, ์๋ค โ ์๊ธฐ๋ค. The choice is LEXICAL (per verb, memorized), not predictable from rule.
Key rule
Memorize each passive pair (๋ณด๋คโ๋ณด์ด๋ค, ๋ซ๋คโ๋ซํ๋ค, ๋ฃ๋คโ๋ค๋ฆฌ๋ค, ์๋คโ์๊ธฐ๋ค). Object becomes subject (์/๋ฅผ โ ์ด/๊ฐ). Agent (if expressed) takes ์ / ์๊ฒ / ์ ์ํด. The passive verb conjugates like a vowel-stem ending in ์ด (๋ณด์ฌ์, ๋ค๋ ค์, ๋ซํ์).
Examples
- ์ฐ์ด ์ ๋ณด์ฌ์.์ฐ์ ์ ๋ณด์ฌ์.
๋ณด์ด๋ค = stative 'be visible'; ์ฐ takes ์ด/๊ฐ. Translation: The mountain is clearly visible. Romanization: San-i jal boyeoyo.
- ๋ฌธ์ด ๊ฐ์๊ธฐ ๋ซํ์ด์.๋ฌธ์ด ๋ซ์ด์์ด์.
๋ซํ๋ค, past. Translation: The door closed suddenly. Romanization: Mun-i gapjagi datchyeosseoyo.
- ์์ ์ด ์ ๋ค๋ ค์.์๊ธฐ๊ฐ ์๋ง๋ฅผ ์๊ฒผ์ด์.
๋ค๋ฆฌ๋ค = 'be audible'. Translation: The music can't be heard. Romanization: Eumag-i an deullyeoyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_passive_particle
์ฐ์ ์ ๋ณด์ฌ์.์ฐ์ด ์ ๋ณด์ฌ์.Passive subject takes ์ด/๊ฐ, not ์/๋ฅผ. The mountain is the SEEN entity, not the SEER.
wrong_passive_suffix
๋ฌธ์ด ๋ซ์ด์์ด์.๋ฌธ์ด ๋ซํ์ด์.๋ซ๋ค's passive takes -ํ-, not -์ด-. ๋ซํ๋ค โ ๋ซํ์/๋ซํ์ด์. Memorize the pair.
Passive -์/์ด์ง๋ค (productive passive with action verbs)
ํผ๋ -์/์ด์ง๋ค
Attach -์/์ด์ง๋ค to a verb stem to form a productive passive: ๋ง๋ค๋ค โ ๋ง๋ค์ด์ง๋ค ('be made'), ์๋ค โ ์๋ ค์ง๋ค ('become known'). Useful when no -์ด/ํ/๋ฆฌ/๊ธฐ passive exists. The result conjugates as a regular -์ง๋ค verb.
Key rule
VERB stem + -์/์ด์ง๋ค = passive of action verbs (when -์ด/ํ/๋ฆฌ/๊ธฐ doesn't exist). ADJ stem + -์/์ด์ง๋ค = 'become ADJ' (inchoative). Object โ subject. Don't double-passivize lexical passives (โ ๋ซํ์ง๋ค). Conjugates as regular -์ง๋ค.
Examples
- ์ด ์ผ์ดํฌ๋ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ด๋จธ๋์ ์ํด ๋ง๋ค์ด์ก์ด์.์ผ์ดํฌ๊ฐ ์ด๋จธ๋๊ฐ ๋ง๋ค์ด์ก์ด์.
Action passive with formal agent. Translation: This cake was made by my mother. Romanization: I keikeu-neun uri eomeoni-e uihae mandeureojyeosseoyo.
- ๊ทธ ๊ฐ์๋ ํ๊ตญ์์ ๋ง์ด ์๋ ค์ ธ ์์ด์.๋ฌธ์ด ๋ซํ์ก์ด์.
์๋ ค์ง๋ค + -์ด ์๋ค (resultative). Translation: That singer is very well-known in Korea. Romanization: Geu gasu-neun hangug-eseo mani allyeojyeo isseoyo.
- ์ผ์ดํฌ๊ฐ ๋ ์กฐ๊ฐ์ผ๋ก ๋๋์ด์ก์ด์.์ฐ์ด ๋ณด์ฌ์ ธ์.
๋๋๋ค โ ๋๋์ด์ง๋ค. Translation: The cake was divided into two pieces. Romanization: Keikeu-ga du jogag-euro nanueojyeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
agent_with_subject_marker
์ผ์ดํฌ๊ฐ ์ด๋จธ๋๊ฐ ๋ง๋ค์ด์ก์ด์.์ผ์ดํฌ๊ฐ ์ด๋จธ๋์ ์ํด ๋ง๋ค์ด์ก์ด์. / ์ด๋จธ๋๊ฐ ์ผ์ดํฌ๋ฅผ ๋ง๋ค์์ด์.In a passive, the AGENT takes ์ ์ํด (formal) or ์๊ฒ โ NOT ์ด/๊ฐ. Two ์ด/๊ฐ subjects in one clause is wrong.
double_passive
๋ฌธ์ด ๋ซํ์ก์ด์.๋ฌธ์ด ๋ซํ์ด์.Don't double-passivize. ๋ซํ๋ค already IS the passive of ๋ซ๋ค; adding -์ด์ง๋ค is redundant. Standard writing rejects ๋ซํ์ง๋ค.
Passive ๋๋ค (with Sino-Korean noun stems)
ํผ๋ ๋๋ค
Sino-Korean noun + ํ๋ค verbs (ํด๊ฒฐํ๋ค, ๋ฐ๊ฒฌํ๋ค, ์ฌ์ฉํ๋ค) form passives by replacing ํ๋ค with ๋๋ค: ํด๊ฒฐ๋๋ค ('be resolved'), ๋ฐ๊ฒฌ๋๋ค ('be discovered'), ์ฌ์ฉ๋๋ค ('be used'). ๋๋ค is the productive passive for the entire SK -ํ๋ค family.
Key rule
SK NOUN + ํ๋ค (active) โ SK NOUN + ๋๋ค (passive). Object becomes subject (์/๋ฅผ โ ์ด/๊ฐ). Agent: ์ ์ํด (formal). ๋๋ค conjugates as vowel stem (๋ผ์, ๋์ด์, ๋ ๊ฑฐ์์). Don't use with native verbs.
Examples
- ์ด ๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ ๋นจ๋ฆฌ ํด๊ฒฐ๋์ด์.์ด ๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ ํด๊ฒฐ๋ฌ์ด์.
ํด๊ฒฐํ๋ค โ ํด๊ฒฐ๋๋ค, past. Translation: This problem was resolved quickly. Romanization: I munje-ga ppalli haegyeoldwaesseoyo.
- ์๋ก์ด ํ์ฑ์ด ๋ฐ๊ฒฌ๋์ด์.์ด ๋ฌธ์ ๋ฅผ ํด๊ฒฐ๋์ด์.
๋ฐ๊ฒฌํ๋ค โ ๋ฐ๊ฒฌ๋๋ค. Translation: A new planet was discovered. Romanization: Saeroun haengseong-i balgyeondwaesseoyo.
- ์ด ์ปดํจํฐ๋ ํ๊ต์์ ๋ง์ด ์ฌ์ฉ๋ผ์.๋ฌธ์ด ๋ซ๋์์ด์.
์ฌ์ฉํ๋ค โ ์ฌ์ฉ๋๋ค. Translation: This computer is used a lot at school. Romanization: I keompyuteo-neun hakgyo-eseo mani sayongdwaeyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_past_spelling
์ด ๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ ํด๊ฒฐ๋ฌ์ด์.์ด ๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ ํด๊ฒฐ๋์ด์.Past of ๋๋ค = ๋์ด์ (= ๋์์ด์), NOT ๋ฌ์ด์. The contracted form is ๋ with ใ , not ๋ฌ.
wrong_passive_particle
์ด ๋ฌธ์ ๋ฅผ ํด๊ฒฐ๋์ด์.์ด ๋ฌธ์ ๊ฐ ํด๊ฒฐ๋์ด์. / (active) ์ฐ๋ฆฌ๊ฐ ์ด ๋ฌธ์ ๋ฅผ ํด๊ฒฐํ์ด์.Passive subject takes ์ด/๊ฐ, not ์/๋ฅผ. The problem is the patient.
Causative suffixes -์ด-/-ํ-/-๋ฆฌ-/-๊ธฐ-/-์ฐ-/-์ถ- (๋จน์ด๋ค, ์ ํ๋ค, ์ด๋ฆฌ๋ค)
์ฌ๋ ์ ๋ฏธ์ฌ -์ด-/-ํ-/-๋ฆฌ-/-๊ธฐ-/-์ฐ-/-์ถ-
Many Korean verbs form a causative ('make/let X do Y') by inserting one of six suffixes -์ด/-ํ/-๋ฆฌ/-๊ธฐ/-์ฐ/-์ถ. ๋จน๋ค โ ๋จน์ด๋ค ('feed'), ์ ๋ค โ ์ ํ๋ค ('dress someone'), ์ด๋ค โ ์ด๋ฆฌ๋ค ('save / let live'), ์๋ค โ ์๋ฆฌ๋ค ('inform'), ์๋ค โ ์ฌ์ฐ๋ค ('put to sleep'), ๋ฆ๋ค โ ๋ฆ์ถ๋ค ('delay'). The choice is LEXICAL โ memorized per verb.
Key rule
Memorize each causative pair. Causatives ADD an argument (causer + causee + (object)). Causee marked with ์๊ฒ/ํํ (animate) or ์/๋ฅผ. Conjugate as vowel-stems (๋จน์ฌ์, ์ ํ์, ์๋ ค์, ์ฌ์์).
Examples
- ์๋ง๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ์๊ฒ ๋ฐฅ์ ๋จน์์ด์.์๋ง๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋จน์์ด์. (intended: 'fed the baby')
๋จน๋ค โ ๋จน์ด๋ค. Translation: Mom fed the baby. Romanization: Eomma-ga agi-ege bab-eul meogyeosseoyo.
- ์์ด์๊ฒ ์ท์ ์ ํ์ด์.์๋ง๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ์๊ฒ ์ค์ด์.
์ ๋ค โ ์ ํ๋ค. Translation: (I) dressed the child. Romanization: Ai-ege os-eul ipyeosseoyo.
- ์์ฌ๊ฐ ํ์๋ฅผ ์ด๋ ธ์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ์๋ ธ์ด์.
์ด๋ค โ ์ด๋ฆฌ๋ค. Translation: The doctor saved the patient. Romanization: Uisa-ga hwanja-reul sallyeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_food_object
์๋ง๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋จน์์ด์. (intended: 'fed the baby')์๋ง๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ์๊ฒ ๋ฐฅ์ ๋จน์์ด์. / ์๋ง๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ๋จน์์ด์. (= 'fed the baby (something)' โ possible but the food object is missing).Causative ๋จน์ด๋ค typically takes the causee with ์๊ฒ + the food with ์/๋ฅผ. 'Fed the baby' alone with just ๋ฅผ is acceptable but feels incomplete.
missing_causative
์๋ง๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ์๊ฒ ์ค์ด์.์๋ง๊ฐ ์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์ฌ์ ์ด์.Use the causative ์ฌ์ฐ๋ค ('put to sleep'), not active ์๋ค with someone else. ์๋ค can't take a causee with ์๊ฒ.
Causative -๊ฒ ํ๋ค (productive 'make / let someone do')
์ฌ๋ -๊ฒ ํ๋ค
-๊ฒ ํ๋ค attached to any verb stem forms a productive causative: '-๊ฒ ํ๋ค = make/let someone do X'. ๋จน๋ค โ ๋จน๊ฒ ํ๋ค ('make/let eat'), ๊ฐ๋ค โ ๊ฐ๊ฒ ํ๋ค ('make/let go'), ๊ณต๋ถํ๋ค โ ๊ณต๋ถํ๊ฒ ํ๋ค ('make study'). Causee takes ์๊ฒ/ํํ or ์/๋ฅผ.
Key rule
VERB stem + -๊ฒ ํ๋ค = make/let. Causee = ์๊ฒ (indirect) or ์/๋ฅผ (direct). Productive on any verb. Negative permissive = -์ง ๋ชปํ๊ฒ ํ๋ค. Often more permissive / indirect than suffixal causatives.
Examples
- ์๋ง๊ฐ ์์ด์๊ฒ ์ฑ์๋ฅผ ๋จน๊ฒ ํ์ด์.์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์๋ค ํ์ด์.
์๊ฒ (indirect) + ๋จน๊ฒ ํ๋ค. Translation: Mom made the kid eat vegetables. Romanization: Eomma-ga ai-ege chaeso-reul meokge haesseoyo.
- ์ ์๋์ด ํ์๋ค์ ์ผ์ฐ ๊ฐ๊ฒ ํ์ จ์ด์.์์ด๊ฐ ์ฑ์๋ฅผ ๋จน๊ฒ ํ์ด์. (intended: 'I made the kid eat')
์/๋ฅผ + ๊ฐ๊ฒ ํ๋ค. Translation: The teacher let / made the students leave early. Romanization: Seonsaengnim-i haksaengdeur-eul iljjik gage hasyeosseoyo.
- ๋ถ๋ชจ๋์ด ์ ๋ฅผ ํ๊ตญ์ ์ ํ ๊ฐ๊ฒ ํด ์ฃผ์ จ์ด์.์๋ง๊ฐ ๋์์ด ๋ชป ๋๊ฐ๊ฒ ํ์ด์.
Permissive sense + ํด ์ฃผ๋ค. Translation: My parents let me go study abroad in Korea. Romanization: Bumonim-i jeo-reul hangug-e yuhak gage hae jusyeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_ge
์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์๋ค ํ์ด์.์๊ธฐ๋ฅผ ์๊ฒ ํ์ด์.Use -๊ฒ, not the bare -๋ค form. -๊ฒ ํ๋ค is the fixed structure.
subject_causee_mix
์์ด๊ฐ ์ฑ์๋ฅผ ๋จน๊ฒ ํ์ด์. (intended: 'I made the kid eat')์๋ง๊ฐ ์์ด์๊ฒ ์ฑ์๋ฅผ ๋จน๊ฒ ํ์ด์. / ์ ๊ฐ ์์ด๋ฅผ ์ฑ์๋ฅผ ๋จน๊ฒ ํ์ด์.Subject = the CAUSER. The kid is the causee, not the subject.
-์/์ด ๋๋ค / -์/์ด ๋๋ค (action done & state maintained)
-์/์ด ๋๋ค / -์/์ด ๋๋ค
-์/์ด ๋๋ค and -์/์ด ๋๋ค attach to action verbs to mean 'do X and leave it that way / keep the result'. ์ฐฝ๋ฌธ์ ์ด์ด ๋๋ค = 'open the window (and leave it open)'. The two forms are nearly synonymous; ๋๋ค emphasizes deliberate keeping, ๋๋ค is more general.
Key rule
V-์/์ด ๋๋ค / V-์/์ด ๋๋ค = action completed, result kept. Action verbs only. ๋๋ค emphasizes deliberate keeping; ๋๋ค is general. Past = ๋จ์ด์ / ๋์ด์. Distinct from stative -์/์ด ์๋ค.
Examples
- ์ฐฝ๋ฌธ์ ์ด์ด ๋์์ด์.์ฐฝ๋ฌธ์ด ์ด์ด ๋์์ด์.
Action + maintained result. Translation: I opened the window (and left it open). Romanization: Changmun-eul yeoreo noasseoyo.
- ์์์ ๋ฏธ๋ฆฌ ๋ง๋ค์ด ๋์์ด์.์ ๋์์ด์.
๋๋ค emphasizes preparation. Translation: I made the food in advance (and kept it ready). Romanization: Eumsig-eul miri mandeureo dueosseoyo.
- ๋น๋ฐ๋ฒํธ๋ฅผ ์ ์ด ๋์ธ์.์์์ ๋ง๋ค์ด ๋จ๋ค์.
๋๋ค = save/keep. Translation: Write down the password (and keep it). Romanization: Bimilbeonho-reul jeogeo duseyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_particle
์ฐฝ๋ฌธ์ด ์ด์ด ๋์์ด์.์ฐฝ๋ฌธ์ ์ด์ด ๋์์ด์.-์/์ด ๋๋ค is transitive โ the OBJECT takes ์/๋ฅผ. For STATIVE 'window is open' use ์ฐฝ๋ฌธ์ด ์ด๋ ค ์์ด์.
non_resultative_verb
์ ๋์์ด์.์๊ณ ์์์ด์. / ์ค์ด์.-์/์ด ๋๋ค only works with action verbs that produce a kept result. ์๋ค has no resultant state to maintain.
-์/์ด ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค (completion / regret / relief)
-์/์ด ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค
-์/์ด ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค attached to a verb expresses COMPLETE finishing of an action, often with an emotional charge โ REGRET ('I unfortunately did X'), RELIEF ('I finally did X and it's done'), or FINALITY ('did X completely / once and for all'). Read the emotion from context.
Key rule
STEM + -์/์ด + ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค = decisive / complete / often-emotional finishing. Reads as REGRET, RELIEF, FINALITY, or EMPHASIS by context. Past = -์/์ด ๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์. Set phrases ์์ด๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค / ์์ด๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค often written as one word.
Examples
- ๋น๋ฐ๋ฒํธ๋ฅผ ์์ด๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.๋น๋ฐ๋ฒํธ๋ฅผ ์์์ด ๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.
Set phrase ์์ด๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค โ finality / regret. Translation: I completely forgot the password. Romanization: Bimilbeonho-reul ijeobeoryeosseoyo.
- ์ง๊ฐ์ ์์ด๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.์ง๊ฐ์ ์ ๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.
Set phrase ์์ด๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค. Translation: I lost my wallet. Romanization: Jigab-eul ireobeoryeosseoyo.
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ํ๊ฐ ๋์ ๊ฐ ๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.์ผ์ดํฌ๋ฅผ ๋ค ๋จน ๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.
REGRET / abruptness. Translation: My friend got upset and just left. Romanization: Chingu-ga hwa-ga naseo ga beoryeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
double_past_marker
๋น๋ฐ๋ฒํธ๋ฅผ ์์์ด ๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.๋น๋ฐ๋ฒํธ๋ฅผ ์์ด๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.Don't double the past marker. -์/์ด ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค is one auxiliary form โ past goes ONLY on ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค: ์์ด ๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์. Spelling ์์ด๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์ (one word) is standard for this set phrase.
missing_aeo_form
์ง๊ฐ์ ์ ๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.์ง๊ฐ์ ์์ด๋ฒ๋ ธ์ด์.Need the -์/์ด connective form: ์๋ค โ ์์ด โ ์์ด + ๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค = ์์ด๋ฒ๋ฆฌ๋ค.
-(์ผ)๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค (intend to / be about to)
-(์ผ)๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค
-(์ผ)๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค expresses INTENTION ('plan to / intend to') or IMMINENCE ('be about to'). Vowel-stem + -๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค, consonant-stem + -์ผ๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค. Subject must be the planner โ usually first or second person.
Key rule
Vowel/ใน-stem + -๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค; consonant-stem + -์ผ๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค. = INTENTION (plan to) or IMMINENCE (about to). Past ํ์ด์ = often unrealized intention ('was going to'). Distinct from -(์ผ)๋ฌ ๊ฐ๋ค (purpose attached to motion).
Examples
- ๋ด์ผ ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.๋ด์ผ ๊ฐ์ผ๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.
Intention. Translation: I plan to go to Korea tomorrow. Romanization: Naeil hangug-e garyeogo haeyo.
- ์ค๋ ์ ๋ ์๋ ํ๊ตญ ์์์ ๋ง๋ค๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.ํ๊ตญ ์์์ ๋ง๋๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.
ใน-stem keeps ใน + -๋ ค๊ณ . Translation: Tonight I'm planning to make Korean food. Romanization: Oneul jeonyeog-eneun hanguk eumsig-eul mandeullyeogo haeyo.
- ๋ด๋ ์ ๊ฒฐํผํ๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฒฐํผํ๋ ค๊ณ ํด์. (intended: 'my friend plans to')
ํ๋ค + -๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค. Translation: I plan to get married next year. Romanization: Naenyeon-e gyeolhonharyeogo haeyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_eu_insertion
๋ด์ผ ๊ฐ์ผ๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.๋ด์ผ ๊ฐ๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.Vowel-stem ๊ฐ๋ค takes -๋ ค๊ณ (no ์ผ). Only consonant-stems get ์ผ.
incorrect_l_drop
ํ๊ตญ ์์์ ๋ง๋๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.ํ๊ตญ ์์์ ๋ง๋ค๋ ค๊ณ ํด์.ใน-stems do NOT drop ใน before -๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค (unlike before -ใด/๋, -์-, etc.). ๋ง๋ค๋ค โ ๋ง๋ค๋ ค๊ณ ํ๋ค.
-๋/(์ผ)ใด/(์ผ)ใน ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (seems like / probably โ three tense slots)
-๋/(์ผ)ใด/(์ผ)ใน ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค
-๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค ('it seems / probably') attaches to a tense-marked modifier form: -๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (present action), -(์ผ)ใด ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (past action / present adjective state), -(์ผ)ใน ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (future / inferred). Used for soft inference and polite speculation.
Key rule
VERB-๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (present action). VERB-(์ผ)ใด ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (past action) / ADJ-(์ผ)ใด ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (current state). VERB/ADJ-(์ผ)ใน ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (future / prediction). NOUN + ์ธ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค. ใน-stems drop ใน before -ใด. Used for inference and polite hedging.
Examples
- ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.๋น๊ฐ ์๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.
Present action โ verb ์ค๋ค. Translation: It seems like it's raining. Romanization: Bi-ga oneun geot gatayo.
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ง์ ๊ฐ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์. (intended: 'went home')
Past action โ ๊ฐ๋ค โ ๊ฐ. Translation: It seems my friend went home. Romanization: Chingu-ga jib-e gan geot gatayo.
- ๋ด์ผ ๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.์ด ์์์ด ๋งค์๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.
Prediction โ -(์ผ)ใน. Translation: It's probably going to rain tomorrow. Romanization: Naeil bi-ga ol geot gatayo.
Common mistakes
wrong_base_for_neun
๋น๊ฐ ์๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.-๋ attaches to STEM, not the conjugated -์/์ด form. ์ค๋ค โ ์ค๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (NOT ์๋).
wrong_tense_modifier
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์. (intended: 'went home')์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.Past action โ -(์ผ)ใด. -๋ means present action.
-๊ฒ ๋๋ค (end up / come to / turn out)
-๊ฒ ๋๋ค
-๊ฒ ๋๋ค attached to a verb means 'end up doing X / come to do X / find oneself doing X' โ the action happens by circumstance rather than the subject's pure choice. ํ๊ตญ์์ ์ด๊ฒ ๋์ด์ = 'I ended up living in Korea'.
Key rule
STEM + -๊ฒ ๋๋ค = end up / come to / turn out V-ing (by circumstance). ๋๋ค conjugates regularly (-๊ฒ ๋ผ์ / -๊ฒ ๋์ด์). Action verbs preferred; for adjective state-change prefer -์/์ด์ง๋ค.
Examples
- ํ๊ตญ์์ ์ด๊ฒ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ์ด๊ฒ ๋ฌ์ด์.
Life-circumstance outcome. Translation: I ended up living in Korea. Romanization: Hangug-eseo salge dwaesseoyo.
- ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ์ข์ํ๊ฒ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ์๋๊ฒ ๋์ด์.
Gradual liking developed. Translation: I came to like Korean. Romanization: Hangugeo-reul joahage dwaesseoyo.
- ๋ค์ ๋ฌ๋ถํฐ ์ ์ผ์ ์์ํ๊ฒ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ด ์ข์ํ๊ฒ ๋์ด์.
News of upcoming change. Translation: Starting next month I'll be starting a new job. Romanization: Daeum dalbuteo sae ir-eul sijakhage dwaesseoyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_past_spelling
ํ๊ตญ์ ์ด๊ฒ ๋ฌ์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ์ด๊ฒ ๋์ด์.Standard past spelling is ๋์ด์ (= ๋์์ด์). Not ๋ฌ์ด์.
wrong_stem
ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ์๋๊ฒ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ์ํ๊ฒ ๋์ด์.Use the VERB stem ์ํ + -๊ฒ ๋๋ค, not ์๋ (which means 'go well'). 'Came to be good at' = ์ํ๊ฒ ๋๋ค.
-์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค (looks / appears + ADJ)
-์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค
ADJECTIVE stem + -์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค means 'looks ~ / appears ~ / seems ~ (visually)'. ํผ๊ณคํด ๋ณด์ฌ์ = 'you look tired'. Used for impressions based on SIGHT โ distinct from -๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค which is broader inference.
Key rule
ADJECTIVE stem + -์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค = looks / appears + ADJ (visual impression). Does NOT work with verbs. For NOUNS use NOUN์ฒ๋ผ ๋ณด์ด๋ค. For broader inference use -๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค. Conjugate ๋ณด์ด๋ค as vowel stem.
Examples
- ์ค๋ ํผ๊ณคํด ๋ณด์ฌ์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ ๋ณด์ฌ์. (intended: 'looks like he's going')
Common observation. Translation: You look tired today. Romanization: Oneul pigonhae boyeoyo.
- ์ด ์์์ด ์ ๋ง ๋ง์์ด ๋ณด์ฌ์.ํ์ ๋ณด์ฌ์.
Visual appeal. Translation: This food looks really delicious. Romanization: I eumsig-i jeongmal masisseo boyeoyo.
- ๊ทธ ๊ฐ๋ฐฉ์ด ๋น์ธ ๋ณด์ฌ์.ํผ๊ณคํ ๋ณด์ฌ์.
Judgment from appearance. Translation: That bag looks expensive. Romanization: Geu gabang-i bissa boyeoyo.
Common mistakes
verb_with_a_eo_boida
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ ๋ณด์ฌ์. (intended: 'looks like he's going')์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์. / ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๋ ๊ฒ์ฒ๋ผ ๋ณด์ฌ์.-์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค only works with ADJECTIVES. For verbs use -๋ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค (inference) or -๋ ๊ฒ์ฒ๋ผ ๋ณด์ด๋ค ('looks like he's V-ing').
missing_cheoreom
ํ์ ๋ณด์ฌ์.ํ์์ฒ๋ผ ๋ณด์ฌ์.Bare NOUN before ๋ณด์ด๋ค is wrong. Use NOUN์ฒ๋ผ ๋ณด์ด๋ค ('looks like a NOUN').
Contracted reported speech -๋์ / -๋์ / -๋ฌ์ / -์ฌ์
์ถ์ฝ ์ธ์ฉ -๋์ / -๋์ / -๋ฌ์ / -์ฌ์
Spoken Korean contracts the full indirect-speech forms (-ใด/๋๋ค๊ณ ํด์, -(์ด)๋ผ๊ณ ํด์, -์๊ณ ํด์, -(์ผ)๋ผ๊ณ ํด์, -๋๊ณ ํด์) into short endings: -๋์ (statement), -๋์ (์ด๋ค statement / command), -์ฌ์ (suggestion), -๋ฌ์ (question). Used in informal conversation and texting.
Key rule
Statement -ใด/๋๋ค๊ณ ํด์ โ -ใด/๋๋์. Adjective -๋ค๊ณ ํด์ โ -๋์. ์ด๋ค -(์ด)๋ผ๊ณ ํด์ โ -(์ด)๋์. Command -(์ผ)๋ผ๊ณ ํด์ โ -(์ผ)๋์. Suggestion -์๊ณ ํด์ โ -์ฌ์. Question -๋๊ณ ํด์ โ -๋ฌ์. Past inside: -์/์๋์.
Examples
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๋ด์ผ ์ ์จ๋์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์๋์.
Verb statement contracted. Translation: My friend says he's not coming tomorrow. Romanization: Chingu-ga naeil an ondaeyo.
- ๋ด์ผ ๋น๊ฐ ์จ๋์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๋์.
Weather hearsay. Translation: They say it'll rain tomorrow. Romanization: Naeil bi-ga ondaeyo.
- ๊ทธ ์๋น ์์์ด ์ง์ง ๋ง์๋์.๊ทธ๋ถ์ด ํ์๋์.
Adjective statement. Translation: Apparently that restaurant's food is really good. Romanization: Geu sikdang eumsig-i jinjja masitdaeyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_base_for_contraction
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์๋์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์จ๋์.-ใด๋ค๊ณ contracts to -ใด๋์ with the verb stem ์ค (vowel-final โ -ใด๋์): ์ค + ใด๋์ = ์จ๋์. NOT ์๋์ (which uses conjugated form).
missing_neun_for_verb
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๋์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ฐ๋์.VERB statement contracted = -ใด/๋๋์ (with -ใด/๋-). ๊ฐ๋์ alone is ungrammatical for a verb. Adjectives skip -ใด/๋- (์ข๋์), verbs require it (๊ฐ๋์).
-๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค (decide to / agree to / promise to)
-๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค
VERB stem + -๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค means 'decide to do X / agree to do X / make a plan to do X'. ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์ = 'I decided to go to Korea'. The past tense -๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์ is the most common form โ it reports a decision already made.
Key rule
STEM + -๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค = decide to. Past -๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์ = standard form 'decided to'. Present -๊ธฐ๋ก ํด์ = let's decide. Modifier: -๊ธฐ๋ก ํ N. No ์ผ, no ใน-drop. Negative: ์ -๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์ / -์ง ๋ง๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์.
Examples
- ๋ด๋ ์ ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์.๋ด๋ ์ ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ์ผ๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์.
Standard decision report. Translation: I decided to go to Korea next year. Romanization: Naenyeon-e hangug-e gagiro haesseoyo.
- ๋ค์ ์ฃผ๋ถํฐ ๋งค์ผ ์ด๋ํ๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์.๋ค์๋ ์ธ์ฐ์ง ์๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์. (intended joint resolution)
Resolution. Translation: I decided to exercise every day starting next week. Romanization: Daeum jubuteo maeil undonghagiro haesseoyo.
- ์น๊ตฌํ๊ณ ๊ฐ์ด ์ํ ๋ณด๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์.๋ด์ผ ๋ง๋๊ธฐ๋ก ํ ์ฌ๋์ ์์ด์.
Joint agreement. Translation: I agreed to watch a movie with my friend. Romanization: Chingu-hago gachi yeonghwa bogiro haesseoyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_eu_insertion
๋ด๋ ์ ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ์ผ๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์.๋ด๋ ์ ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์.-๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค takes NO ์ผ insertion. Just stem + -๊ธฐ๋ก ํ๋ค.
negative_variant_choice
๋ค์๋ ์ธ์ฐ์ง ์๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์. (intended joint resolution)๋ค์๋ ์ธ์ฐ์ง ๋ง๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์. / ๋ค์๋ ์ธ์ฐ์ง ์๊ธฐ๋ก ํ์ด์. (both OK โ but -์ง ๋ง๊ธฐ๋ก is stronger 'don't ~').For STRONG joint negative resolutions, -์ง ๋ง๊ธฐ๋ก is common; -์ง ์๊ธฐ๋ก is softer. Both grammatical.
-๊ณค ํ๋ค (recurring past habit / used to do)
-๊ณค ํ๋ค
VERB stem + -๊ณค ํ๋ค expresses a RECURRING habit, especially in the past: 'used to (do) / would often (do)'. ์ด๋ ธ์ ๋ ์์ฃผ ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ๊ณค ํ์ด์ = 'When I was young, I used to often go to the mountains'. Mostly past, occasionally present.
Key rule
VERB stem + -๊ณค ํ๋ค = recurring habit, esp. past 'used to ~'. -๊ณค ํ์ด์ (past habit) most common. Often paired with ์์ฃผ / ๊ฐ๋ / ์ด๋ ธ์ ๋. Don't use for one-off events. Past stays on ํ๋ค, not stacked inside.
Examples
- ์ด๋ ธ์ ๋ ์์ฃผ ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ๊ณค ํ์ด์.์ด์ ์ํ๋ฅผ ๋ณด๊ณค ํ์ด์.
Past recurring habit. Translation: When I was young, I used to often go to the mountains. Romanization: Eoryeosseul ttae jaju san-e gagon haesseoyo.
- ํ์ ๋๋ ๋์๊ด์์ ๊ณต๋ถํ๊ณค ํ์ด์.์ด๋ ธ์ ๋ ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ๊ณค ํ์ด์.
Past student-era habit. Translation: When I was a student, I used to study at the library. Romanization: Haksaeng ttaeneun doseogwan-eseo gongbuhagon haesseoyo.
- ์ด๋จธ๋๊ฐ ๊น์น๋ฅผ ์ง์ ๋ง๋์๊ณค ํ์ จ์ด์.์ฃผ๋ง๋ง๋ค ์น๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ๋ง๋์ผ๊ณค ํด์.
Honorific past habit โ ์ + -๊ณค + ์ + ์์ด์. Translation: My mom used to make kimchi by herself. Romanization: Eomeoni-ga gimchi-reul jikjeop mandeusi-gon hasyeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
one_off_with_gon_hada
์ด์ ์ํ๋ฅผ ๋ณด๊ณค ํ์ด์.์ด์ ์ํ๋ฅผ ๋ดค์ด์.-๊ณค ํ๋ค is for RECURRING habits, not one-off events. Use simple past.
double_past
์ด๋ ธ์ ๋ ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ๊ณค ํ์ด์.์ด๋ ธ์ ๋ ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ๊ณค ํ์ด์.Don't past-mark inside -๊ณค. Past stays on ํ๋ค (ํ์ด์). Stem stays bare.
-(์ผ)๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ) (was about to / tried to but stopped)
-(์ผ)๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ)
-(์ผ)๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ) expresses an INTERRUPTED INTENTION โ 'was about to do X but didn't / changed direction'. ์๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํด์ ๋ชป ์ค์ด์ = 'I was about to sleep but my friend called and I couldn't'. Often followed by a contrasting clause.
Key rule
STEM + -(์ผ)๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ) = was about to V but interrupted/changed. Vowel/ใน โ -๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ); consonant โ -์ผ๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ). ๊ฐ optional. Past stays on the FOLLOW-UP clause, never inside -(์ผ)๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ). Often paired with ๋ชป, ๋ง๋ค, ์ in the follow-up.
Examples
- ์๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํด์ ๋ชป ์ค์ด์.์ค์ผ๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํ์ด์.
Standard interrupted attempt. Translation: I was about to sleep but my friend called and I couldn't. Romanization: Jaryeodaga chingu-ga jeonhwahaeseo mot jasseoyo.
- ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ) ์ผ์ด ์๊ฒจ์ ๋ชป ๊ฐ์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ์ผ๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ๋ชป ๊ฐ์ด์.
Interrupted plan. Translation: I was going to go to Korea but something came up and couldn't. Romanization: Hangug-e garyeodaga ir-i saenggyeoseo mot gasseoyo.
- ๋งํ๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ๋ง์์ด์.์ผ์ดํฌ๋ฅผ ๋ง๋๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ์ฌ๋ฃ๊ฐ ์์์ด์.
Fixed pattern -(์ผ)๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ๋ง๋ค. Translation: I was about to say something but stopped. Romanization: Marhalyeodaga marasseoyo.
Common mistakes
past_inside_lyeodaga
์ค์ผ๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํ์ด์.์๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํ์ด์.Don't put past inside -(์ผ)๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ). The interruption itself is past; tense goes on the FOLLOW-UP clause.
wrong_eu_insertion
ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ์ผ๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ๋ชป ๊ฐ์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๋ ค๋ค๊ฐ ๋ชป ๊ฐ์ด์.Vowel-stem takes -๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ), no ์ผ. ๊ฐ๋ค โ ๊ฐ๋ ค๋ค(๊ฐ).
-์๋ง์ (as soon as)
-์๋ง์
VERB stem + -์๋ง์ means 'as soon as / the moment ~'. ์ง์ ๋์ฐฉํ์๋ง์ ์ค์ด์ = 'I slept the moment I got home'. The first clause carries no tense (it's always immediate-prior); tense lives in the main clause.
Key rule
VERB stem + -์๋ง์ = immediately after. No tense, no ์ผ, no ใน-drop, no ใท-irregular. Tense in MAIN clause only. Action verbs only โ not adjectives or ์ด๋ค. Subjects can differ between clauses.
Examples
- ์ง์ ๋์ฐฉํ์๋ง์ ์ค์ด์.์ง์ ๋์ฐฉํ์๋ง์ ์ค์ด์.
Same subject, past main clause. Translation: I slept the moment I got home. Romanization: Jib-e dochakhajamaja jasseoyo.
- ์์ ์ด ๋๋์๋ง์ ์น๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ๋ง๋ฌ์ด์.์ง์ ๋์ฐฉํ์ผ์๋ง์ ์ค์ด์.
Different subjects (class / I) โ fine. Translation: As soon as class ended, I met my friend. Romanization: Sueob-i kkeunnajamaja chingu-reul mannasseoyo.
- ์ผ์ด๋์๋ง์ ๋ฌผ์ ๋ง์ ์.์ผ์ดํฌ๋ฅผ ๋ง๋์๋ง์ ๋ค ๋จน์์ด์.
Habitual present. Translation: I drink water as soon as I wake up. Romanization: Ireonajamaja mur-eul masyeoyo.
Common mistakes
past_inside_jamaja
์ง์ ๋์ฐฉํ์๋ง์ ์ค์ด์.์ง์ ๋์ฐฉํ์๋ง์ ์ค์ด์.Don't past-mark inside -์๋ง์. Tense goes ONLY on the main clause.
wrong_eu_insertion
์ง์ ๋์ฐฉํ์ผ์๋ง์ ์ค์ด์.์ง์ ๋์ฐฉํ์๋ง์ ์ค์ด์.-์๋ง์ takes NO ์ผ even with consonant-final stems. Just stem + -์๋ง์.
-๋ค(๊ฐ) (doing X and then switched / interrupted)
-๋ค(๊ฐ)
VERB stem + -๋ค(๊ฐ) marks ONE action interrupted or replaced by another: 'doing X and then ~ / while doing X ~'. ์ฑ ์ ์ฝ๋ค๊ฐ ์ค์ด์ = 'I was reading a book and (then) fell asleep'. The ๊ฐ is often dropped: -๋ค.
Key rule
STEM + -๋ค(๊ฐ) = interrupted / mid-action switch (action not completed). -์/์๋ค(๊ฐ) = completed action, then switched (often round-trip). Same subject preferred. No ์ผ insertion. Past-mark only if action completed.
Examples
- ์ฑ ์ ์ฝ๋ค๊ฐ ์ค์ด์.์ฑ ์ ์ฝ์๋ค๊ฐ ์ค์ด์. (intended: 'reading and fell asleep')
Interrupted action. Translation: I was reading and fell asleep. Romanization: Chaeg-eul ilkkdaga jasseoyo.
- ๊ธธ์ ๊ฑท๋ค๊ฐ ์น๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ๋ง๋ฌ์ด์.ํ๊ต์ ๊ฐ๋ค๊ฐ ์์ด์. (intended: 'went and came back')
Encounter during motion. Translation: I met a friend while walking down the street. Romanization: Gir-eul geotdaga chingu-reul mannasseoyo.
- ๋๋ฌด ๋นจ๋ฆฌ ๊ฑท๋ค๊ฐ ๋์ด์ก์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์๋ค๊ฐ ์ ๊ฐ ๊ณต๋ถํ์ด์.
Result of action. Translation: I walked too fast and fell. Romanization: Neomu ppalli geotdaga neomeojyeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_completion_aspect
์ฑ ์ ์ฝ์๋ค๊ฐ ์ค์ด์. (intended: 'reading and fell asleep')์ฑ ์ ์ฝ๋ค๊ฐ ์ค์ด์.INTERRUPTED reading uses -๋ค๊ฐ (action not completed). ์ฝ์๋ค๊ฐ would mean 'finished reading and then slept' (different).
wrong_aspect
ํ๊ต์ ๊ฐ๋ค๊ฐ ์์ด์. (intended: 'went and came back')ํ๊ต์ ๊ฐ๋ค๊ฐ ์์ด์.Round-trip = COMPLETED first action โ use -์/์๋ค๊ฐ. ๊ฐ๋ค๊ฐ means 'mid-going'.
-๋ ์ฒํ๋ค / -(์ผ)ใด ์ฒํ๋ค / -(์ผ)ใน ์ฒํ๋ค (pretend to / act like)
-๋/(์ผ)ใด/(์ผ)ใน ์ฒํ๋ค
MODIFIER + ์ฒํ๋ค means 'pretend to / act like ~'. The modifier choice depends on TENSE / WORD CLASS: -๋ ์ฒํ๋ค (present verb), -(์ผ)ใด ์ฒํ๋ค (past verb / present adjective / NOUN + ์ธ ์ฒํ๋ค), -(์ผ)ใน ์ฒํ๋ค (future, less common). ์ฒํ๋ค โ ์ฒดํ๋ค (interchangeable).
Key rule
VERB present: -๋ ์ฒํ๋ค. VERB past / ADJ present: -(์ผ)ใด ์ฒํ๋ค. NOUN + ์ธ ์ฒํ๋ค. ใน-stems drop ใน before -(์ผ)ใด. ์ฒํ๋ค โ ์ฒดํ๋ค. Conjugates as ํ๋ค.
Examples
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๋ค์ด์์ ๋ ์๋ ์ฒํ์ด์.์๋ค ์ฒํ์ด์.
Present action (sleeping). Translation: When my friend came in, I pretended to be sleeping. Romanization: Chingu-ga deureowasseul ttae janeun chukhaesseoyo.
- ๊ทธ ์ฌ๋์ ๋ดค์ง๋ง ๋ชป ๋ณธ ์ฒํ์ด์.์ํ๋ ์ฒํ์ด์.
Negative past with ๋ชป. Translation: I saw that person but pretended not to have seen. Romanization: Geu saram-eul bwatjiman mot bon chukhaesseoyo.
- ์๋ฌด๊ฒ๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ ์ฒํ์ด์.ํ๊ตญ ์ฌ๋ ์ฒํ์ด์.
Negative vocab ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค. Translation: I pretended not to know anything. Romanization: Amugeotdo moreuneun chukhaesseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_modifier
์๋ค ์ฒํ์ด์.์๋ ์ฒํ์ด์.Need the present-modifier -๋ on action verbs. ์๋ค โ ์๋ ์ฒํ๋ค.
verb_modifier_for_adjective
์ํ๋ ์ฒํ์ด์.์ํ ์ฒํ์ด์.Adjectives use -(์ผ)ใด, not -๋. ์ํ๋ค โ ์ํ ์ฒํ๋ค.
Giving verbs: ์ฃผ๋ค / ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค (humble) / ์ฃผ์๋ค (honorific) + -์/์ด ์ฃผ๋ค benefactive
์ฃผ๋ค / ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค / ์ฃผ์๋ค / -์/์ด ์ฃผ๋ค
Korean has three 'give' verbs depending on the social direction: ์ฃผ๋ค (neutral), ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค (HUMBLE โ I give to a superior), ์ฃผ์๋ค (HONORIFIC โ a superior gives to me/us). The benefactive auxiliary -์/์ด ์ฃผ๋ค follows the same logic: -์/์ด ์ฃผ๋ค / -์/์ด ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค / -์/์ด ์ฃผ์๋ค.
Key rule
์ฃผ๋ค (neutral) / ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค (HUMBLE: Iโsuperior) / ์ฃผ์๋ค (HONORIFIC: superiorโme). Recipient particle: ์๊ฒ/ํํ (neutral) / ๊ป (respected). Subject particle: ์ด/๊ฐ / ๊ป์ (respected). Benefactive -์/์ด ์ฃผ๋ค / -์/์ด ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค / -์/์ด ์ฃผ์๋ค follows same logic.
Examples
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์๊ฒ ์ฑ ์ ์คฌ์ด์.์ ๋ ์ ์๋์๊ฒ ์ฑ ์ ์คฌ์ด์.
Neutral ์ฃผ๋ค, recipient ์๊ฒ. Translation: My friend gave me a book. Romanization: Chingu-ga jeo-ege chaeg-eul jwosseoyo.
- ์ ๋ ์ ์๋๊ป ์ฑ ์ ๋๋ ธ์ด์.ํ ๋จธ๋๊ฐ ์ฑ ์ ์คฌ์ด์.
Humble ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค, recipient ๊ป. Translation: I gave the teacher a book. Romanization: Jeo-neun seonsaengnim-kke chaeg-eul deuryeosseoyo.
- ํ ๋จธ๋๊ป์ ์ ์๊ฒ ์ฑ ์ ์ฃผ์ จ์ด์.์ ๊ฐ ์ ์๋๊ป ์ฑ ์ ์ฃผ์ จ์ด์.
Honorific ์ฃผ์๋ค, subject ๊ป์. Translation: Grandmother gave me a book. Romanization: Halmeoni-kkeseo jeo-ege chaeg-eul jusyeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_giving_for_respected_recipient
์ ๋ ์ ์๋์๊ฒ ์ฑ ์ ์คฌ์ด์.์ ๋ ์ ์๋๊ป ์ฑ ์ ๋๋ ธ์ด์.Respected recipient โ ๊ป + ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค (humble). Neutral ์๊ฒ + ์ฃผ๋ค is rude here.
missing_honorific_subject_and_verb
ํ ๋จธ๋๊ฐ ์ฑ ์ ์คฌ์ด์.ํ ๋จธ๋๊ป์ ์ฑ ์ ์ฃผ์ จ์ด์.Respected subject โ ๊ป์ + ์ฃผ์๋ค (honorific). ์ฃผ๋ค alone clashes.
์กฐ์ฐจ / ๋ง์ / ๊น์ง (even / up to / to the point of)
์กฐ์ฐจ / ๋ง์ / ๊น์ง
์กฐ์ฐจ, ๋ง์ , and ๊น์ง all translate roughly as 'even', but with different nuances: ์กฐ์ฐจ emphasizes UNEXPECTEDNESS (often negative โ 'not even ~'), ๋ง์ emphasizes the LAST/REMAINING item being included, and ๊น์ง marks the EXTENT / UPPER LIMIT ('up to / even / to the point of').
Key rule
์กฐ์ฐจ = even (unexpected, often + negative). ๋ง์ = even (the last/remaining one added). ๊น์ง = up to / as far as / even (degree/limit). All three REPLACE ์ด/๊ฐ/์/๋ฅผ/์/๋. ๊น์ง also marks endpoints and deadlines.
Examples
- ์น๊ตฌ์กฐ์ฐจ ์ ๋ฅผ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ ์ฒํ์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ์กฐ์ฐจ ์ ์์ด์.
์กฐ์ฐจ + negative pretense โ unexpected. Translation: Even my friend pretended not to know me. Romanization: Chingu-jocha jeo-reul moreuneun chukhaesseoyo.
- ์ด๋ฆ์กฐ์ฐจ ๊ธฐ์ต๋์ง ์์์.์ด๋ฆ์กฐ์ฐจ์ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.
์กฐ์ฐจ + negative. Translation: I can't even remember the name. Romanization: Ireum-jocha gieoknaji anayo.
- ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋๋ฐ ๋ฐ๋๋ง์ ๋ถ์ด์.์น๊ตฌ์กฐ์ฐจ ์ ์ค์ ์ ๋ง ๊ธฐ๋ปค์ด์.
๋ง์ โ additive 'on top of'. Translation: It's raining, and on top of that the wind is blowing too. Romanization: Bi-ga oneunde baram-majeo bureoyo.
Common mistakes
stacked_subject_particle
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ์กฐ์ฐจ ์ ์์ด์.์น๊ตฌ์กฐ์ฐจ ์ ์์ด์.์กฐ์ฐจ REPLACES ์ด/๊ฐ, doesn't stack with it.
stacked_object_particle
์ด๋ฆ์กฐ์ฐจ์ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.์ด๋ฆ์กฐ์ฐจ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.์กฐ์ฐจ also replaces ์/๋ฅผ. Don't double-mark.
(์ด)๋ผ๋ (at least / even / something like)
(์ด)๋ผ๋
NOUN + (์ด)๋ผ๋ means 'X (if nothing else) / at least X / something like X / even X if I must'. It marks a SECOND-BEST choice or a fallback. ์ปคํผ๋ผ๋ ๋ง์ค๊น์? = 'Shall we at least have coffee?'. After vowel-final noun: ๋ผ๋. After consonant-final noun: ์ด๋ผ๋.
Key rule
Consonant-final N + ์ด๋ผ๋; vowel-final N + ๋ผ๋. Means 'at least / something like / even X (as fallback)'. Replaces other particles. Carries resignation / compromise nuance. With wh-words makes universals (๋๊ตฌ๋ผ๋, ์ด๋๋ผ๋).
Examples
- ์๊ฐ์ด ์์ผ๋ฉด ์ ๊น์ด๋ผ๋ ๋ง๋์.์ปคํผ์ด๋ผ๋ ๋ง์ค๊น์?
At-least fallback. Translation: If you don't have time, let's at least meet briefly. Romanization: Sigan-i eopseumyeon jamkkan-irado mannayo.
- ์ปคํผ๋ผ๋ ๋ง์ค๊น์?๋ฐฅ๋ผ๋ ๋จน์ด์.
Suggestion with resignation. Translation: Shall we at least have some coffee? Romanization: Keopi-rado masilkkayo?
- ๋ญ๋ผ๋ ๋จน์ด์ผ ํด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ๋ผ๋ ์ ์ฃผ์ธ์.
wh-๋ผ๋ = anything. Translation: You need to eat something. Romanization: Mwo-rado meogeoya haeyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_phonological_choice
์ปคํผ์ด๋ผ๋ ๋ง์ค๊น์?์ปคํผ๋ผ๋ ๋ง์ค๊น์?์ปคํผ is vowel-final โ ๋ผ๋ (no ์ด). Same as ๋ผ๊ณ / ๋ผ๋ฉด.
wrong_phonological_choice
๋ฐฅ๋ผ๋ ๋จน์ด์.๋ฐฅ์ด๋ผ๋ ๋จน์ด์.๋ฐฅ is consonant-final โ ์ด๋ผ๋ (with ์ด).
(์ด)๋ผ๋ฉด (if it is / if it were / when it comes to)
(์ด)๋ผ๋ฉด
NOUN + (์ด)๋ผ๋ฉด sets up a HYPOTHETICAL or TOPIC-DEFINING condition: 'if it were X / if it's X / when it comes to X'. ํ๊ตญ ์ฌ๋์ด๋ผ๋ฉด ๊น์น๋ฅผ ์ข์ํ ๊ฑฐ์์ = 'If they're Korean, they probably like kimchi'. After consonant: ์ด๋ผ๋ฉด. After vowel: ๋ผ๋ฉด.
Key rule
Consonant-final N + ์ด๋ผ๋ฉด; vowel-final N + ๋ผ๋ฉด. = 'if it is N / if I were N / when it comes to N'. Strongest in hypothetical/defining contexts. Negative: N + ์ด/๊ฐ + ์๋๋ผ๋ฉด.
Examples
- ๋ด๊ฐ ๋๋ผ๋ฉด ๊ทธ ์ผ์ ์ ํ ๊ฑฐ์ผ.ํ๊ตญ ์ฌ๋๋ผ๋ฉด ๊น์น๋ฅผ ์ข์ํด์.
Standard 'if I were you' (casual ๋ฐ๋ง). Translation: If I were you, I wouldn't do that. Romanization: Naega neo-ramyeon geu ir-eul an hal geoya.
- ํ๊ตญ ์ฌ๋์ด๋ผ๋ฉด ๊น์น๋ฅผ ์ข์ํ ๊ฑฐ์์.์น๊ตฌ์ด๋ผ๋ฉด ๋์์ค์.
Defining/characterizing. Translation: If they're Korean, they'd probably like kimchi. Romanization: Hanguk saram-iramyeon gimchi-reul joahal geoeyo.
- ํ๊ตญ ์์์ด๋ผ๋ฉด ๊น์น์ฐ๊ฐ๋ฅผ ์ถ์ฒํด์.๋ด๊ฐ ๋์ด๋ผ๋ฉด ์ ํ ๊ฑฐ์ผ.
Topic-defining. Translation: When it comes to Korean food, I recommend kimchi stew. Romanization: Hanguk eumsig-iramyeon gimchi jjigae-reul chucheonhaeyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_phonological_choice
ํ๊ตญ ์ฌ๋๋ผ๋ฉด ๊น์น๋ฅผ ์ข์ํด์.ํ๊ตญ ์ฌ๋์ด๋ผ๋ฉด ๊น์น๋ฅผ ์ข์ํด์.์ฌ๋ is consonant-final โ ์ด๋ผ๋ฉด (with ์ด).
wrong_phonological_choice
์น๊ตฌ์ด๋ผ๋ฉด ๋์์ค์.์น๊ตฌ๋ผ๋ฉด ๋์์ค์.์น๊ตฌ is vowel-final โ ๋ผ๋ฉด (no ์ด).
๋ผ๋ฆฌ (amongst, group-internal: ์ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ, ์น๊ตฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ)
๋ผ๋ฆฌ
NOUN + ๋ผ๋ฆฌ means 'among/between (just) the group of X, and nobody else'. ์ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ ๊ฐ์ = 'Let's go (just) among ourselves'. ์น๊ตฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ = 'among friends'. Marks an in-group / exclusive grouping.
Key rule
PLURAL / GROUP NOUN + ๋ผ๋ฆฌ = 'among/between only the group'. Doesn't stack with ์ด/๊ฐ/์/๋ฅผ. Combines with ๋ง (์ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ๋ง = 'just us'). Don't use with singular individuals.
Examples
- ์ฐ๋ฆฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ ์ํ๋ฅผ ๋ณด๋ฌ ๊ฐ์.๋ฏผ์๋ผ๋ฆฌ ๋ง๋์.
In-group activity. Translation: Let's go watch a movie (just) among ourselves. Romanization: Uri-kkiri yeonghwa-reul boreo gayo.
- ์น๊ตฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ ์์ฃผ ๋ง๋์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ๋ผ๋ฆฌ ์ํ ๋ดค์ด์.
Among-friends. Translation: I often meet up among friends. Romanization: Chingu-kkiri jaju mannayo.
- ํ์๋ผ๋ฆฌ ๊ทธ๋ฃน์ ๋ง๋ค์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ๋ฅผ ๋ง๋ฌ์ด์.
Among-students. Translation: Form groups among students. Romanization: Haksaeng-kkiri geurub-eul mandeureoyo.
Common mistakes
singular_with_kkiri
๋ฏผ์๋ผ๋ฆฌ ๋ง๋์.๋ฏผ์๋/ํ๊ณ ๋ง๋์.๋ผ๋ฆฌ needs a plural / group / kind noun. For a single named person, use ๋ / ํ๊ณ .
stacked_subject_particle
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ๋ผ๋ฆฌ ์ํ ๋ดค์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๋ผ๋ฆฌ ์ํ ๋ดค์ด์.๋ผ๋ฆฌ doesn't stack with ์ด/๊ฐ.
๋ง๋ค (every / each)
๋ง๋ค
NOUN + ๋ง๋ค means 'every / each ~'. ์ฃผ๋ง๋ง๋ค (every weekend), ์ฌ๋๋ง๋ค (each person), ๋งค์ผ (every day) is built on the same logic but lexicalized. ๋ง๋ค attaches to time nouns, place nouns, person nouns to express totality/distribution.
Key rule
NOUN + ๋ง๋ค = 'every / each'. Distributive (each X has Y differently) OR recurrence (every X). Doesn't stack with ์ด/๊ฐ/์/๋ฅผ. Use ๋งค- prefix only with the fixed words ๋งค์ผ/๋งค์ฃผ/๋งค๋ฌ/๋งค๋ /๋งค๋ฒ.
Examples
- ์ฃผ๋ง๋ง๋ค ์ํ๋ฅผ ๋ด์.๋งค์ผ๋ง๋ค ์ด๋ํด์.
Recurrence. Translation: I watch movies every weekend. Romanization: Jumal-mada yeonghwa-reul bwayo.
- ์ฌ๋๋ง๋ค ์๊ฐ์ด ๋ฌ๋ผ์.์ฌ๋์ด๋ง๋ค ์๊ฐ์ด ๋ฌ๋ผ์.
Distributive โ variation. Translation: Each person thinks differently. Romanization: Saram-mada saenggag-i dallayo.
- ๋๋ผ๋ง๋ค ๋ฌธํ๊ฐ ๋ฌ๋ผ์.์ฃผ๋ง๋ง๋ค์ ์ํ๋ฅผ ๋ด์.
Country-distributive. Translation: Each country has different culture. Romanization: Nara-mada munhwa-ga dallayo.
Common mistakes
redundant_mae_and_mada
๋งค์ผ๋ง๋ค ์ด๋ํด์.๋งค์ผ ์ด๋ํด์.๋งค์ผ already means 'every day'. Don't add ๋ง๋ค. Redundant.
stacked_subject_particle
์ฌ๋์ด๋ง๋ค ์๊ฐ์ด ๋ฌ๋ผ์.์ฌ๋๋ง๋ค ์๊ฐ์ด ๋ฌ๋ผ์.๋ง๋ค REPLACES ์ด/๊ฐ. Don't stack.
๋ฐ์ + negative (nothing but / only โ needs negative predicate)
๋ฐ์ + ๋ถ์
NOUN + ๋ฐ์ means 'nothing but / only ~', but REQUIRES a negative predicate (์ / ๋ชป / ์๋ค / ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค). ํ ๋ช ๋ฐ์ ์ ์์ด์ = 'Only one person came (literally: outside one person, no one came)'. The negation surfaces in the verb; ๋ฐ์ by itself doesn't carry it.
Key rule
NOUN + ๋ฐ์ + NEGATIVE PREDICATE = 'only N / nothing but N'. Negative is OBLIGATORY (์, ๋ชป, ์๋ค, ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค, -์ง ์๋ค). ๋ฐ์ replaces ์ด/๊ฐ, ์/๋ฅผ, ์/๋. ๋ง is the positive 'only' counterpart.
Examples
- ํ ๋ช ๋ฐ์ ์ ์์ด์.ํ ๋ช ๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.
Counter + ๋ฐ์ + ์ V. Translation: Only one person came. Romanization: Han myeong-bakke an wasseoyo.
- ์ฒ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.์ฒ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.
Amount + ๋ฐ์ + ์๋ค. Translation: I only have 1000 won. Romanization: Cheon won-bakke eopseoyo.
- ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฐ์ ๋ชป ํด์.ํ ๋ช ๋ง ์ ์์ด์. (intended: 'only one came')
Language + ๋ฐ์ + ๋ชป. Translation: I can only speak Korean. Romanization: Hangugeo-bakke mot haeyo.
Common mistakes
missing_negative
ํ ๋ช ๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.ํ ๋ช ๋ฐ์ ์ ์์ด์.๋ฐ์ REQUIRES a negative predicate. Without ์/๋ชป/์๋ค it's ungrammatical.
wrong_predicate_polarity
์ฒ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.์ฒ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.Same โ needs negative. Switch ์๋ค to ์๋ค.
(์ด)๋ผ๊ณ (quote marker โ calling X / naming X)
(์ด)๋ผ๊ณ
NOUN + (์ด)๋ผ๊ณ marks the noun as a QUOTED label, name, or identification: 'called X / named X / labeled X'. ์ด๋ฆ์ด ๋ฏผ์๋ผ๊ณ ํด์ = '(My) name is Minsu / I'm called Minsu'. Often paired with ํ๋ค, ๋ถ๋ฅด๋ค, ๋งํ๋ค.
Key rule
Consonant-final N + ์ด๋ผ๊ณ ; vowel-final N + ๋ผ๊ณ . = QUOTE / LABEL / NAME marker. Pairs with ํ๋ค (called), ๋ถ๋ฅด๋ค (call X), ๋งํ๋ค (say), ์๊ฐํ๋ค (think). Distinct from the verb-indirect-quotation -(์ผ)ใด/๋๋ค๊ณ .
Examples
- ์ ๋ ๋ฏผ์๋ผ๊ณ ํด์.์ ๋ ๋ฏผ์์ด๋ผ๊ณ ํด์.
Self-introduction. Translation: I'm called Minsu. / My name is Minsu. Romanization: Jeoneun Minsu-rago haeyo.
- ์ด ์์์ ๋น๋น๋ฐฅ์ด๋ผ๊ณ ํด์.์ด ์์์ ๋น๋น๋ฐฅ๋ผ๊ณ ํด์.
Naming a thing. Translation: This food is called bibimbap. Romanization: I eumsig-eun bibimbab-irago haeyo.
- ์น๊ตฌ๋ฅผ ๋ฏผ์๋ผ๊ณ ๋ถ๋ฌ์.๊ทธ ์ฌ๋์ ์์ฌ๋ค๊ณ ํด์.
Calling by name. Translation: I call my friend Minsu. Romanization: Chingu-reul Minsu-rago bulreoyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_phonological_choice
์ ๋ ๋ฏผ์์ด๋ผ๊ณ ํด์.์ ๋ ๋ฏผ์๋ผ๊ณ ํด์.๋ฏผ์ is vowel-final โ ๋ผ๊ณ (no ์ด).
wrong_phonological_choice
์ด ์์์ ๋น๋น๋ฐฅ๋ผ๊ณ ํด์.์ด ์์์ ๋น๋น๋ฐฅ์ด๋ผ๊ณ ํด์.๋น๋น๋ฐฅ is consonant-final โ ์ด๋ผ๊ณ .
Indirect quotation โ all sentence types, tense shifts, embedded layers
๊ฐ์ ์ธ์ฉ (์์ฉ)
Advanced indirect quotation: handle ALL sentence types (statement / question / suggestion / command), preserve TENSE inside the embedded clause, layer reported speech (X said Y said Z), and combine with various matrix verbs (๋งํ๋ค, ๋ฌป๋ค, ์ํค๋ค, ๊ถํ๋ค, ๋ถํํ๋ค).
Key rule
Inner clause keeps its OWN tense (past/present/future) โ no tense backshift. Match sentence type: statement -ใด/๋๋ค๊ณ /-(์ด)๋ผ๊ณ , question -๋๊ณ , suggestion -์๊ณ , command -(์ผ)๋ผ๊ณ . Use -์/์ด ๋ฌ๋ผ๊ณ (for speaker) vs -์/์ด ์ฃผ๋ผ๊ณ (for third party). Layer: outer ๋ค์์ด์ / ํ์ด์ around inner clause.
Examples
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ด์ ๋น๊ฐ ๋ง์ด ์๋ค๊ณ ํ์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ด์ ๋น๊ฐ ์จ๋ค๊ณ ํ์ด์. (intended: rained yesterday)
Past inner clause preserved. Translation: My friend said it rained a lot yesterday. Romanization: Chingu-ga eoje bi-ga mani watdago haesseoyo.
- ๊ทธ๋ถ์ด ๋ด์ผ ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ ๊ฑฐ๋ผ๊ณ ํ์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํ ๋์์ ๋์ ๋ฌ๋ผ๊ณ ํ์ด์. (intended: friend asked me to help HIS sibling)
Future inner -(์ผ)ใน ๊ฑฐ๋ผ๊ณ . Translation: He said he'll go to Korea tomorrow. Romanization: Geu-bun-i naeil hangug-e gal georago haesseoyo.
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํ ๋์ ๋ฌ๋ผ๊ณ ํ์ด์.์๋ง๊ฐ ๊ฐ์ง ๋ง๋ผ๊ณ ํ์ด์.
-์/์ด ๋ฌ๋ผ๊ณ โ benefit to speaker. Translation: My friend asked me to help (him). Romanization: Chingu-ga jeo-hante dowa dalrago haesseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_inner_past
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ด์ ๋น๊ฐ ์จ๋ค๊ณ ํ์ด์. (intended: rained yesterday)์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ด์ ๋น๊ฐ ์๋ค๊ณ ํ์ด์.Past event needs past inside the quote: -์/์๋ค๊ณ . -ใด/๋๋ค๊ณ alone is non-past.
dalrago_vs_jurago_confusion
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํ ๋์์ ๋์ ๋ฌ๋ผ๊ณ ํ์ด์. (intended: friend asked me to help HIS sibling)์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ํํ ๋์์ ๋์ ์ฃผ๋ผ๊ณ ํ์ด์.-์/์ด ๋ฌ๋ผ๊ณ = for SPEAKER. For THIRD PARTY benefit use -์/์ด ์ฃผ๋ผ๊ณ .
-๋์ง / -(์ผ)ใด์ง / -(์ผ)ใน์ง ์๋ค/๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค (know/wonder whether)
-๋์ง ์๋ค/๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค
EMBEDDED QUESTION + ์๋ค / ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค: -๋์ง (present verb), -(์ผ)ใด์ง (past verb / present adj / ์ด๋ค), -(์ผ)ใน์ง (future / unknown). ์ด๋์ ๊ฐ๋์ง ์์์ = 'I know where (he) is going'. ๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ์ง ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์ = 'I'm not sure if it'll rain'.
Key rule
VERB present -๋์ง / past -(์ผ)ใด์ง / future -(์ผ)ใน์ง. ADJ -(์ผ)ใด์ง (present) / -(์ผ)ใน์ง (future). NOUN -์ธ์ง. Past for any: -์/์๋์ง. ใน-stems drop ใน before -ใด. Matrix: ์๋ค/๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค/๊ถ๊ธํ๋ค/๊ธฐ์ตํ๋ค etc.
Examples
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ด๋ ๊ฐ๋์ง ์์์?์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ด๋ ๊ฐ์ง ์์์?
VERB present + -๋์ง. Translation: Do you know where my friend is going? Romanization: Chingu-ga eodi ganeunji arayo?
- ์ด์ ๋๊ฐ ์๋์ง ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.์ด ์์์ด ๋งค์๋์ง ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.
VERB past -์๋์ง. Translation: I don't know who came yesterday. Romanization: Eoje nuga wanneunji moreugesseoyo.
- ๋ด์ผ ๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ์ง ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.๊ทธ๋ถ์ด ํ์๋์ง ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.
Future / unknown -(์ผ)ใน์ง. Translation: I don't know if it'll rain tomorrow. Romanization: Naeil bi-ga olji moreugesseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_modifier
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ด๋ ๊ฐ์ง ์์์?์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ด๋ ๊ฐ๋์ง ์์์?Need the -๋ modifier on present verbs. -์ง alone doesn't work.
verb_modifier_for_adjective
์ด ์์์ด ๋งค์๋์ง ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.์ด ์์์ด ๋งค์ด์ง ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ด์.Adjectives use -(์ผ)ใด์ง, NOT -๋์ง. ๋งต๋ค โ ๋งค์ด์ง.
-(์ผ)ใด ์ง + duration (time SINCE an event)
-(์ผ)ใด ์ง + ์๊ฐ
VERB stem + -(์ผ)ใด ์ง + DURATION + ๋์ด์ / ์ง๋ฌ์ด์ means 'X amount of time has passed SINCE doing Y'. ํ๊ตญ์ ์จ ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์ = 'It's been 3 years since I came to Korea'. NOTE the space: ์ง is a noun ('point in time'), not the colloquial sentence ending -์ง.
Key rule
VERB stem + -(์ผ)ใด + [SPACE] + ์ง + DURATION + ๋์ด์ / ์ง๋ฌ์ด์ = 'X time since doing Y'. ใน-drop before -(์ผ)ใด. The ์ง here is a SEPARATE bound noun, not the verb ending.
Examples
- ํ๊ตญ์ ์จ ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ์จ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์.
Standard pattern. Translation: It's been 3 years since I came to Korea. Romanization: Hangug-e on ji samnyeon dwaesseoyo.
- ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํ ์ง 1๋ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ์ด์ ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์.
Ongoing study. Translation: It's been a year since I started studying Korean. Romanization: Hangugeo-reul gongbuhan ji ilnyeon dwaesseoyo.
- ๊ฒฐํผํ ์ง 5๋ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๋ ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์.
Life event. Translation: It's been 5 years since we got married. Romanization: Gyeolhonhan ji onyeon dwaesseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_space
ํ๊ตญ์ ์จ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ์จ ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์.Insert a SPACE between -(์ผ)ใด and ์ง. The ์ง here is a bound noun.
missing_l_drop
ํ๊ตญ์ ์ด์ ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ์ฐ ์ง 3๋ ๋์ด์.ใน-final stems DROP ใน before -(์ผ)ใด. ์ด๋ค โ ์ฐ.
-(์ผ)๋๊น (because โ subjective reason; allows commands/suggestions)
-(์ผ)๋๊น
STEM + -(์ผ)๋๊น means 'because / since (subjectively)'. Vowel/ใน-stem + -๋๊น, consonant-stem + -์ผ๋๊น. Unlike -์/์ด์ (T1), -(์ผ)๋๊น freely combines with COMMANDS, SUGGESTIONS, and PROPOSALS in the main clause. ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋๊น ์ฐ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ์ ธ๊ฐ์ธ์ = 'Since it's raining, take an umbrella'.
Key rule
Vowel/ใน-stem + -๋๊น; consonant-stem + -์ผ๋๊น. = subjective 'because/since'. ONLY -(์ผ)๋๊น works with commands/suggestions/proposals; -์/์ด์ doesn't. Past: -์/์์ผ๋๊น. Discovery reading: 'upon doing X, Y was apparent'.
Examples
- ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋๊น ์ฐ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ์ ธ๊ฐ์ธ์.๋น๊ฐ ์์ ์ฐ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ์ ธ๊ฐ์ธ์.
Reason + command โ only -(์ผ)๋๊น works. Translation: Since it's raining, take an umbrella. Romanization: Bi-ga onikka usan-eul gajyeogaseyo.
- ์๊ฐ์ด ์์ผ๋๊น ๋นจ๋ฆฌ ๊ฐ์๋ค.์๊ฐ์ด ์์ด์ ๊ฐ์ด ๊ฐ์๋ค.
Reason + proposal. Translation: Since there's no time, let's go quickly. Romanization: Sigan-i eopseunikka ppalli gapsida.
- ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํ๋๊น ํ๊ตญ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์๊ฒผ์ด์.์ด์ ๋ฆ๊ฒ ์ค์ด์ ์ผ์ฐ ์์ธ์.
Reason + declarative outcome. Translation: Since I study Korean, I made Korean friends. Romanization: Hangugeo-reul gongbuhanikka hanguk chingu-ga saenggyeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
aeoseo_with_command
๋น๊ฐ ์์ ์ฐ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ์ ธ๊ฐ์ธ์.๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋๊น ์ฐ์ฐ์ ๊ฐ์ ธ๊ฐ์ธ์.-์/์ด์ CAN'T combine with commands. Use -(์ผ)๋๊น for reason + command.
aeoseo_with_proposal
์๊ฐ์ด ์์ด์ ๊ฐ์ด ๊ฐ์๋ค.์๊ฐ์ด ์์ผ๋๊น ๊ฐ์ด ๊ฐ์๋ค.Same โ proposals (-(์ผ)ใ ์๋ค / -์) need -(์ผ)๋๊น.
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-๋๋ฐ๋ / -(์ผ)ใด๋ฐ๋ (even though / despite โ situational concession)
-๋๋ฐ๋ / -(์ผ)ใด๋ฐ๋
STEM + -๋๋ฐ๋ (verb) or -(์ผ)ใด๋ฐ๋ (adjective / past / ์ด๋ค) means 'even though / despite ~'. ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋๋ฐ๋ ๊ฐ์ด์ = 'I went even though it was raining'. Built from -๋๋ฐ/-(์ผ)ใด๋ฐ (setting) + ๋ (even/too).
Key rule
VERB + -๋๋ฐ๋. ADJ / NOUN + -(์ผ)ใด๋ฐ๋. ์ด๋ค + -์ธ๋ฐ๋. PAST + -์/์๋๋ฐ๋. ใน-drop before -๋๋ฐ๋. = 'even though / despite'. Stronger concession than -๋๋ฐ alone; combines -๋๋ฐ/-(์ผ)ใด๋ฐ + ๋.
Examples
- ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋๋ฐ๋ ์ด๋์ ํ์ด์.๋น์ธ๋๋ฐ๋ ์์ฃผ ์ฌ์.
Verb concession. Translation: I exercised even though it was raining. Romanization: Bi-ga oneundedo undong-eul haesseoyo.
- ์ด์ฌํ ๊ณต๋ถํ๋๋ฐ๋ ์ํ์ ๋ชป ๋ด์.์ด์ ๊ฐ๋๋ฐ๋์ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์์์ด์.
Habitual concession. Translation: Even though I study hard, I do poorly on tests. Romanization: Yeolsimhi gongbuhaneundedo siheom-eul mot bwayo.
- ์ด ์์์ด ๋น์ผ๋ฐ๋ ์์ฃผ ๋จน์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ํ๊ตญ์์ ์ด๋๋ฐ๋ ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๋ชป ํด์.
Adjective concession. Translation: Even though this food is expensive, I eat it often. Romanization: I eumsig-i bissandedo jaju meogeoyo.
Common mistakes
verb_modifier_for_adjective
๋น์ธ๋๋ฐ๋ ์์ฃผ ์ฌ์.๋น์ผ๋ฐ๋ ์์ฃผ ์ฌ์.Adjectives use -(์ผ)ใด๋ฐ๋, NOT -๋๋ฐ๋. ๋น์ธ๋ค โ ๋น์ผ๋ฐ๋.
midsentence_yo_misuse
์ด์ ๊ฐ๋๋ฐ๋์ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์์์ด์.์ด์ ๊ฐ๋๋ฐ๋ ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์์์ด์.Don't put -์ in the middle of a connector. -์ is sentence-final only.
-์/์ด๋ (even if / even though โ hypothetical or actual concession)
-์/์ด๋
STEM + -์/์ด๋ means 'even if / even though ~'. ๋น๊ฐ ์๋ ๊ฐ ๊ฑฐ์์ = 'Even if it rains, I'll go'. Covers BOTH hypothetical ('even if it were') and actual ('even though it is') concession. Wider scope than -๋๋ฐ๋.
Key rule
STEM + -์/์ด๋ (vowel harmony) = 'even if / even though'. Covers HYPOTHETICAL and ACTUAL. With wh-words โ universals (๋๊ฐ ์๋, ์ด๋ ๊ฐ๋). PAST -์/์์ด๋. ใ /ใท/ใ irregulars apply.
Examples
- ๋น๊ฐ ์๋ ๊ฐ ๊ฑฐ์์.๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋ ๊ฐ ๊ฑฐ์์.
Hypothetical concession. Translation: Even if it rains, I'll go. Romanization: Bi-ga wado gal geoeyo.
- ๋น์ธ๋ ์ด ๊ฑฐ์์.์ด๋ ต๋ ๊ณ์ ํด์.
Adjective concession. Translation: Even if expensive, I'll buy it. Romanization: Bissado sal geoeyo.
- ํ๊ตญ์ด๊ฐ ์ด๋ ค์๋ ๊ณ์ ๊ณต๋ถํ ๊ฑฐ์์.๋ฃ๋ ์ ์ด ์ ์์.
ใ -irregular. Translation: Even though Korean is hard, I'll keep studying. Romanization: Hangugeo-ga eoryeowodo gyesok gongbuhal geoeyo.
Common mistakes
missing_aeo_form
๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋ ๊ฐ ๊ฑฐ์์.๋น๊ฐ ์๋ ๊ฐ ๊ฑฐ์์.Use the -์/์ด form (์) before ๋. ์ + ๋ = ์๋. Not ์ค๋.
missing_b_irregular
์ด๋ ต๋ ๊ณ์ ํด์.์ด๋ ค์๋ ๊ณ์ ํด์.ใ -irregular: ์ด๋ ต๋ค โ ์ด๋ ค์. ์ด๋ ค์ + ๋ = ์ด๋ ค์๋.
-(์ผ)ใน์๋ก (the more ~, the more ~)
-(์ผ)ใน์๋ก
STEM + -(์ผ)ใน์๋ก expresses 'the more X, the more Y / the X-er, the Y-er'. ๊ณต๋ถํ ์๋ก ์ด๋ ค์์ = 'The more I study, the harder it gets'. Often paired with ๋ / ์ ์ / ๊ฐ์๋ก in the second clause for emphasis.
Key rule
Vowel/ใน-stem + -ใน์๋ก; consonant-stem + -์์๋ก. ใน-stems KEEP ใน. = 'the more X, the more Y'. Common with ๋ / ์ ์ / ๊ฐ์๋ก in second clause. Doubled pattern V-(์ผ)๋ฉด V-(์ผ)ใน์๋ก for emphasis.
Examples
- ๊ณต๋ถํ ์๋ก ์ด๋ ค์์.๊ณต๋ถํ์๋ก ์ด๋ ค์์.
Standard pattern. Translation: The more I study, the harder it gets. Romanization: Gongbuhalsurok eoryeowoyo.
- ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํ๋ฉด ํ ์๋ก ์ฌ๋ฏธ์์ด์.ํ๊ตญ ์์์ ๋จน์๋ก ์ข์์.
Doubled -(์ผ)๋ฉด + -(์ผ)ใน์๋ก. Translation: The more I study Korean, the more fun it is. Romanization: Hangugeo-reul gongbuhamyeon halsurok jaemiisseoyo.
- ์๊ฐ์ด ๊ฐ์๋ก ๋ ๊ทธ๋ฆฌ์์.ํ๊ตญ์ ์ฌใน์๋ก ์ข์์.
๊ฐ์๋ก idiom + ๋. Translation: As time goes by, I miss (it) more. Romanization: Sigan-i galsurok deo geuriwoyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_attachment
๊ณต๋ถํ์๋ก ์ด๋ ค์์.๊ณต๋ถํ ์๋ก ์ด๋ ค์์.Vowel/ํ๋ค stem takes -ใน์๋ก (with ใน). ๊ณต๋ถํ + ใน์๋ก = ๊ณต๋ถํ ์๋ก.
missing_eul
ํ๊ตญ ์์์ ๋จน์๋ก ์ข์์.ํ๊ตญ ์์์ ๋จน์์๋ก ์ข์์.Consonant-final stem takes -์์๋ก.
๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ / ๋๊ตฌ๋ / ๋ํ (in addition / furthermore / on top of that)
๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ / ๋๊ตฌ๋ / ๋ํ
Three sentence-initial connectors that pile on another fact: ๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ ('on top of that / what's more' โ conversational), ๋๊ตฌ๋ ('moreover / furthermore' โ slightly formal), ๋ํ ('also / additionally' โ written / formal). All add a NEW piece of info to what was just said.
Key rule
All three are SENTENCE-INITIAL connectors meaning 'in addition / on top of that'. ๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ (conversational, emphatic), ๋๊ตฌ๋ (formal, often concern), ๋ํ (most formal, neutral). Pair with ๋ / ๊น์ง for pile-on emphasis. NOT mid-clause.
Examples
- ๋น๊ฐ ์์. ๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ ๋ฐ๋๋ ๋ถ์ด์.๋น๊ฐ ์ค๊ณ ๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ ๋ฐ๋๋ ๋ถ์ด์.
๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ + ๋ โ pile-on. Translation: It's raining. On top of that, it's windy too. Romanization: Bi-ga wayo. Gedaga baram-do bureoyo.
- ๊ทธ ์๋น์ ์์์ด ๋ง์์ด์. ๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ ๊ฐ๊ฒฉ๋ ์ธ์.์ด ์ฑ ์ ์ฌ๋ฏธ์์ด์. ๋ํ ์ด๋ ค์์.
๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ + positive pile-on. Translation: That restaurant has good food. On top of that, the price is cheap too. Romanization: Geu sikdang-eun eumsig-i masisseoyo. Gedaga gagyeok-do ssayo.
- ์ํ์ด ์ด๋ ค์ ์ด์. ๋๊ตฌ๋ ์๊ฐ๋ ๋ถ์กฑํ์ด์.์น๊ตฌ๋ ๋๊ตฌ๋ ์์ฌ์์.
๋๊ตฌ๋ + ๋ โ concern. Translation: The test was hard. Moreover, time was short. Romanization: Siheom-i eoryeowosseoyo. Deoguna sigan-do bujokhaesseoyo.
Common mistakes
midclause_with_sentence_initial
๋น๊ฐ ์ค๊ณ ๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ ๋ฐ๋๋ ๋ถ์ด์.๋น๊ฐ ์์. ๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ ๋ฐ๋๋ ๋ถ์ด์. / ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๊ณ ๋ฐ๋๋ ๋ถ์ด์.๊ฒ๋ค๊ฐ starts a NEW SENTENCE โ don't combine with mid-clause -๊ณ .
addition_for_contrast
์ด ์ฑ ์ ์ฌ๋ฏธ์์ด์. ๋ํ ์ด๋ ค์์.์ด ์ฑ ์ ์ฌ๋ฏธ์์ด์. ๊ทธ๋ ์ง๋ง ์ด๋ ค์์. / ์ด ์ฑ ์ ์ฌ๋ฏธ์์ง๋ง ์ด๋ ค์์.๋ํ piles on PARALLEL (same-direction) information. For CONTRAST use ๊ทธ๋ ์ง๋ง / ํ์ง๋ง.
-๋๋ก (in order to / so that / to the extent)
-๋๋ก
STEM + -๋๋ก has three main uses: (1) PURPOSE 'so that / in order to' โ ์ ๋ณด์ด๋๋ก ํฌ๊ฒ ์จ ์ฃผ์ธ์ ('Write big so it's visible'). (2) EXTENT / DEGREE 'to the point of' โ ์ฃฝ๋๋ก ์ผํด์ ('I work to death'). (3) COMMAND-LIKE 'see to it that' โ ๋ฆ์ง ์๋๋ก ํ์ธ์.
Key rule
STEM + -๋๋ก (no ์ผ, no ใน-drop). Three uses: (1) PURPOSE 'so that', (2) EXTENT 'to the point of', (3) -๋๋ก ํ๋ค 'see to it'. Negative purpose = -์ง ์๋๋ก. Allows different subjects in two clauses (unlike -(์ผ)๋ ค๊ณ ).
Examples
- ์ ๋ณด์ด๋๋ก ํฌ๊ฒ ์จ ์ฃผ์ธ์.์ ๋ณด์ด์ผ๋๋ก ํฌ๊ฒ ์จ ์ฃผ์ธ์.
Purpose. Translation: Please write large so it's clearly visible. Romanization: Jal boidorok keuge sseo juseyo.
- ํ์๋ค์ด ์ดํดํ๋๋ก ์ฒ์ฒํ ์ค๋ช ํ์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๋๋ก ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํด์. (intended: 'intend to go')
Purpose, different subjects. Translation: I explained slowly so the students would understand. Romanization: Haksaengdeur-i ihaehadorok cheoncheonhi seolmyeonghaesseoyo.
- ๋ฆ์ง ์๋๋ก ์ผ์ฐ ์ถ๋ฐํ์ด์.๋ฆ์๋๋ก ์ผ์ฐ ๊ฐ์ด์.
Negative purpose. Translation: I left early so I wouldn't be late. Romanization: Neutji antorok iljjik chulbalhaesseoyo.
Common mistakes
wrong_eu_insertion
์ ๋ณด์ด์ผ๋๋ก ํฌ๊ฒ ์จ ์ฃผ์ธ์.์ ๋ณด์ด๋๋ก ํฌ๊ฒ ์จ ์ฃผ์ธ์.-๋๋ก takes NO ์ผ (starts with consonant ใท).
intention_with_dorok
ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๋๋ก ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํด์. (intended: 'intend to go')ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๋ ค๊ณ ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํด์.INTENTION (subject's own) takes -(์ผ)๋ ค๊ณ . -๋๋ก is for RESULT 'so that something happens', often with different subjects.
-(์ผ)ใน ํ ๋ฐ (probably will / should but / expected to but)
-(์ผ)ใน ํ ๋ฐ
STEM + -(์ผ)ใน ํ ๋ฐ expresses speaker's EXPECTATION or SUPPOSITION about a likely event, often followed by a contrasting or concerned main clause: 'probably ~, (but/and yet) ~'. ๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ ํ ๋ฐ ์ฐ์ฐ์ด ์์ด์ = 'It'll probably rain โ and I don't have an umbrella'.
Key rule
Vowel/ใน-stem + -ใน ํ ๋ฐ; consonant-stem + -์ ํ ๋ฐ. SPACE before ํ ๋ฐ. Past: -์/์์ ํ ๋ฐ (counterfactual). = speaker's expectation + concern/contrast/regret. Often trails off with implied concern.
Examples
- ๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ ํ ๋ฐ ์ฐ์ฐ์ด ์์ด์.๋น๊ฐ ์ฌํ ๋ฐ ์ฐ์ฐ์ด ์์ด์.
Expectation + problem. Translation: It'll probably rain โ and I don't have an umbrella. Romanization: Bi-ga ol tende usan-i eopseoyo.
- ์ง๊ธ์ฏค ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ๊ธฐ๋ค๋ฆฌ๊ณ ์์ ํ ๋ฐ์.๋น๊ฐ ์์ ํ ๋ฐ.
Trailing, soft concern. Translation: My friend must be waiting by now ... Romanization: Jigeumjjeum chingu-ga gidarigo isseul tendeyo.
- ํ๊ตญ์ด ์ํ์ด ์ด๋ ค์ธ ํ ๋ฐ ์ ์ค๋นํ์ธ์.์ด์ ๊ฐ์ผ๋ฉด ๋ง๋ ํ ๋ฐ.
Expectation + advice. Translation: The Korean test will probably be hard โ prepare well. Romanization: Hangugeo siheom-i eoryeoul tende jal junbihaseyo.
Common mistakes
missing_space
๋น๊ฐ ์ฌํ ๋ฐ ์ฐ์ฐ์ด ์์ด์.๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ ํ ๋ฐ ์ฐ์ฐ์ด ์์ด์.Insert a SPACE before ํ ๋ฐ. -(์ผ)ใน + SPACE + ํ ๋ฐ.
wrong_base_form
๋น๊ฐ ์์ ํ ๋ฐ.๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ ํ ๋ฐ.Don't use -์/์ด form (์) before -์ ํ ๋ฐ. Use STEM ์ค + -ใน ํ ๋ฐ = ์ฌ ํ ๋ฐ.
Seven speech levels overview (ํ์์ / ํฉ์ผ / ํด์ / ํ์ค / ํ๊ฒ / ํด๋ผ / ํด)
๋์๋ฒ ๋ฑ๊ธ
Korean has traditionally been described as having SEVEN speech levels distinguishing politeness toward the LISTENER. In daily life only TWO are universal (ํด์์ฒด polite + ํด / ๋ฐ๋ง casual), and ONE more is common in formal contexts (ํฉ์ผ์ฒด). The other four are rare, archaic, regional, or restricted to specific genres.
Key rule
Modern Korean: master ํฉ์ผ์ฒด (formal: -ใ ๋๋ค/-ใ ๋๊น), ํด์์ฒด (everyday polite: -์/์ด์), ํด์ฒด/๋ฐ๋ง (casual: -์/์ด), and ํด๋ผ์ฒด/ํ๋ค์ฒด (written: -ใด/๋๋ค / -๋ค / -์/์ด๋ผ / -์). ํ์ค์ฒด, ํ๊ฒ์ฒด, ํ์์์ฒด = recognize, don't actively use.
Examples
- ์๋ ํ์ญ๋๊น. ์ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค.(์ฒ์ ๋ง๋ ์ด๋ฅธ์๊ฒ) ์๋ . ์ ์ง๋ด?
ํฉ์ผ์ฒด โ formal greeting. Translation: Hello (formal). I'm looking forward to working with you. Romanization: Annyeong-hasimnikka. Jal butakdeurimnida.
- ์๋ ํ์ธ์. ์ ๋ถํ๋๋ ค์.(์นํ ์น๊ตฌ์๊ฒ) ์ด๋ ๊ฐ์ญ๋๊น?
ํด์์ฒด โ everyday polite. Translation: Hello (everyday). Looking forward to it. Romanization: Annyeong-haseyo. Jal butakdeuryeoyo.
- ์๋ . ์ ์ง๋ด?(์์ธ์ด) ํ๊ตญ์ด๊ฐ ์ฌ๋ฏธ์์ด์.
๋ฐ๋ง โ to close friend. Translation: Hey. How's it going? Romanization: Annyeong. Jal jinae?
Common mistakes
banmal_with_stranger
(์ฒ์ ๋ง๋ ์ด๋ฅธ์๊ฒ) ์๋ . ์ ์ง๋ด?์๋ ํ์ธ์. ์ ์ง๋ด์ธ์?Don't use ๋ฐ๋ง with strangers or elders. Default to ํด์์ฒด with ์ธ์.
hapsho_with_close_peer
(์นํ ์น๊ตฌ์๊ฒ) ์ด๋ ๊ฐ์ญ๋๊น?์ด๋ ๊ฐ? / ์ด๋ ๊ฐ์?Don't use ํฉ์ผ์ฒด with close peers โ sounds stiff or sarcastic. Use ๋ฐ๋ง or ํด์์ฒด.
Choosing between ํ์ค์ฒด / ํ๊ฒ์ฒด (recognition + limited use)
ํ์ค์ฒด / ํ๊ฒ์ฒด
ํ์ค์ฒด and ํ๊ฒ์ฒด are mid-register speech levels rarely produced by modern young speakers but encountered in HISTORICAL DRAMA, older-generation speech, certain literary genres, and military / religious contexts. Learners should RECOGNIZE these endings โ not actively produce them in everyday Korean.
Key rule
ํ์ค์ฒด (-์ค / -์ / -๊ตฌ๋ ค) and ํ๊ฒ์ฒด (-๋ค / -ใด๊ฐ / -๊ฒ / -์ธ) = RECOGNIZE in historical drama, older-generation speech, and stylized writing. Do NOT use in everyday modern Korean. Stick with ํฉ์ผ์ฒด / ํด์์ฒด / ๋ฐ๋ง.
Examples
- (์ฌ๊ทน) ์ด์ ์ค์์ค.(ํ๋ ์น๊ตฌ ๋ํ) ์ด๋ ๊ฐ์์ค?
ํ์ค์ฒด imperative โ historical drama. Translation: Welcome (formally, archaic). Romanization: Eoseo osio.
- (์ฌ๊ทน) ๊ทธ ์ผ์ ๋ด๊ฐ ํ๊ฒ ์.(์์ฌ์๊ฒ) ์ ์๊ฒ ์.
ํ์ค์ฒด first-person declarative. Translation: I shall do that. Romanization: Geu il-eun naega hagesso.
- (๋ ธ์ธ) ์๋ค๋ ์ด๋์ ์๋๊ฐ?(์น๊ตฌ์๊ฒ) ์๋ค ์ด๋ ๊ฐ๋๊ฐ?
ํ๊ฒ์ฒด -ใด๊ฐ question. Translation: Where did you come from? (older to younger). Romanization: Janeun-eun eodiseo wanneun-ga?
Common mistakes
haoche_in_modern_speech
(ํ๋ ์น๊ตฌ ๋ํ) ์ด๋ ๊ฐ์์ค?์ด๋ ๊ฐ? / ์ด๋ ๊ฐ์?ํ์ค์ฒด sounds theatrical in modern everyday conversation. Use ๋ฐ๋ง or ํด์์ฒด.
haoche_to_superior
(์์ฌ์๊ฒ) ์ ์๊ฒ ์.์ ์๊ฒ ์ต๋๋ค. / ์๊ฒ ์ด์.Use ํฉ์ผ์ฒด / ํด์์ฒด with a boss, not ํ์ค์ฒด.
Workplace register basics (์ ๋ฐฐ/ํ๋ฐฐ, titles, ๋ณด๊ณ expressions)
์ง์ฅ ์ธ์ด (๊ธฐ๋ณธ)
Korean workplaces use a STRICT register system based on age, rank, and seniority. Key elements: ์ ๋ฐฐ / ํ๋ฐฐ (senior / junior), TITLE-based address (๊ณผ์ฅ๋ / ๋ถ์ฅ๋), and conventional reporting expressions (~ํ์๋ฉด ๋ฉ๋๋ค, ~ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค, ~ ํ์ธ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค).
Key rule
Workplace: address superiors as SURNAME + ์ง์ฑ + ๋ (๊น ๋ถ์ฅ๋). Use ํฉ์ผ์ฒด + -(์ผ)์-. Common closings: ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค / ํ์ธ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค / ์๊ณ ํ์ จ์ต๋๋ค. With OUTSIDE clients, refer to inside seniors without -(์ผ)์- (out-group rule).
Examples
- ๊น ๋ถ์ฅ๋, ์ ์ ์๊ฐ ๊ด์ฐฎ์ผ์ธ์?๋ฏผ์, ์ด ์๋ฃ ํ์ธํด.
Title-based address. Translation: Manager Kim, do you have a moment? Romanization: Kim bujangnim, jamsi sigan gwaenchanaseyo?
- ๋ณด๊ณ ์ ํ์ธ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค.๋ถ์ฅ ๋, ์ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค.
Standard request closing. Translation: Please review the report. Romanization: Bogoseo hwagin butakdeurimnida.
- ์๊ณ ํ์ จ์ต๋๋ค.(์ธ๋ถ ์๋์๊ฒ) ์ฌ์ฅ๋๊ป์ ๋์ฐฉํ์ค ๊ฒ๋๋ค.
End-of-meeting / day closing. Translation: Thank you for your hard work. Romanization: Sugohasyeotseumnida.
Common mistakes
bare_name_with_banmal
๋ฏผ์, ์ด ์๋ฃ ํ์ธํด.๋ฏผ์ ์จ, ์ด ์๋ฃ ํ์ธ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค. / ๋ฏผ์ ์จ, ์ด๊ฑฐ ํ์ธํด ์ฃผ์ธ์.Using bare name + ๋ฐ๋ง to a colleague is too direct. Use ์ด๋ฆ + ์จ + ํฉ์ผ์ฒด/ํด์์ฒด.
spacing_with_nim
๋ถ์ฅ ๋, ์ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค.๋ถ์ฅ๋, ์ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค.๋ attaches directly to ์ง์ฑ โ no space. ๋ถ์ฅ๋ is one word.
Softening strategies (-(์ผ)ใน ๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค, -์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค, -์์์, hedging adverbs)
์๊ณกํ ํํ
Korean values INDIRECTNESS in disagreement, requests, and opinions. Core softening strategies: hedge with -๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์ ('it seems'), use -์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค ('looks like'), use -์์์ ('as you know'), add hedging adverbs (์ข 'a bit', ํน์ 'perhaps', ์๋ง 'probably').
Key rule
Soften with: -๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์ (hedge), -์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค (visual hedge), -์์์ (shared knowledge), ์ข (a bit), ํน์ (perhaps), ์๋ง (probably), ์ฃ์กํ์ง๋ง (sorry but), -(์ผ)ใน๊น์? (shall we). Stack multiple for maximum politeness.
Examples
- ํ๊ตญ์ด๊ฐ ์ข ์ด๋ ค์ด ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์.(disagreeing flatly) ์๋์, ํ๋ ค์.
์ข + -๊ฒ ๊ฐ์์ doubled hedge. Translation: I think Korean is a bit hard. Romanization: Hangugeo-ga jom eoryeoun geot gatayo.
- ํผ๊ณคํด ๋ณด์ด์ธ์. ์ข ์ฌ์ธ์.(๋ถํ) ์๊ฐ ์์ด์?
-์/์ด ๋ณด์ด๋ค + ์ข. Translation: You look tired. Please rest a bit. Romanization: Pigonhae boi-seyo. Jom swiseyo.
- ํ๊ตญ์ด๊ฐ ์ด๋ ต์์์.(์๊ด) ์ด๊ฑฐ ์ด๋ ค์์.
-์์์. Translation: Korean is hard, you know. Romanization: Hangugeo-ga eoryeopjanayo.
Common mistakes
blunt_disagreement
(disagreeing flatly) ์๋์, ํ๋ ค์.์, ์ข ๋ค๋ฅธ ๊ฒ ๊ฐ์๋ฐ์. / ๊ธ์์, ์ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๊ฒ ์ง๋ง ...Flat disagreement (ํ๋ ค์) sounds harsh in Korean. Soften with hedges and ๊ธ์์.
unsofted_request
(๋ถํ) ์๊ฐ ์์ด์?ํน์ ์๊ฐ ์์ผ์ธ์? / ์ฃ์กํ์ง๋ง ์๊ฐ ์ข ์์ผ์ธ์?Bare ์๊ฐ ์์ด์? feels demanding. Add ํน์ / ์ฃ์กํ์ง๋ง / honorific.
Age-based address disambiguation (์ค๋น /ํ/๋๋/์ธ๋/์ ๋ฐฐ advanced)
ํธ์นญ์ด (์์ฉ)
Korean address terms depend on (a) speaker's gender, (b) addressee's gender, (c) age difference, and (d) relationship type. T1 introduced basics; T3 covers: register-switch when status changes (boss vs senior friend), non-blood usage of ์ค๋น /ํ/๋๋/์ธ๋, and the ์ ๋ฐฐ vs older-friend choice.
Key rule
Pick address by SPEAKER GENDER ร ADDRESSEE GENDER ร AGE GAP ร RELATIONSHIP TYPE. ์ค๋น /ํ/๋๋/์ธ๋ = close non-stranger older. ์ ๋ฐฐ = same school/workplace senior. SWITCH to TITLE + ๋ in professional contexts. Confirm age before calling someone older.
Examples
- (์ฌ์๊ฐ ๋จ์์น๊ตฌ์๊ฒ) ์ค๋น , ๊ฐ์ด ๊ฐ์.(์ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ ์ฝ๊ฐ ๋์ด ๋ ๋จ์์๊ฒ) ํ!
์ค๋น to boyfriend. Translation: Honey, let's go together. Romanization: Oppa, gachi gaja.
- (๋จ์๊ฐ ์นํ ํ์๊ฒ) ํ, ์๊ฐ ์์ด?(๋จ์๊ฐ ์ฌ์ ์ ๋ฐฐ์๊ฒ) ๋๋!
ํ to close older male friend. Translation: Hyung, you free? Romanization: Hyeong, sigan isseo?
- (์ฌ์๊ฐ ์นํ ์ฌ์ ์ ๋ฐฐ์๊ฒ) ์ธ๋, ๊ฐ์ด ์ ์ฌ ๋จน์๋์?(๋ถ์ฅ๋์๊ฒ) ํ! ์ ์ฌ ๊ฐ์ด ๋จน์ด์.
์ธ๋ to close older female. Translation: Unnie, want to have lunch together? Romanization: Eonni, gachi jeomsim meogeullaeyo?
Common mistakes
hyeong_with_stranger
(์ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ ์ฝ๊ฐ ๋์ด ๋ ๋จ์์๊ฒ) ํ!์ ์๋ / ์์ ์จ / ์ค๋กํฉ๋๋ค โ ๊ธธ ์ข ๋ฌผ์ด๋ด๋ ๋ ๊น์?ํ implies close relationship. Strangers get formal address.
noona_at_work
(๋จ์๊ฐ ์ฌ์ ์ ๋ฐฐ์๊ฒ) ๋๋!์ ๋ฐฐ๋! / ๋๋ โ only if close personal friend.Workplace / school senior = ์ ๋ฐฐ(๋). ๋๋ only if confirmed close personal context.
In-group / out-group kinship โ ์ฐ๋ฆฌ vs ์ ํฌ (์ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ์ฌ vs ์ ํฌ ํ์ฌ)
์ฐ๋ฆฌ vs ์ ํฌ
Korean uses ์ฐ๋ฆฌ (our) for in-group / neutral / casual reference and ์ ํฌ (humble 'our') when speaking to someone OUTSIDE the group whom you want to show respect to. ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ์ฌ = 'our company (casually)', ์ ํฌ ํ์ฌ = 'our company (humbly, to outsider)'.
Key rule
์ฐ๋ฆฌ = neutral/casual 'our (we)'. ์ ํฌ = humble 'our (we)', used to OUTSIDERS / SUPERIORS. EXCEPTION: ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋๋ผ stays ์ฐ๋ฆฌ across registers. Workplace external comms: ์ ํฌ ํ์ฌ + (boss) without -(์ผ)์-.
Examples
- ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๊ฐ์กฑ์ ๋ถ์ฐ์ ์ด์์.์ ํฌ ๋๋ผ๋ ์ฌ๊ณ์ ์ด ๋๋ ทํด์.
Casual / neutral. Translation: Our family lives in Busan. Romanization: Uri gajog-eun busan-e arayo.
- (๊ณ ๊ฐ์๊ฒ) ์ ํฌ ํ์ฌ๊ฐ ๋ค์ ์ฃผ์ ์ ์ ํ์ ์ถ์ํฉ๋๋ค.(๊ณ ๊ฐ์๊ฒ) ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ์ฌ๊ฐ ์ ์ ํ์ ์ถ์ํ์ต๋๋ค.
Humble to outsider. Translation: Our company will launch a new product next week. Romanization: Jeohui hoesa-ga daeum jue sinjepum-eul chulsihamnida.
- (๊ณ ๊ฐ์๊ฒ) ์ ํฌ ๊ฐ๊ฒ์ ์ ์ฃผ์ ์ ๊ฐ์ฌํฉ๋๋ค.(์น๊ตฌ์๊ฒ) ์ ํฌ ์ด๋จธ๋๊ฐ ๊น์น๋ฅผ ๋ง๋ค์์ด์.
Service register. Translation: Thank you for visiting our store. Romanization: Jeohui gage-e wa jusyeoseo gamsahamnida.
Common mistakes
humbling_country
์ ํฌ ๋๋ผ๋ ์ฌ๊ณ์ ์ด ๋๋ ทํด์.์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋๋ผ๋ ์ฌ๊ณ์ ์ด ๋๋ ทํด์.EXCEPTION: ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ๋๋ผ stays ์ฐ๋ฆฌ even when humbling. Saying ์ ํฌ ๋๋ผ sounds odd to native speakers.
uri_with_outside_client
(๊ณ ๊ฐ์๊ฒ) ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ํ์ฌ๊ฐ ์ ์ ํ์ ์ถ์ํ์ต๋๋ค.(๊ณ ๊ฐ์๊ฒ) ์ ํฌ ํ์ฌ๊ฐ ์ ์ ํ์ ์ถ์ํ์ต๋๋ค.Speaking to OUTSIDE clients use ์ ํฌ ํ์ฌ (humble).
Email / letter openings & closings (basic templates)
์ด๋ฉ์ผยทํธ์ง ์ธ์ฌ๋ง (๊ธฐ๋ณธ)
Korean professional emails and letters follow CONVENTIONAL templates: address line (Name + title + ๋๊ป), opening (์๋ ํ์ธ์. ์ ๋ ... ์ ๋๋ค), body using ํฉ์ผ์ฒด, closing phrases (๊ฐ์ฌํฉ๋๋ค / ์ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค / ์ข์ ํ๋ฃจ ๋ณด๋ด์ธ์), and signature.
Key rule
Email/letter pattern: [Recipient] ๋๊ป โ ์๋ ํ์ธ์/์๋ ํ์ญ๋๊น + self-intro โ ํฉ์ผ์ฒด body โ ๊ฐ์ฌํฉ๋๋ค / ์ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค โ [Name] ๋๋ฆผ/์ฌ๋ฆผ. Use ๋๊ป for address, ํฉ์ผ์ฒด throughout, humble ๋๋ฆฌ๋ค in ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค.
Examples
- ๊น ๋ถ์ฅ๋๊ป, ์๋ ํ์ญ๋๊น.๊น ๋ถ์ฅ ์๋ !
Address + opener. Translation: Dear Manager Kim, Hello (formal). Romanization: Kim bujangnim-kke, Annyeong-hasimnikka.
- ์ ๋ ABC ํ์ฌ์ ์์ ํ ๊น๋ฏผ์์ ๋๋ค.๋น์ ๊ป,
Self-introduction. Translation: I am Kim Minsu from the sales team at ABC company. Romanization: Jeo-neun ABC hoesa-ui yeongeoptim Kim Minsu-imnida.
- ๋ณด๋ด ๋๋ฆฐ ์๋ฃ ํ์ธ ๋ถํ๋๋ฆฝ๋๋ค.์๋ ํ์ธ์. ์ ์ง๋ด์?
Body request. Translation: Please confirm the materials I sent. Romanization: Bonae deurin jaryo hwagin butakdeurimnida.
Common mistakes
casual_email_opener
๊น ๋ถ์ฅ ์๋ !๊น ๋ถ์ฅ๋๊ป, ์๋ ํ์ญ๋๊น.Don't use casual greeting in email. Use formal address + ํฉ์ผ์ฒด opener.
dangsin_in_email
๋น์ ๊ป,[Name] ๋๊ป, / ๋ด๋น์๋๊ป, / ๊ด๊ณ์๋๊ป,๋น์ is rude in writing. Use NAME + ๋๊ป or ๋ด๋น์๋๊ป.
-๊ธฐ ์ํด(์) / -๊ธฐ ์ํ (in order to / for the purpose of)
-๊ธฐ ์ํด(์) / -๊ธฐ ์ํ
VERB stem + -๊ธฐ ์ํด(์) means 'in order to / for the purpose of (doing) X'. ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๊ธฐ ์ํด์ ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํด์ = 'I study Korean in order to go to Korea'. NOUN-based: ์ํด / ์ํ (for + N). Modifier form: -๊ธฐ ์ํ + NOUN ('the ~ for ~ing').
Key rule
VERB + -๊ธฐ ์ํด(์) = 'in order to'. NOUN + ์/๋ฅผ ์ํด = 'for N'. Modifier: -๊ธฐ ์ํ + N / N + ์/๋ฅผ ์ํ + N. Formal/written register. Same subject preferred. Negative: -์ง ์๊ธฐ ์ํด.
Examples
- ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๊ธฐ ์ํด์ ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ ์ํด์ ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํด์.
Standard purpose. Translation: I study Korean in order to go to Korea. Romanization: Hangug-e gagi wihaeseo hangugeo-reul gongbuhaeyo.
- ๊ฑด๊ฐ์ ์งํค๊ธฐ ์ํด ๋งค์ผ ์ด๋ํด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ์ผ๊ธฐ ์ํด์ ๊ณต๋ถํด์.
VERB-based purpose. Translation: I exercise daily to maintain my health. Romanization: Geongang-eul jikigi wihae maeil undonghaeyo.
- ๊ฐ์กฑ์ ์ํด ์ด์ฌํ ์ผํด์.๊ฑด๊ฐ ์ํด์ ์ด๋ํด์.
NOUN-based purpose. Translation: I work hard for my family. Romanization: Gajog-eul wihae yeolsimhi ilhaeyo.
Common mistakes
missing_gi
ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ ์ํด์ ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๊ธฐ ์ํด์ ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ๊ณต๋ถํด์.-๊ธฐ + ์ํด์. The -๊ธฐ nominalizer is required.
wrong_eu_insertion
ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ์ผ๊ธฐ ์ํด์ ๊ณต๋ถํด์.ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๊ธฐ ์ํด์ ๊ณต๋ถํด์.-๊ธฐ takes NO ์ผ. Stem + -๊ธฐ directly.
-๊ฒ (manner adverb / so that โ adjective โ adverb / verb โ result)
-๊ฒ (์ํ)
STEM + -๊ฒ has TWO main functions: (1) ADVERB formation from adjectives โ ๋น ๋ฅด๋ค โ ๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒ ('quickly'), ํฌ๋ค โ ํฌ๊ฒ ('big/loudly'). (2) PURPOSE / RESULT 'so that' connector โ ์ ๋ค๋ฆฌ๊ฒ ํฌ๊ฒ ๋งํด ์ฃผ์ธ์ ('Speak loudly so it's audible'). Overlaps with -๋๋ก.
Key rule
ADJECTIVE + -๊ฒ = manner adverb (๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒ, ํฌ๊ฒ, ์์๊ฒ). VERB + -๊ฒ = purpose 'so that' (overlaps with -๋๋ก). -๊ฒ ํ๋ค = causative. -๊ฒ ๋๋ค = 'end up'. Some adjectives prefer -์ด (๋ง์ด, ๊น์ด, ๋ฉ๋ฆฌ).
Examples
- ๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒ ๋ฌ๋ ค์.๋น ๋ฅด ๋ฌ๋ ค์.
Adjective โ manner adverb. Translation: I run quickly. Romanization: Ppareuge daryeoyo.
- ํฌ๊ฒ ๋ง์ํด ์ฃผ์ธ์.๋นจ๋ฆฌ๊ฒ ๋ฌ๋ ค์.
Manner adverb in request. Translation: Please speak loudly. Romanization: Keuge malsseumhae juseyo.
- ์์๊ฒ ๊พธ๋ช์ด์.๋ง๊ฒ ๋จน์์ด์.
Adjective โ adverb. Translation: I decorated it prettily. Romanization: Yeppeuge kkumyeosseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_ge
๋น ๋ฅด ๋ฌ๋ ค์.๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒ ๋ฌ๋ ค์. / ๋นจ๋ฆฌ ๋ฌ๋ ค์.ADJ stem + -๊ฒ = adverb. Bare stem doesn't work.
double_adverb_marking
๋นจ๋ฆฌ๊ฒ ๋ฌ๋ ค์.๋นจ๋ฆฌ ๋ฌ๋ ค์. / ๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒ ๋ฌ๋ ค์.๋นจ๋ฆฌ is already a lexicalized adverb โ don't add -๊ฒ. The -๊ฒ form is ๋น ๋ฅด๊ฒ (from ๋น ๋ฅด๋ค).
-๋์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค / -(์ผ)ใน์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค (might / possibly)
-๋์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค / -(์ผ)ใน์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค
STEM + -(์ผ)ใน์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค means 'might / possibly ~ / maybe'. ๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์ = 'It might rain'. The construction combines embedded -์ง (whether) + ๋ (even) + ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค (not know) = 'I don't even know whether ~' โ 'might'. The -(์ผ)ใน-form is most common for hypothetical possibility.
Key rule
VERB future + -(์ผ)ใน์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค (most common 'might'). VERB present + -๋์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค. PAST + -์/์๋์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค. ADJ -(์ผ)ใด์ง๋ / -(์ผ)ใน์ง๋. NOUN + ์ธ์ง๋. = 'might / maybe / could be'. More tentative than -๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค.
Examples
- ๋ด์ผ ๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์.๋ด์ผ ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์. (intended: might rain)
Future possibility. Translation: It might rain tomorrow. Romanization: Naeil bi-ga olji-do mollayo.
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ํ๋ฌ์์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ํ๋ฌ๋์ง ๋ชฐ๋ผ์. (intended: might be angry)
Past possibility. Translation: My friend might be angry. Romanization: Chingu-ga hwanasseulji-do mollayo.
- ์ด ๊ธธ์ด ๋ ๋น ๋ฅผ์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์.๊ทธ๋ถ์ด ํ์์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์.
Adjective possibility. Translation: This road might be faster. Romanization: I gir-i deo ppareulji-do mollayo.
Common mistakes
wrong_tense_modifier
๋ด์ผ ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์. (intended: might rain)๋ด์ผ ๋น๊ฐ ์ฌ์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์.FUTURE possibility = -(์ผ)ใน์ง๋, not -๋์ง๋. -๋์ง๋ is present.
missing_eul_and_do
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ํ๋ฌ๋์ง ๋ชฐ๋ผ์. (intended: might be angry)์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ํ๋ฌ์์ง๋ ๋ชฐ๋ผ์.Past hypothetical/might = -์/์์์ง๋ ๋ชจ๋ฅด๋ค. -์/์๋์ง alone is embedded question 'whether'.
-๋ ๋ณด๋ค / -(์ผ)ใด๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ค (it seems / apparently โ based on evidence)
-๋ ๋ณด๋ค / -(์ผ)ใด๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ค
Speaker INFERS from observed evidence: -๋ ๋ณด๋ค (verbs, present) / -(์ผ)ใด๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ค (adjectives, ์ด๋ค) / -์/์๋ ๋ณด๋ค (past). ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์ค๋ ๋ด์ = 'It seems my friend isn't coming (based on what I see)'. More observational / evidential than -๊ฒ ๊ฐ๋ค.
Key rule
VERB present + -๋ ๋ณด๋ค. ADJ / ์ด๋ค present + -(์ผ)ใด๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ค. PAST (any) + -์/์๋ ๋ณด๋ค. ใน-stems drop ใน before -๋. = OBSERVATIONAL inference 'looks like / seems / apparently (from evidence)'. Usually third-person.
Examples
- ์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์ค๋ ๋ด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์ค๋๊ฐ ๋ด์.
Verb present + ์. Translation: It looks like my friend isn't coming. Romanization: Chingu-ga an ona bwayo.
- ๋น๊ฐ ์๋ ๋ด์. ๋ฐ๋ฅ์ด ์ ์์ด์.์ด ์์์ด ๋งต๋ ๋ด์.
Past inference from evidence. Translation: Looks like it rained โ the ground is wet. Romanization: Bi-ga wanna bwayo. Badag-i jeojeosseoyo.
- ๊ทธ๋ถ์ด ํ๊ตญ์ด๋ฅผ ์ํ์๋ ๋ด์.๊ทธ๋ถ์ด ํ์๋ ๋ด์.
Honorific + verb + -๋ ๋ณด๋ค. Translation: Seems she speaks Korean well. Romanization: Geu-bun-i hangugeo-reul jalhasina bwayo.
Common mistakes
wrong_modifier_for_verb
์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์ค๋๊ฐ ๋ด์.์น๊ตฌ๊ฐ ์ ์ค๋ ๋ด์.Verb present takes -๋ ๋ณด๋ค, NOT -(์ผ)ใด๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ค. -(์ผ)ใด๊ฐ is for adjectives / ์ด๋ค.
wrong_modifier_for_adjective
์ด ์์์ด ๋งต๋ ๋ด์.์ด ์์์ด ๋งค์ด๊ฐ ๋ด์.Adjective takes -(์ผ)ใด๊ฐ ๋ณด๋ค, not -๋ ๋ณด๋ค. ๋งต๋ค โ ๋งค์ด๊ฐ ๋ด์.
-(์ผ)ใน ์๋ฐ์ ์๋ค (have no choice but to / inevitably)
-(์ผ)ใน ์๋ฐ์ ์๋ค
STEM + -(์ผ)ใน ์๋ฐ์ ์๋ค means 'have no choice but to ~ / inevitably ~ / there's nothing else to do but ~'. ์๊ฐ์ด ์์ด์ ํ์๋ฅผ ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์์ด์ = 'I had no time, so I had no choice but to take a taxi'. Builds on -(์ผ)ใน ์ ('possibility') + ๋ฐ์ + ์๋ค.
Key rule
Vowel/ใน + -ใน ์๋ฐ์ ์๋ค; consonant + -์ ์๋ฐ์ ์๋ค. = 'have no choice but to / inevitably'. PAST -์/์์ ์๋ฐ์ ์๋ค. Common with resigned explanations.
Examples
- ์๊ฐ์ด ์์ด์ ํ์๋ฅผ ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์์ด์.ํ์๋ฅผ ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์์ด์.
No-choice past. Translation: I had no time, so I had to take a taxi. Romanization: Sigan-i eopseoseo taeksi-reul tal subakke eopseosseoyo.
- ๋น๊ฐ ์์ ์ฝ์์ ์ทจ์ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.ํ์๋ฅผ ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.
Forced outcome. Translation: It's raining, so I have to cancel. Romanization: Bi-ga waseo yaksog-eul chwisohal subakke eopseoyo.
- ์ด๋ ๊ฒ ์ด์ฌํ ํ๋๊น ์ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.์ด๋ ๊ฒ ๋ ธ๋ ฅํ๋๊น ์ ํ ์๊ฐ ์์ด์. (intended: inevitable success)
Inevitability. Translation: With this much effort, success is inevitable. Romanization: Ireohge yeolsimhi hanikka jalhal subakke eopseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_future_modifier
ํ์๋ฅผ ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์์ด์.ํ์๋ฅผ ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์์ด์.Use the future-modifier -(์ผ)ใน on the verb. ํ๋ค โ ํ.
wrong_existential_polarity
ํ์๋ฅผ ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.ํ์๋ฅผ ํ ์๋ฐ์ ์์ด์.Construction requires ์๋ค, not ์๋ค. (Literal: 'no choice exists outside of').
-์ ์ํ๋ฉด / -์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด (according to โ citing a source)
-์ ์ํ๋ฉด / -์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด
NOUN + ์ ์ํ๋ฉด / NOUN + ์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด = 'according to NOUN'. ์ ๋ฌธ์ ์ํ๋ฉด = 'According to the newspaper'. The cited information typically appears in indirect speech (-(์ด)๋ผ๊ณ ํ๋ค / -๋ค๊ณ ํ๋ค / -๋์). Used for citing news, sources, reports.
Key rule
NOUN + ์ ์ํ๋ฉด (formal) / ์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด (neutral) = 'according to NOUN'. Following clause typically indirect speech (-๋ค๊ณ ํ๋ค / -๋์ / -(์ด)๋ผ๊ณ ํ๋ค). Don't confuse ์ ์ํ๋ฉด with ์ ์ํด (passive agent).
Examples
- ์ ๋ฌธ์ ์ํ๋ฉด ๋ด์ผ ๋น๊ฐ ์จ๋ค๊ณ ํฉ๋๋ค.์ ๋ฌธ์ด ์ํ๋ฉด ๋น๊ฐ ์จ๋์.
Standard formal pattern. Translation: According to the newspaper, it will rain tomorrow. Romanization: Sinmun-e uihamyeon naeil bi-ga onda-go hamnida.
- ๋ด์ค์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด ์๋ก์ด ์ ์ฑ ์ด ๋ฐํ๋๋์.์ด ์ฑ ์ ์ํด ํ๊ตญ ์ญ์ฌ๊ฐ ์์๋๋ค๊ณ ํฉ๋๋ค. (intended: 'according to')
์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด + contracted -๋์. Translation: According to the news, a new policy was announced. Romanization: Nyuseu-e ttareumyeon saeroun jeongchaeg-i balpyodwaetdaeyo.
- ๋ณด๊ณ ์์ ์ํ๋ฉด ๋งค์ถ์ด ์ฆ๊ฐํ๋ค๊ณ ํฉ๋๋ค.์ ๋ฌธ์ ์ํ๋ฉด ๋น๊ฐ ์จ๋ค.
Business reporting. Translation: According to the report, sales increased. Romanization: Bogoseo-e uihamyeon maechur-i jeunggahaetda-go hamnida.
Common mistakes
wrong_particle
์ ๋ฌธ์ด ์ํ๋ฉด ๋น๊ฐ ์จ๋์.์ ๋ฌธ์ ์ํ๋ฉด ๋น๊ฐ ์จ๋์.Particle is ์ (location/source). Not ์ด/๊ฐ.
uihae_vs_uihamyeon_confusion
์ด ์ฑ ์ ์ํด ํ๊ตญ ์ญ์ฌ๊ฐ ์์๋๋ค๊ณ ํฉ๋๋ค. (intended: 'according to')์ด ์ฑ ์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด ํ๊ตญ ์ญ์ฌ๊ฐ ์์๋๋ค๊ณ ํฉ๋๋ค.์ ์ํด = 'by (agent)' (passive). For 'according to' use ์ ์ํ๋ฉด / ์ ๋ฐ๋ฅด๋ฉด.
๊ฒฐ๊ตญ / ๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ๋ฐ / ์ด์จ๋ (in the end / that said / anyway โ discourse markers)
๋ดํ ํ์ง (์์ฉ)
Three discourse markers organizing the flow of an argument or narrative: ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ('in the end / eventually'), ๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ๋ฐ ('that said / true, but'), ์ด์จ๋ ('anyway / in any case'). Used sentence-initially or clause-initially to signal RESOLUTION, MILD CONCESSION, or DISMISSAL.
Key rule
๊ฒฐ๊ตญ = 'in the end / eventually'. ๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ๋ฐ = 'that said / true, but'. ์ด์จ๋ = 'anyway / in any case'. All sentence-initial discourse markers. Use to organize argument flow: resolution / mild concession / dismissal.
Examples
- ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ๊ทธ ์ผ์ ๋๋์ด์.๊ฒฐ๊ตญ์ ๊ทธ ์ผ์ ๋๋์ด์.
Final outcome. Translation: In the end I finished that work. Romanization: Gyeolguk geu ir-eul kkeutnaesseoyo.
- ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ํ๊ตญ์ ๊ฐ๊ฒ ๋์ด์.๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ์ง๋ง ๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ๋ฐ ๋ค์ ์๊ฐํด ๋ด ์๋ค. (doubled)
๊ฒฐ๊ตญ + -๊ฒ ๋๋ค. Translation: Eventually I ended up going to Korea. Romanization: Gyeolguk hangug-e gage dwaesseoyo.
- ๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ๋ฐ ํ๊ตญ์ด๊ฐ ์ ๋ง ์ฌ๋ฏธ์์ด์.์ด์จ๋ ์ด ๋ด์ผ๊น์ง ๋๋ด์ผ ํด์.
Concession + counter. Translation: That said, Korean is really fun. Romanization: Geureohgin handae hangugeo-ga jeongmal jaemiisseoyo.
Common mistakes
extra_e_particle
๊ฒฐ๊ตญ์ ๊ทธ ์ผ์ ๋๋์ด์.๊ฒฐ๊ตญ ๊ทธ ์ผ์ ๋๋์ด์.๊ฒฐ๊ตญ is already adverbial โ don't add ์ unless ๊ฒฐ๊ตญ์๋ ('eventually, as it turned out') as a fuller phrase.
doubled_marker
๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ์ง๋ง ๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ๋ฐ ๋ค์ ์๊ฐํด ๋ด ์๋ค. (doubled)๊ทธ๋ ๊ธด ํ๋ฐ ๋ค์ ์๊ฐํด ๋ด ์๋ค.Don't double the concession marker. Pick one.
-๋ (์ง) -๋ (์ง) / -๊ฑฐ๋ -๊ฑฐ๋ (either... or, whichever)
-๋ ์ง / -๊ฑฐ๋ (์ ํ)
Doubled connectors that list ALTERNATIVES indifferently. -๋ (์ง) -๋ (์ง) = 'whether ~ or ~ (whichever)'. -๊ฑฐ๋ -๊ฑฐ๋ = 'or ~ or ~'. ๊ฐ๋ ์ง ์ ๊ฐ๋ ์ง ๋ง์๋๋ก ํด์ = 'Do whatever โ go or don't'. -๋ ์ง leans 'whichever / regardless'; -๊ฑฐ๋ leans 'one or the other'.
Key rule
STEM + -๋ (์ง) -๋ (์ง) = 'whether A or B'. STEM + -๊ฑฐ๋ -๊ฑฐ๋ = '(either) A or B'. -๋ (์ง) leans 'whichever / regardless'; -๊ฑฐ๋ leans 'or'. With wh-words โ universal (๋๊ตฌ๋ ์ง, ์ด๋๋ ์ง, ์ธ์ ๋ ์ง). Often paired with ์๊ด์๋ค / ๋ง์๋๋ก / ๋ค ์ข๋ค.
Examples
- ๊ฐ๋ ์ง ์ ๊ฐ๋ ์ง ๋ง์๋๋ก ํด์.๊ฐ๋ ๋ง๋ ๋ง์๋๋ก ํด์.
Indifferent listing. Translation: Go or don't โ do as you please. Romanization: Gadeunji an gadeunji maeumdaero haeyo.
- ์ข๋ ์ซ๋ ํด์ผ ํด์.๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋ ๋์ด ์ค๋ ์ถ๊ทผํด์.
Abbreviated ๋ set phrase. Translation: Like it or not, you have to do it. Romanization: Jotdeun sirteun haeya haeyo.
- ํ์์ด๋ ์ง ํ์ฌ์์ด๋ ์ง ๋ชจ๋ ํ์ํฉ๋๋ค.๋๊ตฌ๋ ์ง๊ฐ ํ์ํฉ๋๋ค.
Noun -์ด๋ ์ง. Translation: Students or workers, everyone is welcome. Romanization: Haksaeng-ideunji hoesawon-ideunji modu hwanyeong-hamnida.
Common mistakes
wrong_negative_form
๊ฐ๋ ๋ง๋ ๋ง์๋๋ก ํด์.๊ฐ๋ ๋ง๋ ๋ง์๋๋ก ํด์.Negative form is ๋ง๋ค โ ๋ง๋ . NOT ๋ง๋ .
wrong_alternation_marker
๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋ ๋์ด ์ค๋ ์ถ๊ทผํด์.๋น๊ฐ ์ค๊ฑฐ๋ ๋์ด ์ค๊ฑฐ๋ ์ถ๊ทผํด์. / ๋น๊ฐ ์ค๋ ๋์ด ์ค๋ ์ถ๊ทผํด์.Use -๊ฑฐ๋ -๊ฑฐ๋ or -๋ (์ง) -๋ (์ง). ์ค๋ -๋ alternation is different (set indefinites).
๋ฐ๋ก / ์ญ์ / ์ด์จ๋ / ์ฌ์ค (discourse markers: focus / agreement / dismissal / actually)
๋ดํ ํ์ง (๊ฐ์กฐ)
Four high-frequency discourse markers: ๋ฐ๋ก ('right / exactly' โ focus / immediacy), ์ญ์ ('as expected / indeed' โ confirmation), ์ด์จ๋ ('anyway' โ dismissive), ์ฌ์ค ('actually / in fact' โ reveal). Each shapes the speaker's attitude toward the content.
Key rule
๋ฐ๋ก = focus 'right / exactly'. ์ญ์ = confirmation 'as expected'. ์ด์จ๋ = dismissal 'anyway'. ์ฌ์ค = reveal 'actually / in fact'. All sentence/clause-initial discourse markers shaping speaker's attitude.
Examples
- ๋ฐ๋ก ์ด๊ฑฐ์์!๋ฐ๋ก์ ๊ฐ์.
Focus on demonstrative. Translation: This is the one! Romanization: Baro igeo-yeyo!
- ๋ฐ๋ก ์ง๊ธ ์ถ๋ฐํ ๊ฒ์.์ญ์๋ ํ๊ตญ ์์์ด ๋ง์์ด์.
๋ฐ๋ก + time. Translation: I'll leave right now. Romanization: Baro jigeum chulbalhalgeyo.
- ์ญ์ ํ๊ตญ ์์์ด ๋ง์์ด์.์ฌ์ค์์ด ํ๊ตญ์ ์ฒ์ ์์.
Confirmation. Translation: As expected, Korean food is delicious. Romanization: Yeoksi hanguk eumsig-i masisseoyo.
Common mistakes
extra_e_particle
๋ฐ๋ก์ ๊ฐ์.๋ฐ๋ก ๊ฐ์.๋ฐ๋ก is an adverb; no ์ particle.
extra_do_particle
์ญ์๋ ํ๊ตญ ์์์ด ๋ง์์ด์.์ญ์ ํ๊ตญ ์์์ด ๋ง์์ด์.์ญ์ standalone โ don't add ๋.
Intermediate Sino-Korean word formation (-์, -์, -์ค, -์ฅ, -์ suffixes)
ํ์์ด ํ์ฑ (์์ฉ)
Korean has thousands of Sino-Korean (ํ์์ด) compound nouns built from 1-syllable Chinese-origin morphemes. T3 level: recognize productive SUFFIXES like -์ (่ 'person'), -์ (ๆ 'place'), -์ค (ๅฎค 'room'), -์ฅ (ๅ ด/้ท 'place/head'). Learning the morphemes accelerates vocabulary acquisition.
Key rule
Sino-Korean compounds = ROOT + SUFFIX. Productive suffixes: -์ (person), -์ (place), -์ค (room), -์ฅ (place / head), -์ (member), -์ (shop), -๊ด (hall), -๊ตญ (bureau). Knowing a few morphemes unlocks many words.
Examples
- ํ์์ค์์ ๋ง๋์.ํ์๋ฐฉ์์ ๋ง๋์.
-์ค 'room'. Translation: Let's meet in the meeting room. Romanization: Hoeuisil-eseo mannayo.
- ํ์๋ค์ด ๋ชจ์ฌ ์ฐ๊ตฌํด์.๋์์ฅ์ด ์ด๋์์?
-์ 'person'. Translation: Scholars gather and research. Romanization: Hakja-deur-i moyeo yeon-guhaeyo.
- ์ด ํ์ฌ์ ์ฌ์ฅ๋์ด ํ์์ ์ฐธ์ํฉ๋๋ค.๊ณตํญ์ ์์ ๋ง๋์.
์ฌ์ฅ (president) โ ็คพ + ้ท. Translation: This company's president attends the meeting. Romanization: I hoesa-ui sajangnim-i hoeui-e chamseokhamnida.
Common mistakes
register_mismatch_native_sino
ํ์๋ฐฉ์์ ๋ง๋์.ํ์์ค์์ ๋ง๋์.๋ฐฉ is native (Korean), ์ค is Sino-Korean. The compound ํ์์ค uses ์ค (matches the SK root). ํ์๋ฐฉ mixes registers oddly.
wrong_suffix_choice
๋์์ฅ์ด ์ด๋์์?๋์๊ด์ด ์ด๋์์?๋์ + ๊ด (library). ์ฅ here would mean 'place' too broadly; the fixed term is ๋์๊ด.
Idioms with body parts (๋์ด ๋๋ค, ์์ด ํฌ๋ค, ๋ฐ์ด ๋๋ค, ์ ์ด ๋ฌด๊ฒ๋ค)
๊ด์ฉ ํํ (๋ชธ)
Korean has many idiomatic expressions built around body parts: ๋์ด ๋๋ค ('eyes are high' = has high standards), ์์ด ํฌ๋ค ('hand is big' = generous), ๋ฐ์ด ๋๋ค ('feet are wide' = knows many people), ์ ์ด ๋ฌด๊ฒ๋ค ('mouth is heavy' = keeps secrets). Body + adjective = character / behavior.
Key rule
BODY PART + ์ด/๊ฐ + ADJ/VERB = idiomatic character trait. HOLDER takes ์/๋. Common pattern: ๋/์/๋ฐ/์ /๋จธ๋ฆฌ/๋ง์/๊ฐ์ด + descriptor. Memorize as fixed expressions โ meanings are NOT literal.
Examples
- ์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ธ๋๋ ๋์ด ๋๋ฌด ๋์์.์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ธ๋๋ ํฐ ๋์ ๊ฐ์ง๊ณ ์์ด์. (intended: high standards)
Picky in love / shopping. Translation: My older sister has really high standards. Romanization: Uri eonni-neun nun-i neomu nopayo.
- ์ด๋จธ๋๋ ์์ด ํฌ์ ์ ๋ ์์์ ๋ง์ด ๋ง๋์ธ์.์ด๋จธ๋๊ฐ ํฐ ์์ ๊ฐ์ง๊ณ ์์ด์. (intended: generous)
์์ด ํฌ๋ค = generous. Translation: Mom is generous so she always makes a lot of food. Romanization: Eomeoni-neun son-i keusyeoseo neul eumsig-eul mani mandeu-seyo.
- ๊ทธ๋ถ์ ๋ฐ์ด ์ ๋ง ๋์ด์. ๋๊ตฌ๋ ์์์.๊ทธ๋ถ์ ๋์ ๋ฐ์ด์์. (intended: well-connected)
๋ฐ์ด ๋๋ค = well-connected. Translation: He is really well-connected. He knows everyone. Romanization: Geu-bun-eun bal-i jeongmal neolbeoyo. Nuguden arayo.
Common mistakes
literal_translation
์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ธ๋๋ ํฐ ๋์ ๊ฐ์ง๊ณ ์์ด์. (intended: high standards)์ฐ๋ฆฌ ์ธ๋๋ ๋์ด ๋์์.Idiom is ๋์ด ๋๋ค (high), not 'ํฐ ๋' (literal big eyes). Don't translate literally.
wrong_construction
์ด๋จธ๋๊ฐ ํฐ ์์ ๊ฐ์ง๊ณ ์์ด์. (intended: generous)์ด๋จธ๋๊ฐ ์์ด ํฌ์ธ์.Use the idiom ์์ด ํฌ๋ค with ์ด/๊ฐ + ํฌ๋ค.
Basic proverbs (์๋ด) โ 10 high-frequency examples
์๋ด (๊ธฐ๋ณธ)
์๋ด (sok-dam) are traditional Korean proverbs / sayings. T3 introduces 10 high-frequency ones with literal meaning, idiomatic meaning, and usage context. Examples: '๊ฐ๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ณ ์์ผ ์ค๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ณฑ๋ค' (kindness begets kindness), '์์ ์ฃฝ ๋จน๊ธฐ' (piece of cake), '๋ง์ด ์จ๊ฐ ๋๋ค' (words become reality).
Key rule
์๋ด are fixed proverbs in plain form (-๋๋ค / -๋ค). Use to make moral points or summarize. Often introduced with '~๋ผ๋ ๋ง์ด ์์ด์' or '~๋ผ๋ ์๋ด์ฒ๋ผ'. Memorize as units โ don't translate literally.
Examples
- ๊ฐ๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ณ ์์ผ ์ค๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ณฑ๋ค.์ด๊ฑด ์์ ์ฃฝ์ ๋จน๊ธฐ์์.
Proverb 1. Translation: Kindness begets kindness. Romanization: Ganeun mar-i gowaya oneun mar-i gopda.
- ์ด๊ฑด ์์ ์ฃฝ ๋จน๊ธฐ์์.๊ฐ๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ณฑ๋ค๋ฉด ์ค๋ ๋ง๋ ๊ณฑ๋ค.
Used as a noun. Translation: This is a piece of cake. Romanization: Igeon sigeun juk meokgi-yeyo.
- ๋ง์ด ์จ๊ฐ ๋๋ค๊ณ ํ์์์. ์กฐ์ฌํ์ธ์.๋น๊ฐ ์จ ๋ค์ ๋ ์ด ๊ตณ์ด์.
Cautionary. Translation: They say words become reality โ be careful. Romanization: Mar-i ssi-ga doendago hajanayo. Josimhaseyo.
Common mistakes
extra_particle
์ด๊ฑด ์์ ์ฃฝ์ ๋จน๊ธฐ์์.์ด๊ฑด ์์ ์ฃฝ ๋จน๊ธฐ์์.์์ ์ฃฝ ๋จน๊ธฐ is fixed โ no ์/๋ฅผ. The phrase is a frozen noun.
paraphrased_proverb
๊ฐ๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ณฑ๋ค๋ฉด ์ค๋ ๋ง๋ ๊ณฑ๋ค.๊ฐ๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ณ ์์ผ ์ค๋ ๋ง์ด ๊ณฑ๋ค.Use the exact set form. Don't paraphrase a proverb โ it loses its meaning.
Basic mimetics (์์ฑ์ด sound symbolism, ์ํ์ด manner symbolism)
์์ฑ์ด / ์ํ์ด (๊ธฐ๋ณธ)
Korean has thousands of MIMETIC words. ์์ฑ์ด (uiseong-eo) = SOUND symbolism (animal sounds, noises). ์ํ์ด (uitae-eo) = MANNER symbolism (visual / motion). ๋ฐ์ง๋ฐ์ง ('twinkle twinkle'), ์ด๊ธ์ด๊ธ ('stealthily'), ๋๊ทผ๋๊ทผ ('heart pounding'). Often reduplicated.
Key rule
์์ฑ์ด = sound symbolism (๋ฉ๋ฉ, ๋๋). ์ํ์ด = manner symbolism (๋ฐ์ง๋ฐ์ง, ์ด๊ธ์ด๊ธ, ๋๊ทผ๋๊ทผ). Usually reduplicated (AB-AB). Function as adverbs; can become verbs with -๊ฑฐ๋ฆฌ๋ค / -๋๋ค / -ํ๋ค. Vowel choice (๋ฐ์/์ด๋์ด) suggests intensity.
Examples
- ๋ณ์ด ๋ฐ์ง๋ฐ์ง ๋น๋์.๋ณ์ด ๋ฐ์ง๋ฐ์ง์ ๋น๋์.
์ํ์ด + ๋น๋๋ค. Translation: The stars twinkle. Romanization: Byeor-i banjjak-banjjak binnayo.
- ๊ณ ์์ด๊ฐ ์ผ์น์ผ์น ์ธ์ด์.๊ณ ์์ด๊ฐ ์ผ์น์ผ์น์ด ์ธ์ด์.
์์ฑ์ด. Translation: The cat meows. Romanization: Goyangi-ga yaong-yaong ureoyo.
- ๊ฐ์์ง๊ฐ ๋ฉ๋ฉ ์ง์ด์.๊ฐ์ด์ด ๋๊ทผ๋๊ทผ์ด์์.
์์ฑ์ด + ์ง๋ค. Translation: The puppy barks. Romanization: Gangaji-ga meongmeong jijeoyo.
Common mistakes
adverb_with_particle
๋ณ์ด ๋ฐ์ง๋ฐ์ง์ ๋น๋์.๋ณ์ด ๋ฐ์ง๋ฐ์ง ๋น๋์.Mimetics are adverbs โ no particle. Don't add ์/๋ฅผ.
mimetic_as_subject_marker
๊ณ ์์ด๊ฐ ์ผ์น์ผ์น์ด ์ธ์ด์.๊ณ ์์ด๊ฐ ์ผ์น์ผ์น ์ธ์ด์.No ์ด/๊ฐ on mimetic.
Advanced Konglish (์ฌ์ด๋ค, ์๋น์ค, ๋งค๋ํ์ด, ์ ์นด โ pseudo-English)
์ฝฉ๊ธ๋ฆฌ์ (์์ฉ)
Konglish (์ฝฉ๊ธ๋ฆฌ์) = English-origin loanwords with MODIFIED meanings or coined-in-Korea pseudo-English. Examples: ์ฌ์ด๋ค ('cider' = lemon soda, not apple cider), ์๋น์ค ('service' = free freebie), ๋งค๋ํ์ด ('manicure' = nail polish), ์ ์นด ('selca' = selfie). Don't assume English meaning carries.
Key rule
Konglish = English-origin words with SHIFTED meanings (์ฌ์ด๋ค, ์๋น์ค, ๋งค๋ํ์ด) or COINED-IN-KOREA (์ ์นด, ์์ท, ํ์ดํ , ๋ ธํธ๋ถ, ์์ด์ผํ). Don't assume English meaning. Pronunciation adapted to Korean phonology.
Examples
- ์๋น์์ ์ฌ์ด๋ค ํ ๋ณ ์ฃผ์ธ์.(์์ด๋ก 'cider' ์๋ฏธ๋ก) ํ๊ตญ์์ ์ฌ๊ณผ cider๋ฅผ ๋ง์ จ์ด์.
์ฌ์ด๋ค = Sprite-like, not apple cider. Translation: Please give me a cider (lemon-lime soda) at the restaurant. Romanization: Sikdang-eseo saida han byeong juseyo.
- ์ด ์๋น์ ์๋น์ค๊ฐ ์ข์์.์๋น์์ ๋ฌด๋ฃ ์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ๋ฐ์์ด์.
์๋น์ค ambiguous โ context decides. Translation: This restaurant has good service / good freebies. Romanization: I sikdang-eun seobiseu-ga joayo.
- ๋งค๋ํ์ด๋ฅผ ์น ํ์ด์.์น๊ตฌํ๊ณ selfie๋ฅผ ์ฐ์์ด์.
๋งค๋ํ์ด = nail polish, not the service. Translation: I painted (my) nails. Romanization: Maenikyueo-reul chilhaesseoyo.
Common mistakes
false_friend
(์์ด๋ก 'cider' ์๋ฏธ๋ก) ํ๊ตญ์์ ์ฌ๊ณผ cider๋ฅผ ๋ง์ จ์ด์.ํ๊ตญ์์ ์ฌ์ด๋ค๋ฅผ ๋ง์ จ์ด์. (= lemon-lime) / ํ๊ตญ์์ ์ฌ๊ณผ ์ฃผ์ค๋ฅผ ๋ง์ จ์ด์. (= apple juice)์ฌ์ด๋ค in Korea โ apple cider. Don't translate literally between English and Korean.
redundancy
์๋น์์ ๋ฌด๋ฃ ์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ๋ฐ์์ด์.์๋น์์ ์๋น์ค๋ฅผ ๋ฐ์์ด์. (์๋น์ค already implies 'free')์๋น์ค in Korean restaurant context already means complimentary. ๋ฌด๋ฃ + ์๋น์ค is redundant.
Choosing synonyms by register (๋ฐฅ vs ์์ฌ vs ์ง์ง)
๋ฌธ์ฒด๋ณ ๋์์ด (๊ธฐ๋ณธ)
Many Korean concepts have multiple words across REGISTERS: casual / neutral / formal / honorific. ๋ฐฅ (casual / generic 'meal'), ์์ฌ (formal 'meal'), ์ง์ง (honorific 'meal โ to elder'). Choose by social context. Mistaking register makes you sound rude or stiff.
Key rule
Korean nouns have register-graded synonyms: casual (๋ฐฅ, ์ง, ์ด๋ฆ, ๋์ด) / formal (์์ฌ) / HONORIFIC (์ง์ง, ๋, ์ฑํจ, ์ฐ์ธ, ๋ง์, ๋ถ, ์์ ). Match register to social context. Combine with appropriate honorific verbs.
Examples
- ์ค๋ ์ ์ฌ ๋ฐฅ ๋จน์์ด์?ํ ์๋ฒ์ง, ๋ฐฅ ๋จน์์ด์?
๋ฐฅ with peer. Translation: Did you eat lunch today? (casual) Romanization: Oneul jeomsim bap meogeosseoyo?
- ์์ฌ ์๊ฐ์ด ๋์ด์. ์์ฌํ์์ฃ .(์น๊ตฌ์๊ฒ) ์ง์ง ์ก์์ จ์ด?
์์ฌ โ formal. Translation: It's mealtime. Please dine. (formal) Romanization: Siksa sigan-i dwaesseoyo. Siksahasi-jyo.
- ํ ์๋ฒ์ง, ์ง์ง ์ก์์ จ์ด์?ํ ์๋ฒ์ง, ์ด๋ฆ์ด ๋ญ์์?
์ง์ง + ์ก์์๋ค. Translation: Grandfather, did you have your meal? (honorific) Romanization: Harabeoji, jinji japsusyeosseoyo?
Common mistakes
register_too_casual_to_elder
ํ ์๋ฒ์ง, ๋ฐฅ ๋จน์์ด์?ํ ์๋ฒ์ง, ์ง์ง ์ก์์ จ์ด์?Use ์ง์ง + ์ก์์๋ค (honorific) for elders. ๋ฐฅ + ๋จน๋ค (casual) is disrespectful.
register_too_honorific_to_peer
(์น๊ตฌ์๊ฒ) ์ง์ง ์ก์์ จ์ด?๋ฐฅ ๋จน์์ด? / ์ ์ฌ ๋จน์์ด?Honorific ์ง์ง sounds bizarre to a peer. Use ๋ฐฅ / ์ ์ฌ casually.
์ฌ์ด์์ท โ the s-insertion in compound nouns (๋๋ฌด+์ โ ๋๋ญ์)
์ฌ์ด์์ท
์ฌ์ด์์ท (sai-shiot) is an inserted ใ (siot) between two native Korean nouns forming a compound. ๋๋ฌด + ์ โ ๋๋ญ์ ('tree-leaf'). The ใ appears as a ๋ฐ์นจ (final consonant) on the FIRST noun. Triggered when the second noun is pronounced TENSE / nasalized.
Key rule
์ฌ์ด์์ท = inserted ใ between two compound nouns when (a) at least one is native, (b) first noun ends in vowel, (c) pronunciation triggers tension or nasalization. Spelled as ๋ฐ์นจ on first noun (๋๋ฌด+์ โ ๋๋ญ์). Pure SK compounds usually don't take it.
Examples
- ๋๋ญ์์ด ๋จ์ด์ก์ด์.๋๋ฌด์์ด ๋จ์ด์ก์ด์.
์ฌ์ด์์ท in ๋๋ฌด+์. Translation: The tree leaves fell. Romanization: Namunnib-i tteoreojyeosseoyo.
- ๋น๊ฐ ์์ ๋น๋ฌผ์ด ๊ณ ์์ด์.๋น๋ฌผ์ด ๊ณ ์์ด์.
๋น+๋ฌผ โ ๋น๋ฌผ. Translation: Rain came and rainwater pooled. Romanization: Bi-ga waseo bitmur-i goyeosseoyo.
- ๋ฐ๋ท๊ฐ์์ ์ฐ์ฑ ํ์ด์.๋ฐ๋ค๊ฐ์์ ๋์์ด์.
๋ฐ๋ค+๊ฐ โ ๋ฐ๋ท๊ฐ. Translation: I took a walk on the beach. Romanization: Badatga-eseo sanchaekhaesseoyo.
Common mistakes
missing_sai_siot
๋๋ฌด์์ด ๋จ์ด์ก์ด์.๋๋ญ์์ด ๋จ์ด์ก์ด์.Insert ใ as ๋ฐ์นจ in ๋๋ฌด when compounding with ์. Spelling rule.
missing_sai_siot
๋น๋ฌผ์ด ๊ณ ์์ด์.๋น๋ฌผ์ด ๊ณ ์์ด์.๋น + ๋ฌผ โ ๋น๋ฌผ (with ใ ).
Common spelling confusions (๋/๋ผ, ์/์, ํ๋/ํ๋, ์ ์ง/์ฌ์ผ)
๋ง์ถค๋ฒ ํท๊ฐ๋ฆฌ๊ธฐ ์ฌ์ด ๋ง
Korean has several FREQUENTLY MISSPELLED word pairs that learners and native speakers alike confuse: ๋ vs ๋ผ, ์ vs ์, ํ๋ vs ํ๋, ์ ์ง vs ์ฌ์ผ. The pairs have DIFFERENT functions and meanings โ picking the wrong one is a clear writing error.
Key rule
๋/๋ผ: ๋ผ = ๋ + ์ด. ์/์: ์ = adverb (separate), ์ = bound stem of ์๋ค. ํ๋/ํ๋: present (-ใด๋ค๊ณ ํด) vs past (-์/์๋ค๊ณ ํด). ์ ์ง (somehow, adverb) vs ์ฌ์ผ (what brings, noun).
Examples
- ๊ทธ๋ ๊ฒ ํ๋ฉด ์ ๋ผ์.์ ๋์.
๋ผ = ๋์ด. Translation: You can't do that. Romanization: Geureohge hamyeon an dwaeyo.
- ์ผ์ด ์ ๋์ด์.์ ๋์์ด์. (writing ๋์ instead of ๋)
๋ = ๋์. Translation: Things went well. Romanization: Ir-i jal dwaesseoyo.
- ์ ๊ฐ์ด์.์ ๊ฐ์.
์ โ standalone adverb. Translation: I didn't go. Romanization: An gasseoyo.
Common mistakes
doi_vs_dwae
์ ๋์.์ ๋ผ์.์ + ๋ผ์ (= ๋์ด์). Use ๋ผ in haeyo form.
non_contracted_past
์ ๋์์ด์. (writing ๋์ instead of ๋)์ ๋์ด์.Past contracts: ๋์ โ ๋. Standard writing uses ๋.
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