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Verb affixation
- `ber-` Expanded Uses: Activity, Having, Wearing
- `ber-...-an` Reciprocal/Distributed Action - Intro
- `meN-` Nasal Assimilation - Basic Allomorphs
- `meN-` for Transitive Active Verbs
- `di-` Passive Formation - Basic
- Passive Agent with Optional `oleh`
- Suffix `-kan` - Basic Causative/Benefactive
- Suffix `-i` - Basic Locative/Applicative
- `ter-` Accidental Passive / Can-Be-Done - Basic
- `ke-...-an` Circumfix - Basic States
Verb usage
Prepositions
Syntax
Determiners quantifiers
Pronouns
Connectors
Numbers dates time
Nouns nominalization
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`ber-` Expanded Uses: Activity, Having, Wearing
Fungsi ber- lanjutan
`ber-` often makes intransitive verbs for doing an activity, having something, wearing something, or being in a certain social state. Besides basic verbs like belajar and bekerja, A2 learners meet forms like bersepeda, berambut panjang, berkacamata, beristri, and beruang.
Key rule
Use `ber-` for many intransitive activity verbs and for 'having/wearing/being characterized by' meanings. Do not treat every `ber-` verb as a direct-object transitive verb.
Examples
- Dia bersepeda ke kampus.Dia sepeda ke kampus.
Bersepeda is the standard verb meaning to ride a bicycle.
- Anak itu berkacamata.Anak itu memakai kacamata-kacamata.
Berkacamata means the child wears glasses as a characteristic.
- Kakak saya berambut panjang.Kakak saya mempunyai rambut panjang. (only as a direct translation habit)
Mempunyai is possible, but berambut panjang is a natural descriptive pattern.
Common mistakes
Using the noun root alone as a verb
Saya sepeda ke kantor.Saya bersepeda ke kantor.Many instrument/activity roots need `ber-` to form the standard verb.
Treating `ber-` verbs as direct-object verbs
Kami berbicara masalah itu.Kami berbicara tentang masalah itu.Many `ber-` verbs are intransitive and need a preposition for complements.
`ber-...-an` Reciprocal/Distributed Action - Intro
Ber-...-an
`ber-...-an` can show that people do something to each other or that many things move or appear in different directions. Common learner examples include bersalaman, berpelukan, berpandangan, berkejaran, and berjatuhan.
Key rule
Use common `ber-...-an` verbs for reciprocal or distributed action, especially with plural subjects or groups. Learn them as word-family patterns, not as a fully automatic rule for every verb.
Examples
- Mereka bersalaman di depan kantor.Mereka salaman-salaman di depan kantor. (neutral standard)
Bersalaman is the standard reciprocal verb for shaking hands.
- Dua sahabat itu berpelukan.Dua sahabat itu memeluk-memeluk.
Berpelukan means they hugged each other.
- Kami berpandangan sebentar.Kami melihat satu sama lain sebentar. (possible but less compact)
Berpandangan expresses mutual looking.
Common mistakes
Forcing `ber-...-an` onto any verb
bermembacaansaling membaca / membaca bersamaThe pattern is lexical and not productive with every root.
Using it with a singular subject when a reciprocal reading is needed
Dia bersalaman.Dia bersalaman dengan saya. / Mereka bersalaman.Reciprocal action normally needs more than one participant, often expressed by a plural subject or dengan.
`meN-` Nasal Assimilation - Basic Allomorphs
Alofon meN- dasar
`meN-` changes shape depending on the first sound of the root: membaca from baca, menulis from tulis, melihat from lihat, mengambil from ambil, and menyapu from sapu. Some initial sounds disappear or change when the prefix attaches.
Key rule
`meN-` has several surface forms. Learn common pairings: baca -> membaca, tulis -> menulis, kirim -> mengirim, sapu -> menyapu, pakai -> memakai, cat -> mengecat.
Examples
- Saya membaca buku.Saya mebaca buku.
With baca, the form is membaca.
- Dia menulis surat.Dia metulis surat.
Tulis becomes menulis; initial t is replaced by n.
- Ibu memasak nasi.Ibu menmasak nasi.
With masak, the form is memasak.
Common mistakes
Using one prefix form for every root
mebaca, metulis, mekirimmembaca, menulis, mengirim`meN-` assimilates to the first sound of the root.
Keeping p/t/k/s when nasal substitution is expected
menulis from tulis but writing mentulismenulisInitial t is replaced by n in this common pattern.
`meN-` for Transitive Active Verbs
MeN- transitif
`meN-` often marks a formal or neutral active verb with a subject doing something to an object: Saya membaca buku, Ibu memasak nasi, Mereka membeli tiket. It is especially common in written Indonesian and careful speech.
Key rule
Use `meN-` for many standard active transitive clauses: actor subject + `meN-` verb + object.
Examples
- Saya membaca buku itu.Saya baca buku itu. (too informal for neutral A2 writing)
Membaca is the standard active transitive form.
- Ibu memasak nasi goreng.Ibu masak nasi goreng. (colloquial)
Memasak is a standard written/spoken form.
- Mereka membeli tiket kereta.Mereka beli tiket kereta. (colloquial)
Membeli is neutral standard.
Common mistakes
Using bare roots in all formal contexts
Saya tulis laporan.Saya menulis laporan.`meN-` is the standard active transitive form in many written clauses.
Using `ber-` for a direct-object verb
Saya berkunjung museum.Saya mengunjungi museum. / Saya berkunjung ke museum.`berkunjung` is intransitive and usually needs ke; `mengunjungi` takes a direct object.
`di-` Passive Formation - Basic
Pembentukan pasif di-
`di-` forms a passive verb when the thing affected becomes the subject or topic: Buku itu dibaca, Nasi dimasak, Pintu dibuka. The actor can be left out or added with `oleh`.
Key rule
Use `di-` before the verb root to focus on the thing affected: Object/topic + `di-` verb + optional actor.
Examples
- Buku itu dibaca oleh Sari.Buku itu membaca Sari.
The book is the thing read, so use passive dibaca.
- Nasi goreng dimasak ibu.Nasi goreng memasak ibu.
The rice is cooked; ibu is the actor.
- Pintu dibuka jam delapan.Pintu membuka jam delapan.
The door is opened; it does not open something else here.
Common mistakes
Using active `meN-` when the patient is the subject
Buku itu membaca saya.Buku itu saya baca. / Buku itu dibaca oleh saya.The book is affected, not acting.
Writing `di` as a separate word for passive verbs
di bacadibacaPassive `di-` is a prefix and is written attached to the verb.
Passive Agent with Optional `oleh`
Pelaku pasif dengan oleh
In a `di-` passive, the actor can be introduced with `oleh`: Buku itu dibaca oleh Ani. In many simple sentences, `oleh` can be omitted when the actor comes right after the verb: Buku itu dibaca Ani.
Key rule
After a `di-` passive, add the actor with optional `oleh`; use `oleh` especially for clarity, formality, or longer agent phrases.
Examples
- Buku itu dibaca oleh Ani.Buku itu oleh Ani dibaca.
The basic A2 order is passive verb followed by oleh + agent.
- Surat itu ditulis ayah.Surat itu ditulis oleh. ayah.
With a short agent immediately after the verb, oleh may be omitted.
- Laporan itu ditulis oleh mahasiswa baru.Laporan itu ditulis mahasiswa baru dari jurusan ekonomi dan bisnis. (less clear)
Use oleh when the agent phrase is long or needs clarity.
Common mistakes
Using `oleh` in active clauses
Saya membaca oleh buku.Saya membaca buku.`Oleh` marks passive agents, not active objects.
Leaving `oleh` stranded
Pintu dibuka oleh.Pintu dibuka.`Oleh` must be followed by an agent.
Suffix `-kan` - Basic Causative/Benefactive
Akhiran -kan
`-kan` often makes a verb mean cause something, make something become a state, or do something for someone. Common forms include membuka-kan as membukakan, mengirimkan, membersihkan, menjelaskan, and memasukkan.
Key rule
Learn `meN-...-kan` as a common transitive pattern for causing, making, sending/directing, or doing something for someone.
Examples
- Saya membukakan pintu untuk nenek.Saya membuka pintu nenek. (for intended benefactive meaning)
Membukakan can mean opening something for someone.
- Ibu membersihkan meja.Ibu bersih meja.
Bersih is clean; membersihkan means clean/make clean.
- Guru menjelaskan aturan itu.Guru menjelas aturan itu.
Menjelaskan is the standard verb for explaining.
Common mistakes
Using an adjective as a verb without `-kan`
Saya bersih kamar.Saya membersihkan kamar.`-kan` helps form causative transitive verbs from many adjectives.
Confusing intransitive and causative pairs
Buku masuk tas.Saya memasukkan buku ke tas.Masuk means enter; memasukkan means put something in.
Suffix `-i` - Basic Locative/Applicative
Akhiran -i
`-i` often makes a place, person, or target into the direct object of the verb: mengunjungi museum, mendatangi kantor, menanyai guru, mengisi formulir. It often means doing an action to, at, toward, or onto a target.
Key rule
Use many `meN-...-i` verbs when the direct object is the place, person, or target affected by the action.
Examples
- Kami mengunjungi museum.Kami berkunjung museum.
Mengunjungi takes the place as a direct object; berkunjung needs ke.
- Dia mendatangi kantor polisi.Dia datang kantor polisi.
Mendatangi means go/come to a target.
- Wartawan menanyai saksi.Wartawan menanya saksi.
Menanyai means ask/question a person.
Common mistakes
Using an intransitive verb with a direct object
Kami berkunjung museum.Kami mengunjungi museum. / Kami berkunjung ke museum.`Mengunjungi` is transitive; `berkunjung` is prepositional.
Confusing object roles with `-kan`
Saya memasuki buku ke tas.Saya memasukkan buku ke tas.`Memasukkan` moves the book into the bag; `memasuki` means enter a place.
`ter-` Accidental Passive / Can-Be-Done - Basic
Ter- tak sengaja
`ter-` can show that something happened accidentally or unintentionally, or that something can be done: tertinggal, terbuka, tertutup, terbaca, terlihat, terdengar. Context tells whether the meaning is accidental, resulting state, or ability.
Key rule
Use common `ter-` verbs for accidental events, resulting states, and 'can be seen/heard/read' meanings. Do not use `ter-` as a general passive replacement for every `di-` verb.
Examples
- Dompet saya tertinggal di rumah.Dompet saya ditinggal di rumah. (if accidental)
Tertinggal means left behind unintentionally.
- Pintu itu terbuka.Pintu itu dibuka. (if the open state is what matters)
Terbuka can describe the resulting state 'open'.
- Jendela tertutup rapat.Jendela menutup rapat.
Tertutup describes the window as closed.
Common mistakes
Using `ter-` for all passive clauses
Buku itu terbaca oleh Sari. (for deliberate reading)Buku itu dibaca oleh Sari.`Di-` is the normal deliberate passive; `ter-` adds ability/accidental/result nuance.
Confusing accidental and intentional actions
Saya tertutup pintu.Saya menutup pintu. / Pintu tertutup.`Tertutup` describes the thing as closed or accidentally closed, not a normal active action.
`ke-...-an` Circumfix - Basic States
Konfiks ke-...-an
`ke-...-an` often creates nouns or state-like predicates. At A2, common useful forms include kedinginan, kepanasan, kehujanan, kelaparan, kesiangan, and kesulitan. Many describe experiencing too much of something or being affected by a condition.
Key rule
Learn common `ke-...-an` forms as state/experience words, often meaning being affected by cold, heat, rain, hunger, lateness, or difficulty.
Examples
- Saya kedinginan karena tidak membawa jaket.Saya dingin sekali tubuh.
Kedinginan means I feel/suffer from cold.
- Kami kehujanan di jalan.Kami kena hujan-hujan di jalan. (colloquial)
Kehujanan means got caught in the rain.
- Anak itu kelaparan.Anak itu lapar sekali sekali.
Kelaparan can mean very hungry/starving.
Common mistakes
Treating `ke-...-an` as a regular passive for any verb
kebacaan bukudibaca / terbaca depending on meaning`Ke-...-an` is not the general passive marker.
Using the base adjective when the experienced-state form is needed
Saya dingin.Saya kedinginan. / Saya merasa dingin.Kedinginan sounds more natural for feeling affected by cold.
`akan` for Future / Intended Events
Akan
`akan` marks that an action or event is future, planned, expected, or intended. It comes before the verb or predicate: Saya akan pergi, Mereka akan datang, Rapat akan dimulai jam sembilan.
Key rule
Place `akan` before the verb/predicate to mark future, intention, prediction, or a planned event: Subject + akan + predicate.
Examples
- Besok saya akan pergi ke Bandung.Besok saya pergi akan ke Bandung.
`Akan` comes before the verb.
- Rapat akan dimulai jam sembilan.Rapat dimulai akan jam sembilan.
`Akan` precedes the predicate dimulai.
- Mereka akan datang malam ini.Mereka datangs malam ini.
Future is shown by `akan` or time words, not verb endings.
Common mistakes
Using English will
Saya will pergi.Saya akan pergi.Use Indonesian `akan`, not English auxiliary words.
Putting `akan` after the verb
Kami pergi akan besok.Kami akan pergi besok.`Akan` normally appears before the predicate.
`telah` as Formal Completed Aspect
Telah
`Telah` means that an action or state is completed, similar to formal `sudah`. It is common in news, reports, announcements, and written Indonesian: Pemerintah telah mengumumkan aturan baru.
Key rule
Use `telah` before the predicate to mark completed aspect in formal or written style. Use `sudah` for neutral everyday completion.
Examples
- Pemerintah telah mengumumkan aturan baru.Pemerintah telahkan mengumumkan aturan baru.
`Telah` is a separate word before the verb.
- Rapat telah selesai.Rapat telah menyelesaikan. (for 'the meeting has finished')
Selesai can be the predicate after `telah`.
- Pintu telah dibuka.Pintu telah membuka.
If the door is opened, use passive dibuka.
Common mistakes
Using `telah` in casual speech where `sudah` is expected
Aku telah makan, nih.Aku sudah makan.`Telah` sounds formal/written.
Treating `telah` as a simple past tense marker
Kemarin saya telah lahir.Saya lahir kemarin.`Telah` marks completion/already, not every past event.
`lagi` for Progressive Meaning (colloquial/common)
Lagi progresif
`Lagi` can mean that an action is happening now, like informal `sedang`: Saya lagi makan, Dia lagi belajar. It is very common in conversation, but less formal than `sedang`.
Key rule
`Lagi` before a verb often means 'am/is/are doing now' in informal speech. After a verb, it often means 'again/more'.
Examples
- Aku lagi belajar.Aku belajar lagi. (if meaning 'I am studying')
Before the verb, `lagi` marks ongoing action; after it, it can mean again.
- Dia lagi makan siang.Dia makan siang lagi. (different meaning)
`Makan lagi` means eat again/more.
- Mereka sedang rapat.Mereka lagi rapat. (in formal writing)
`Lagi` is common in speech; `sedang` is better in formal writing.
Common mistakes
Confusing progressive `lagi` with again/more `lagi`
Saya makan lagi for 'I am eating'Saya lagi makan.Position changes the meaning.
Using `lagi` in formal writing
Presiden lagi menghadiri rapat.Presiden sedang menghadiri rapat.`Sedang` is more appropriate in formal contexts.
`pernah` for Experiential "Ever"
Pernah
`Pernah` means that someone has ever had an experience: Saya pernah ke Bali, Dia pernah makan durian. In questions it asks 'Have you ever...?': Kamu pernah naik kereta?
Key rule
Use `pernah` before the predicate for life experience or 'ever'. Use `belum pernah` for 'have never/not ever yet'.
Examples
- Saya pernah ke Bali.Saya sudah ke Bali. (if asking life experience)
`Pernah` highlights experience; `sudah` highlights completion/already.
- Kamu pernah makan durian?Kamu ever makan durian?
Use Indonesian `pernah`, not English ever.
- Dia belum pernah naik pesawat.Dia tidak sudah pernah naik pesawat.
`Belum pernah` means has never/not yet ever.
Common mistakes
Using `sudah` for every present perfect sentence
Kamu sudah ke Jepang? (when asking ever)Kamu pernah ke Jepang?`Pernah` asks about experience.
Confusing `belum pernah` and `tidak pernah`
Saya tidak pernah ke Jepang. (when meaning not yet in life)Saya belum pernah ke Jepang.`Belum pernah` emphasizes not yet ever.
`masih` for Still
Masih
`Masih` means still. It shows that a state or action continues: Saya masih belajar, Dia masih di kantor, Mereka masih menunggu. The opposite is often `tidak lagi` or `sudah tidak`.
Key rule
Place `masih` before the predicate to show that something continues: masih + adjective/location/verb/noun phrase.
Examples
- Saya masih belajar bahasa Indonesia.Saya belajar masih bahasa Indonesia.
`Masih` comes before the predicate.
- Dia masih di kantor.Dia adalah masih di kantor.
No copula is needed; `masih` precedes the location phrase.
- Anak itu masih sakit.Anak itu masih adalah sakit.
Adjective predicates do not need `adalah`.
Common mistakes
Putting `masih` after the verb
Saya bekerja masih.Saya masih bekerja.`Masih` normally comes before the predicate.
Using `tidak masih` for no longer
Saya tidak masih di sana.Saya tidak lagi di sana. / Saya sudah tidak di sana.No longer is `tidak lagi` or `sudah tidak`.
`boleh` for Permission
Boleh
`Boleh` means may, be allowed to, or okay to. It is used for asking and giving permission: Boleh saya masuk? Kamu boleh duduk di sini. The negative `tidak boleh` means must not / not allowed.
Key rule
Use `boleh + verb` for permission. Use `tidak boleh + verb` for prohibition.
Examples
- Boleh saya masuk?Bisa saya masuk? (if asking permission formally)
`Boleh` directly asks for permission.
- Kamu boleh duduk di sini.Kamu harus duduk di sini. (different meaning)
`Boleh` means allowed, not required.
- Tidak boleh merokok di ruangan ini.Tidak bisa merokok di ruangan ini. (could mean physically impossible)
`Tidak boleh` means not allowed.
Common mistakes
Confusing permission and ability
Saya bisa keluar? (when asking permission)Saya boleh keluar?`Boleh` asks whether it is allowed.
Using `tidak bisa` for prohibition
Tidak bisa parkir di sini.Tidak boleh parkir di sini.`Tidak boleh` means not allowed; `tidak bisa` means cannot.
`harus` for Must / Have To
Harus
`Harus` means must, have to, or need to because of an obligation or strong requirement. It comes before the verb: Saya harus belajar, Kita harus datang tepat waktu. The negative `tidak harus` means do not have to, while `tidak boleh` means must not.
Key rule
Use `harus + verb/predicate` for obligation. Use `tidak harus` for 'do not have to' and `tidak boleh`/`jangan` for 'must not'.
Examples
- Saya harus belajar malam ini.Saya harus belajar-ed malam ini.
The verb does not change; `harus` marks obligation.
- Kita harus datang tepat waktu.Kita harus datang di tepat waktu.
Tepat waktu is the adverbial phrase for on time.
- Kamu tidak harus ikut.Kamu tidak boleh ikut. (if meaning not required)
`Tidak harus` means not necessary.
Common mistakes
Using `tidak harus` for prohibition
Kamu tidak harus merokok di sini.Kamu tidak boleh merokok di sini.`Tidak harus` means not required, not forbidden.
Adding English 'to'
Saya harus to pergi.Saya harus pergi.No infinitive marker is needed after `harus`.
`mau` vs `ingin` for Want / Intend
Mau dan ingin
`Mau` and `ingin` both express wanting, but `mau` is more common in everyday speech and can also mean intend/be about to. `Ingin` is more neutral, careful, or written: Saya mau makan now sounds casual; Saya ingin belajar di Indonesia sounds more deliberate.
Key rule
Use `mau` for everyday want/intention and `ingin` for more careful, formal, or deliberate wanting.
Examples
- Saya mau kopi.Saya ingin kopi. (possible but more formal/stilted for casual ordering)
`Mau` is natural for everyday wants.
- Aku mau tidur.Aku ingin tidur. (possible, but less casual)
`Mau` can mean want/about to in speech.
- Saya ingin belajar di Indonesia.Saya mau belajar di Indonesia. (possible but more casual)
`Ingin` sounds more deliberate or formal.
Common mistakes
Using `ingin` for every casual want
Aku ingin bakso satu.Aku mau bakso satu. / Saya mau bakso satu.`Mau` is more natural for everyday ordering.
Using `mau` in formal emails where `ingin` is better
Saya mau informasi tentang program ini.Saya ingin mendapatkan informasi tentang program ini.`Ingin` sounds more polished.
Reduplication Beyond Simple Plural
Makna reduplikasi nomina
Noun reduplication can mark plural meaning, but it can also mean variety, generality, looseness, or a lexicalized meaning. `Buku-buku` can mean books, but `sayur-sayuran` means vegetables as a category, and `rumah-rumah` can suggest houses here and there.
Key rule
Use noun reduplication for explicit plural or variety/distribution when useful, but do not reduplicate after numbers or clear quantifiers.
Examples
- Anak-anak bermain di taman.Anak bermain di taman. (if the plural must be explicit)
Reduplication can clearly mark plural children.
- Saya membeli tiga buku.Saya membeli tiga buku-buku.
After a number, the noun is not usually reduplicated.
- Banyak orang datang.Banyak orang-orang datang.
`Banyak` already marks plurality.
Common mistakes
Treating reduplication as mandatory plural marking
dua anak-anakdua anakThe number already marks plurality.
Using reduplication after every quantifier
beberapa buku-bukubeberapa buku`Beberapa` already means several.
Collective Plural Markers `para`, `kaum`, `umat`
Para, kaum, umat
`Para` marks a respectful or formal plural group of people: para siswa, para tamu, para guru. `Kaum` and `umat` refer to social, ideological, or religious communities, as in kaum muda and umat Islam.
Key rule
Use `para` before human nouns for formal/respectful plural groups; use `kaum` and `umat` for social or religious communities.
Examples
- Para siswa mengikuti upacara.Para siswa-siswa mengikuti upacara.
`Para` already marks plural, so do not reduplicate.
- Para tamu dipersilakan masuk.Para meja dipindahkan.
`Para` is used with people, not ordinary objects.
- Pidato itu ditujukan kepada para guru.Pidato itu ditujukan kepada banyak para guru.
Do not stack `banyak` before `para` in a simple noun phrase.
Common mistakes
Reduplicating after `para`
para guru-gurupara guru`Para` already indicates a plural human group.
Using `para` with objects
para bukubuku-buku / banyak buku`Para` is for people or personified roles.
Quantifiers `banyak`, `sedikit`, `beberapa`
Banyak, sedikit, beberapa
`Banyak` means many/much, `sedikit` means few/little, and `beberapa` means several/some. They come before the noun: banyak orang, sedikit uang, beberapa buku. The noun usually stays unreduplicated.
Key rule
Put `banyak`, `sedikit`, or `beberapa` before the noun, and normally keep the noun in base form.
Examples
- Banyak orang datang ke acara itu.Banyak orang-orang datang ke acara itu.
`Banyak` already marks plural.
- Saya punya sedikit uang.Saya punya sedikit uang-uang.
`Sedikit` quantifies the noun; no reduplication.
- Beberapa siswa belum hadir.Beberapa siswa-siswa belum hadir.
`Beberapa` means several.
Common mistakes
Reduplicating after quantity words
banyak buku-bukubanyak bukuThe quantifier already marks plural/quantity.
Adding English plural -s
beberapa studentsbeberapa siswaIndonesian nouns do not take English plural endings.
`semua` vs `seluruh`
Semua dan seluruh
`Semua` means all/everyone/everything in a broad everyday way. `Seluruh` means the whole/entire and is often more formal or totalizing: semua siswa, semua buku, seluruh Indonesia, seluruh tubuh.
Key rule
Use `semua` for everyday all; use `seluruh` for whole/entire extent, especially places, bodies, processes, and formal contexts.
Examples
- Semua siswa hadir.Semua siswa-siswa hadir.
`Semua` already marks totality.
- Saya membaca semua buku itu.Saya membaca seluruh buku itu. (could mean every part of one book)
`Semua buku` means all the books; `seluruh buku` may mean the entire book.
- Berita itu tersebar ke seluruh Indonesia.Berita itu tersebar ke semua Indonesia.
`Seluruh Indonesia` means throughout all of Indonesia.
Common mistakes
Using `seluruh` for people in ordinary contexts
seluruh orangsemua orang`Semua orang` is the natural phrase for everyone.
Reduplicating after `semua`
semua buku-bukusemua buku`Semua` already marks totality.
`setiap` / `tiap` - Each/Every
Setiap/tiap
`Setiap` and `tiap` mean each/every. They come before a singular base noun: setiap hari, tiap minggu, setiap siswa. `Setiap` is slightly fuller and more standard; `tiap` is shorter and common.
Key rule
Use `setiap/tiap + base noun` for each/every. Do not reduplicate the noun after them.
Examples
- Saya belajar setiap hari.Saya belajar setiap hari-hari.
`Setiap` already means every.
- Dia menelepon ibunya tiap minggu.Dia menelepon ibunya tiap minggu-minggu.
Use the base noun after `tiap`.
- Setiap siswa harus membawa buku.Setiap siswa-siswa harus membawa buku.
`Setiap siswa` means each student.
Common mistakes
Reduplicating after `setiap/tiap`
setiap hari-harisetiap hari`Setiap` already distributes over the noun.
Using `semua` for repeated time routines
semua minggu saya berenangsetiap minggu saya berenang`Setiap` means every in repeated time expressions.
Demonstratives After Nouns: `buku ini`, `orang itu`
Ini/itu setelah nomina
In Indonesian noun phrases, `ini` and `itu` come after the noun: buku ini, rumah itu, orang ini. They can mean this/that or help mark a noun as definite, a bit like 'the' in context.
Key rule
Put `ini/itu` after the noun phrase, not before it: noun + modifiers + possessor + ini/itu.
Examples
- Buku ini mahal.Ini buku mahal. (means 'This is an expensive book')
`Buku ini` means this book; `Ini buku...` is a full clause.
- Orang itu guru saya.Itu orang guru saya. (different structure)
`Orang itu` means that/the person.
- Saya suka rumah besar itu.Saya suka itu rumah besar.
`Itu` follows the noun phrase.
Common mistakes
Putting `ini/itu` before the noun inside a noun phrase
ini buku mahal for 'this expensive book'buku mahal iniIndonesian demonstratives follow the noun phrase.
Confusing clause `Ini buku` with noun phrase `buku ini`
Saya membaca ini buku.Saya membaca buku ini.`Ini buku` means 'This is a book'.
Common Measure Words: `buah`, `lembar`, `batang`, `butir`, `helai`
Kata bantu bilangan benda
Indonesian often uses measure/classifier words with numbers, especially in careful speech: sebuah rumah, dua lembar kertas, tiga batang pensil, lima butir telur, sehelai rambut. In casual speech, classifiers are often omitted except in fixed or careful contexts.
Key rule
Use common classifiers after numbers when precision or natural counting style calls for them: number + classifier + noun.
Examples
- Saya membeli dua lembar tiket.Saya membeli dua tiket lembar.
Order is number + classifier + noun.
- Dia membawa tiga batang pensil.Dia membawa tiga buah pensil. (possible but less specific)
`Batang` fits long thin objects like pencils.
- Ibu membeli lima butir telur.Ibu membeli lima helai telur.
`Butir` fits eggs and small round items.
Common mistakes
Putting the classifier after the noun
dua kertas lembardua lembar kertasClassifier order is number + classifier + noun.
Using `buah` for every object
tiga buah rambuttiga helai rambutSpecific classifiers are more natural for many items.
Basic Noun Compounds
Gabungan kata benda dasar
Indonesian noun compounds usually put the main noun first and the specifying noun second: rumah sakit, kantor pos, toko buku, bahasa Indonesia, guru matematika. The second noun narrows the type of the first noun.
Key rule
In many Indonesian noun compounds, put the head/main noun first and the specifying noun second: main noun + type/specifier.
Examples
- Saya pergi ke toko buku.Saya pergi ke buku toko.
Indonesian puts the main noun `toko` first.
- Ayah bekerja di kantor pos.Ayah bekerja di pos kantor.
`Kantor pos` means post office.
- Adik saya guru matematika.Adik saya matematika guru.
The main noun `guru` comes first.
Common mistakes
Copying English compound order
buku tokotoko bukuIndonesian compounds commonly place the head noun first.
Translating fixed compounds literally
sick houserumah sakit = hospitalSome compounds have conventional meanings.
`-nya` as Possessive, Object Pronoun, and Definite Marker
Fungsi -nya
`-nya` can mean his/her/its/their, him/her/it/them, or make a noun specific like 'the'. Context decides the meaning: bukunya can mean his book, her book, its book, their book, or the book.
Key rule
`-Nya` attaches to the previous word and can mark third-person possession, third-person object/reference, or definiteness.
Examples
- Bukunya ada di meja.Buku nya ada di meja.
`-Nya` is a suffix and is written attached.
- Saya melihatnya di stasiun.Saya melihat dia-nya di stasiun.
`Melihatnya` already means saw him/her/it/them.
- Ini rumahnya Rina.Ini rumah Rina-nya. (for basic possession)
Colloquially `rumahnya Rina` can mean Rina's house; standard `rumah Rina` is also possible.
Common mistakes
Writing `-nya` as a separate word
buku nyabukunya`-Nya` is a suffix.
Assuming `-nya` always means his
bukunya = his book onlyIt can mean his/her/its/their/the book.Indonesian third-person reference is gender-neutral and context-dependent.
Possession: Full Pronoun vs `-ku/-mu/-nya`
Milik penuh vs sufiks
Possession can use full pronouns after the noun, like `buku saya`, or suffixes, like `bukuku`, `bukumu`, `bukunya`. Suffixes are shorter and often more personal, literary, or colloquial depending on the word.
Key rule
Use noun + full pronoun for clear neutral possession; use `-ku/-mu/-nya` as attached possessive suffixes when compact or stylistically natural.
Examples
- Ini buku saya.Ini saya buku.
Full possessors follow the noun.
- Ini bukuku.Ini buku ku.
`-Ku` attaches to the noun.
- Siapa namamu?Siapa nama kamu? (not wrong, but less compact)
`Namamu` is a common compact phrase.
Common mistakes
Using English possessive order
saya bukubuku sayaIndonesian full possessors follow the noun.
Writing suffixes separately
buku kubukuku`-Ku/-mu/-nya` are suffixes.
`sendiri` / `diri sendiri` - Reflexive Basic
Sendiri / diri sendiri
`Sendiri` can mean alone, by oneself, or oneself depending on position. `Diri sendiri` is clearer for reflexive meaning: Dia melihat diri sendiri di cermin. Saya pergi sendiri means I went alone/by myself.
Key rule
Use `sendiri` for alone/by oneself or emphasis; use `diri sendiri` when the person is clearly the object of their own action.
Examples
- Saya tinggal sendiri.Saya tinggal diri sendiri.
`Sendiri` means alone here.
- Dia melihat diri sendiri di cermin.Dia melihat sendiri di cermin. (can mean saw it personally)
`Diri sendiri` makes reflexive object clear.
- Saya sendiri tidak setuju.Diri saya tidak setuju sendiri.
`Saya sendiri` means I myself.
Common mistakes
Using `sendiri` for every English reflexive object
Dia menyalahkan sendiri.Dia menyalahkan diri sendiri.`Diri sendiri` is clearer for reflexive objects.
Using `diri sendiri` when meaning alone
Saya pergi diri sendiri.Saya pergi sendiri.`Sendiri` means by myself/alone.
Interrogatives `kapan`, `mengapa/kenapa`, `bagaimana`
Kapan, mengapa, bagaimana
`Kapan` asks when, `mengapa` or `kenapa` asks why, and `bagaimana` asks how or what something is like. `Mengapa` is more formal; `kenapa` is common in speech.
Key rule
Use `kapan` for time, `mengapa/kenapa` for reason, and `bagaimana` for manner, condition, or evaluation.
Examples
- Kapan kamu mulai belajar?Apa waktu kamu mulai belajar?
`Kapan` directly asks when.
- Kenapa kamu terlambat?Kapan kamu terlambat? (if asking reason)
`Kenapa` asks why/reason.
- Mengapa harga itu naik?Kenapa harga itu naik? (too informal for formal report)
`Mengapa` is more formal.
Common mistakes
Using `apa` for all questions
Apa kamu datang? for 'when do you come?'Kapan kamu datang?`Kapan` asks time.
Using `kenapa` in formal writing when `mengapa` is expected
Kenapa angka ini meningkat?Mengapa angka ini meningkat?`Mengapa` is more formal.
Halfway there — imagine actually using all of this.
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Indefinites `seseorang`, `sesuatu`, `suatu`
Pronomina tak tentu dasar
`Seseorang` means someone, `sesuatu` means something, and `suatu` means a certain/some before a noun in formal style: suatu hari, suatu masalah. They are useful when the exact person or thing is unknown or unspecified.
Key rule
Use `seseorang` for an unknown person, `sesuatu` for an unknown thing, and `suatu + noun` for a certain/some noun in formal or narrative style.
Examples
- Seseorang mengetuk pintu.Sesuatu mengetuk pintu. (unless not human/unknown creature)
Use `seseorang` for a person.
- Saya mendengar sesuatu.Saya mendengar seseorang. (if the thing/sound is unknown)
`Sesuatu` refers to something.
- Suatu hari, dia pergi ke kota.Sesuatu hari, dia pergi ke kota.
`Suatu` comes before a noun; `sesuatu` stands as a pronoun.
Common mistakes
Confusing `sesuatu` and `suatu`
sesuatu harisuatu hari`Suatu` modifies a noun; `sesuatu` stands alone.
Using `sesuatu` for people
Sesuatu menelepon saya.Seseorang menelepon saya.Use `seseorang` for an unspecified person.
`-lah` for Soft Imperative / Emphasis
Partikel -lah
`-Lah` is a formal or polished particle that can soften commands or add emphasis: Silakan duduklah, Datanglah besok, Inilah rumah saya. It attaches to the previous word.
Key rule
`-Lah` attaches to the previous word and adds softened imperative or formal/emphatic focus.
Examples
- Duduklah di sini.Duduk lah di sini.
`-Lah` attaches to the verb.
- Masuklah, pintunya terbuka.Masuk-lah, pintunya terbuka.
Do not hyphenate ordinary `-lah`.
- Inilah rumah saya.Ini lah rumah saya.
`Inilah` means here is/this is with emphasis.
Common mistakes
Writing `lah` as a separate word
duduk lahduduklah`-Lah` is an enclitic particle attached to the previous word.
Overusing `-lah` in casual conversation
Aku pergilah ke toko.Aku pergi ke toko.`-Lah` can sound formal, literary, or emphatic.
`-kah` for Formal Questions
Partikel -kah
`-Kah` is a formal question particle attached to a question word or focus word: Apakah Anda setuju? Siapakah nama Anda? Benarkah berita itu? It sounds written, formal, or emphatic.
Key rule
`-Kah` attaches to a question/focus word to make a formal or emphatic question.
Examples
- Apakah Anda setuju?Apa kah Anda setuju?
`Apakah` is written as one word.
- Siapakah nama Anda?Siapa kah nama Anda?
`-Kah` attaches to the question word.
- Benarkah berita itu?Benar berita itu kah?
`Benarkah` asks 'is it true...?' formally/emphatically.
Common mistakes
Writing `kah` separately
apa kahapakah`-Kah` attaches to the previous word.
Overusing `apakah` in casual conversation
Apakah kamu mau kopi? (to close friend)Kamu mau kopi?`Apakah` is more formal than casual intonation questions.
`pun` for Also / Even
Partikel pun
`Pun` can mean also/too or even, depending on context: Saya pun setuju means I also agree; satu orang pun tidak datang means not even one person came. It is usually written separately.
Key rule
Use separate `pun` after the focused word/phrase for also/too or even; learn fixed one-word conjunctions separately.
Examples
- Dia setuju, saya pun setuju.Dia setuju, sayapun setuju.
Separate `pun` is normally written separately.
- Saya pun ingin pergi.Saya juga pun ingin pergi.
Do not stack `juga` and `pun` unnecessarily.
- Satu orang pun tidak datang.Satu orang juga tidak datang. (less emphatic)
`Pun` with a negative can mean not even.
Common mistakes
Writing all `pun` forms attached
sayapunsaya punThe free particle `pun` is written separately.
Writing fixed conjunctions as two words
meski punmeskipunSome `pun` compounds are standard one-word conjunctions.
`kepada` for Recipient / Addressee
Kepada
`Kepada` marks the person, institution, or group that receives something or is addressed: Saya mengirim surat kepada ibu. It is more formal and precise than `ke` when the target is a recipient, not a place.
Key rule
Use `kepada` for the recipient or addressee of communication, gifts, reports, letters, or questions.
Examples
- Saya mengirim email kepada guru.Saya mengirim email ke guru. (less formal)
`Kepada` precisely marks the teacher as recipient.
- Dia memberi hadiah kepada ibunya.Dia memberi hadiah di ibunya.
The mother receives the gift; use `kepada`.
- Pertanyaan itu ditujukan kepada semua peserta.Pertanyaan itu ditujukan ke semua peserta. (less formal)
`Ditujukan kepada` is a common formal collocation.
Common mistakes
Using `kepada` for physical destination
Saya pergi kepada Jakarta.Saya pergi ke Jakarta.`Kepada` marks recipients/addressees, not ordinary places.
Using `di` for recipients
Saya memberi buku di teman.Saya memberi buku kepada teman.The friend is the recipient.
`daripada` for Comparison / Source Contrast
Daripada
`Daripada` is used after comparatives with `lebih` or `kurang`: Kopi ini lebih pahit daripada teh. It can also contrast alternatives: Daripada menunggu, kita pulang saja.
Key rule
Use `daripada` for 'than' in comparisons and for 'rather than/instead of' alternative contrast.
Examples
- Rumah ini lebih besar daripada rumah itu.Rumah ini lebih besar dari rumah itu. (common, but `daripada` is precise standard)
`Daripada` is the formal comparison marker.
- Harga tiket ini kurang mahal daripada tiket itu.Harga tiket ini kurang mahal dengan tiket itu.
Comparisons use `daripada`.
- Saya lebih suka teh daripada kopi.Saya lebih suka teh dari kopi. (less formal)
`Daripada` marks the compared alternative.
Common mistakes
Using `daripada` for origin
Saya dari/daripada Jakarta.Saya dari Jakarta.Origin uses `dari`, not `daripada`.
Using `dengan` in comparisons
lebih tinggi dengan sayalebih tinggi daripada saya`Daripada` marks the comparison standard.
`tentang` / `mengenai` for Topic
Tentang/mengenai
`Tentang` and `mengenai` mean about/regarding. `Tentang` is common and neutral; `mengenai` is more formal. Use them after verbs or nouns of speaking, writing, discussion, or information.
Key rule
Use `tentang` or formal `mengenai` to introduce the topic: about/regarding something.
Examples
- Kami berbicara tentang pekerjaan.Kami berbicara pekerjaan.
`Berbicara` usually needs `tentang` for the topic.
- Saya membaca buku tentang sejarah Indonesia.Saya membaca buku untuk sejarah Indonesia.
`Tentang` marks what the book is about.
- Ada informasi tentang jadwal ujian.Ada informasi kepada jadwal ujian.
The schedule is the topic, not the recipient.
Common mistakes
Omitting topic marker after `berbicara`
Kami berbicara politik.Kami berbicara tentang politik.`Berbicara` commonly uses `tentang` for the topic.
Confusing topic and addressee
Saya bertanya tentang guru tugas.Saya bertanya kepada guru tentang tugas.The teacher is addressee; the assignment is topic.
`oleh` for Passive Agent and Cause
Oleh
`Oleh` marks the agent in passive sentences and can also mark cause in formal expressions: Buku itu ditulis oleh Rina. Karena/oleh hujan deras, jalan ditutup.
Key rule
Use `oleh` for passive agents and formal cause phrases, not for active objects or instruments.
Examples
- Buku itu ditulis oleh Rina.Rina menulis oleh buku itu.
`Oleh` marks passive agent, not active object.
- Film itu dibuat oleh sutradara terkenal.Film itu dibuat dengan sutradara terkenal.
The director is the agent, so use `oleh`.
- Pintu dibuka oleh petugas keamanan.Pintu dibuka dengan petugas keamanan.
`Oleh` marks who opened it.
Common mistakes
Using `oleh` for active objects
Saya membaca oleh buku.Saya membaca buku.Active objects do not take `oleh`.
Using `dengan` for passive agents
ditulis dengan Rinaditulis oleh Rina`Dengar` marks instruments/accompaniment; `oleh` marks agents.
`sampai` / `hingga` - Until / As Far As
Sampai/hingga
`Sampai` and `hingga` mark an endpoint in time, place, or amount: sampai jam lima, sampai rumah, dari Senin sampai Jumat. `Hingga` is more formal/written.
Key rule
Use `sampai` or formal `hingga` to mark the endpoint of time, place, range, or amount.
Examples
- Saya bekerja sampai jam lima.Saya bekerja ke jam lima.
Time endpoint uses `sampai`.
- Kami berjalan sampai stasiun.Kami berjalan di stasiun. (if endpoint is intended)
`Sampai` marks as far as the station.
- Toko buka dari Senin sampai Jumat.Toko buka dari Senin ke Jumat.
Ranges use `dari ... sampai ...`.
Common mistakes
Using `ke` for time endpoints
sampai/ke jam lima confusionsampai jam lima`Ke` is direction; `sampai` marks endpoint.
Using `hingga` as a verb meaning arrive
Saya sudah hingga.Saya sudah sampai.`Sampai` can be a verb; `hingga` cannot in ordinary use.
`sebagai` for Role / As
Sebagai
`Sebagai` means as in the sense of role, function, or identity in a situation: Dia bekerja sebagai guru. Saya datang sebagai tamu.
Key rule
Use `sebagai` to introduce the role, function, capacity, or classification something has in context.
Examples
- Dia bekerja sebagai guru.Dia bekerja seperti guru. (different meaning)
`Sebagai guru` means in the role of teacher.
- Saya datang sebagai tamu.Saya datang untuk tamu. (different meaning)
`Sebagai` marks the speaker's role.
- Gunakan kartu ini sebagai identitas.Gunakan kartu ini seperti identitas.
The card functions as identification.
Common mistakes
Using `seperti` for actual role
Dia bekerja seperti dokter.Dia bekerja sebagai dokter.`Sebagai` marks real role; `seperti` means like.
Using `untuk` for role/function
Kartu ini untuk identitas.Kartu ini sebagai identitas. / Kartu ini untuk identifikasi.`Sebagai` marks what it serves as.
`seperti` / `bagaikan` - Like / As If
Seperti/bagaikan
`Seperti` means like/such as/as if. `Bagaikan` is more poetic or literary. Use them for similarity and examples, not actual role: Dia seperti guru means he is like a teacher.
Key rule
Use `seperti` for similarity, examples, or as-if meaning; use `bagaikan` only for poetic/literary comparison.
Examples
- Dia seperti kakak saya.Dia sebagai kakak saya. (if not actual role)
`Seperti` marks resemblance.
- Saya suka buah seperti mangga dan pisang.Saya suka buah sebagai mangga dan pisang.
`Seperti` can introduce examples.
- Seperti biasa, dia datang lebih awal.Sebagai biasa, dia datang lebih awal.
`Seperti biasa` means as usual.
Common mistakes
Using `seperti` for actual role
Saya bekerja seperti guru.Saya bekerja sebagai guru.Actual role uses `sebagai`.
Using `sebagai` for resemblance
Dia sebagai ayah saya.Dia seperti ayah saya.`Seperti` marks resemblance.
Basic Compound Location Prepositions
Preposisi lokasi majemuk
Indonesian uses compound location phrases like `di depan`, `di belakang`, `di samping`, `di antara`, `di atas`, and `di bawah`. The first word `di` is written separately.
Key rule
Use separate-word compound phrases for location: `di` + spatial word + reference noun.
Examples
- Mobil ada di depan rumah.Mobil ada didepan rumah.
`Di depan` is written separately.
- Kucing tidur di bawah meja.Kucing tidur dibawah meja.
Locative `di` is separate.
- Bank ada di samping toko buku.Bank ada di samping dari toko buku.
No extra `dari` is needed in the location phrase.
Common mistakes
Writing compound location phrases as one word
didepan, dibawah, didalamdi depan, di bawah, di dalamLocative `di` is a separate preposition.
Omitting `di`
buku atas mejabuku di atas mejaUse full location phrase.
Basic Relative Clauses with `yang`
Klausa relatif dengan yang
`Yang` can connect a noun to a describing clause, like who/that/which in English: orang yang duduk di sana, buku yang saya baca, rumah yang besar.
Key rule
Use noun + `yang` + description/clause to identify or describe a noun.
Examples
- Saya kenal orang yang duduk di sana.Saya kenal orang duduk di sana. (less clear)
`Yang` links the noun to the describing clause.
- Buku yang saya baca menarik.Buku saya baca yang menarik.
`Yang` follows the noun being described.
- Rumah yang besar itu mahal.Yang rumah besar itu mahal.
`Yang` comes after the noun.
Common mistakes
Putting `yang` before the noun
yang buku saya bacabuku yang saya baca`Yang` follows the noun it modifies.
Omitting `yang` where the relation becomes unclear
orang duduk di sanaorang yang duduk di sana`Yang` clearly introduces the description.
`yang` + Adjective as "the ... one"
Yang + adjektiva
`Yang` plus an adjective can mean 'the ... one': yang besar means the big one, yang merah means the red one, yang baru means the new one.
Key rule
Use `yang + adjective/description` to mean the one(s) that are described.
Examples
- Saya mau yang merah.Saya mau satu merah. (for 'the red one')
`Yang merah` means the red one.
- Yang besar lebih mahal.Besar yang lebih mahal.
`Yang` creates the noun-like phrase.
- Ambil yang di meja.Ambil di meja yang.
`Yang di meja` means the one on the table.
Common mistakes
Adding English 'one' literally
yang merah satuyang merah`Yang merah` already means the red one.
Dropping `yang` and leaving an adjective alone
Saya mau merah.Saya mau yang merah.The adjective needs `yang` to stand as a noun phrase.
Negative Imperative `jangan`
Jangan
`Jangan` means don't. Use it before a verb or predicate to tell someone not to do something: Jangan masuk, Jangan lupa, Jangan terlalu cepat.
Key rule
Use `jangan + predicate` for negative commands and prohibitions.
Examples
- Jangan masuk.Tidak masuk! (as a command)
Negative commands use `jangan`.
- Jangan lupa membawa paspor.Tidak lupa membawa paspor.
`Jangan lupa` means don't forget.
- Jangan merokok di sini.Bukan merokok di sini.
`Jangan` prohibits the action.
Common mistakes
Using `tidak` for negative commands
Tidak pergi!Jangan pergi!`Tidak` negates statements; `jangan` negates commands.
Using `bukan` before verbs
Bukan makan di sini!Jangan makan di sini!`Bukan` negates nouns/identity, not verbal commands.
Equative Comparison: `sama ... dengan` and `se-...`
Perbandingan setara
To say two things are equal, use `sama ... dengan` or `se-` forms: Rumah ini sama besar dengan rumah itu; Rumah ini sebesar rumah itu.
Key rule
Use `sama + adjective + dengan` or `se-adjective` to mean as ... as / equally ...
Examples
- Rumah ini sama besar dengan rumah itu.Rumah ini besar sama rumah itu.
Use `sama + adjective + dengan`.
- Rumah ini sebesar rumah itu.Rumah ini se besar rumah itu.
`Se-` attaches to the adjective.
- Harga tiket ini sama mahal dengan tiket itu.Harga tiket ini lebih mahal dengan tiket itu.
Equality uses `sama ... dengan`; comparison uses `daripada`.
Common mistakes
Omitting `dengan` in the analytic pattern
sama besar rumah itusama besar dengan rumah itu`Dengan` introduces the comparison standard.
Writing `se-` separately
se besarsebesar`Se-` is a prefix.
Basic Topic Fronting
Topik di depan
Indonesian can put a topic at the front when it is already known or important: Buku itu, saya sudah baca. Di Jakarta, saya tinggal dua tahun.
Key rule
Front a noun or location/time phrase when it is the topic or frame, then continue with a complete comment clause.
Examples
- Buku itu, saya sudah baca.Buku itu sudah baca saya. (wrong actor/order)
The fronted object is topic; the comment says I read it.
- Masalah ini, kita bahas besok.Masalah ini kita membahas besok. (less natural with active meN-)
Topic-comment often uses a bare/object-voice-like verb at this level.
- Di Jakarta, saya tinggal dua tahun.Jakarta saya tinggal dua tahun. (less clear)
Location frame can be fronted.
Common mistakes
Fronting random objects without clear topic function
Nasi saya makan every sentenceSaya makan nasi. / Nasi itu, saya sudah makan.Fronting needs a discourse reason.
Breaking the comment clause
Buku itu, sudah baca.Buku itu, saya sudah baca.The comment still needs a clear actor/context.
Comparative `lebih/kurang ... daripada`
Lebih/kurang ... daripada
`Lebih` means more and `kurang` means less. Use `daripada` for than: lebih besar daripada, kurang mahal daripada.
Key rule
Use `lebih/kurang + adjective + daripada + comparison standard`.
Examples
- Kota ini lebih besar daripada kota itu.Kota ini besarer daripada kota itu.
No English -er ending.
- Harga ini kurang mahal daripada harga itu.Harga ini kurang mahal dengan harga itu.
Use `daripada` for than.
- Dia lebih cepat daripada saya.Dia lebih cepat dari saya. (common but less formal)
`Daripada` is the formal comparison marker.
Common mistakes
Adding English comparative endings
lebih cheaperlebih murahIndonesian adjectives do not take -er.
Using `dengan` instead of `daripada`
lebih tinggi dengan sayalebih tinggi daripada sayaComparison standard uses `daripada`.
Superlatives with `paling` and `ter-`
Paling dan ter-
`Paling` means most: paling besar, paling mahal. `Ter-` can also form superlatives with some adjectives: terbesar, terbaik, terpenting.
Key rule
Use `paling + adjective` for the most; recognize common `ter-` superlatives such as terbaik and terbesar.
Examples
- Ini restoran paling murah di daerah ini.Ini restoran lebih murah di daerah ini. (if meaning the cheapest)
`Paling` marks superlative.
- Dia siswa terbaik di kelas.Dia siswa baikest di kelas.
`Terbaik` means best.
- Gunung tertinggi di Indonesia adalah Puncak Jaya.Gunung paling tinggi daripada Indonesia.
Do not use `daripada` with superlative.
Common mistakes
Using English -est
baikestterbaik / paling baikIndonesian does not use English superlative endings.
Combining superlative and comparative markers
paling besar daripadapaling besar / lebih besar daripadaUse one structure.
Condition `kalau` / `jika`
Kalau/jika
`Kalau` and `jika` mean if. `Kalau` is common in speech; `jika` is more formal. They introduce conditions: Kalau hujan, saya di rumah.
Key rule
Use `kalau/jika + clause` to introduce a condition; `kalau` is common, `jika` is formal.
Examples
- Kalau hujan, saya di rumah.Kalau akan hujan, saya di rumah. (unless predicting)
The condition can use a simple predicate.
- Saya akan datang kalau punya waktu.Saya akan datang kalau saya akan punya waktu. (overmarked)
Do not force `akan` into every conditional clause.
- Jika Anda setuju, silakan tanda tangan.Kalau Anda setuju... (also correct, less formal)
`Jika` fits formal instructions.
Common mistakes
Using English if
If hujan, saya di rumah.Kalau hujan, saya di rumah.Use Indonesian `kalau` or `jika`.
Overusing `akan` in both clauses
Kalau saya akan punya waktu, saya akan datang.Kalau saya punya waktu, saya akan datang.The condition clause often does not need future marking.
Purpose `supaya` / `agar`
Supaya/agar
`Supaya` and `agar` mean so that/in order that. They introduce a purpose or desired result: Saya belajar supaya bisa lulus. `Agar` is more formal.
Key rule
Use `supaya/agar + clause` to express the intended result or purpose of an action.
Examples
- Saya belajar supaya bisa lulus.Saya belajar untuk bisa lulus. (also possible, but `supaya` clearly introduces a clause)
`Supaya` introduces the desired result.
- Kami berangkat pagi agar tidak terlambat.Kami berangkat pagi agar tidak terlambatkan.
The clause after `agar` has normal grammar.
- Minum obat supaya cepat sembuh.Minum obat karena cepat sembuh.
`Supaya` marks purpose; `karena` marks cause.
Common mistakes
Using `karena` instead of purpose connector
Saya belajar karena lulus.Saya belajar supaya lulus / supaya bisa lulus.`Karena` gives cause; `supaya` gives purpose.
Putting `bisa` after the verb
supaya membeli bisasupaya bisa membeliModals come before the verb.
Time Connectors `waktu`, `ketika`, `saat`
Waktu/ketika/saat
`Waktu`, `ketika`, and `saat` can mean when/at the time when. `Ketika` and `saat` are more formal or written; `waktu` is common in speech.
Key rule
Use `waktu/ketika/saat + clause` to mean when/at the time that.
Examples
- Waktu saya kecil, saya tinggal di Bandung.Waktu saya adalah kecil, saya tinggal di Bandung.
No `adalah` before adjective predicate.
- Ketika hujan mulai turun, kami pulang.Ketika hujan akan mulai turun, kami pulang. (unless future)
Do not overmark tense.
- Saat rapat dimulai, semua peserta diam.Saat rapat mulai, semua peserta diam. (possible but less precise)
`Dimulai` fits the meeting being started.
Common mistakes
Using question word `kapan` as connector
Saya tidur kapan hujan.Saya tidur ketika hujan.`Kapan` asks when; `ketika/waktu/saat` connect clauses.
Adding `adalah` before adjective predicates
waktu saya adalah kecilwaktu saya kecilNo copula is needed.
Before/After Connectors
Sebelum/sesudah/setelah
`Sebelum` means before. `Sesudah` and `setelah` mean after. They can introduce nouns or clauses: sebelum makan, setelah kelas selesai, sesudah rapat.
Key rule
Use `sebelum` for before and `setelah/sesudah` for after, followed by a noun phrase, verb phrase, or clause.
Examples
- Cuci tangan sebelum makan.Cuci tangan before makan.
Use Indonesian `sebelum`.
- Setelah kelas selesai, kami pulang.Setelah kelas adalah selesai, kami pulang.
No `adalah` before selesai.
- Saya minum kopi sesudah sarapan.Saya minum kopi sudah sarapan. (different meaning)
`Sesudah` means after.
Common mistakes
Using `sudah` instead of `sesudah`
sudah makan, saya pulang (for after eating)sesudah/setelah makan, saya pulang`Sudah` marks completion; `sesudah/setelah` means after.
Adding `adalah` before completed predicates
setelah rapat adalah selesaisetelah rapat selesaiNo copula is needed.
Hyphen in Full Reduplication
Tanda hubung pada reduplikasi
Full reduplication is written with a hyphen: anak-anak, buku-buku, rumah-rumah, hati-hati. Do not write the two parts as one word or as two separate words.
Key rule
Write full reduplication with a hyphen: X-X.
Examples
- Anak-anak bermain di taman.Anak anak bermain di taman.
Full reduplication is hyphenated.
- Buku-buku itu mahal.Bukubuku itu mahal.
Do not write the repeated form as one fused word.
- Hati-hati di jalan.Hati hati di jalan.
Fixed reduplicated expressions also use a hyphen.
Common mistakes
Writing reduplication as two separate words
anak anakanak-anakStandard full reduplication uses a hyphen.
Fusing the repeated form
bukubukubuku-bukuThe repeated elements remain visibly separated by a hyphen.
`di/ke` as Prepositions vs Prefixes - Intro
Di/ke sebagai kata depan vs imbuhan
Prepositions `di` and `ke` are written separately before places: di rumah, ke sekolah. Prefixes `di-` and `ke-` are attached to verbs or word forms: dibaca, ditulis, ketahuan, kehujanan.
Key rule
Separate `di/ke` before places; attach `di-/ke-` when they are prefixes in verbs, ordinals, or derived words.
Examples
- Saya tinggal di rumah.Saya tinggal dirumah.
Locative `di` before a place is separate.
- Saya pergi ke sekolah.Saya pergi kesekolah.
Directional `ke` before a place is separate.
- Buku itu dibaca Rina.Buku itu di baca Rina.
Passive `di-` attaches to the verb.
Common mistakes
Attaching prepositions to place nouns
dirumah, kesekolahdi rumah, ke sekolahPrepositions before places are separate words.
Separating passive prefix
di baca, di tulisdibaca, ditulisPassive `di-` is attached to the verb.
Address Terms `Bapak`, `Ibu`, `Mas`, `Mbak`
Sapaan Bapak/Ibu/Mas/Mbak
Indonesian often uses address terms instead of direct `you`. `Bapak/Pak` and `Ibu/Bu` are respectful adult terms. `Mas` and `Mbak` are friendly polite terms often used for younger adults, especially in Java-influenced urban contexts.
Key rule
Use respectful address terms for social politeness, especially with adults, strangers, teachers, officials, and service staff.
Examples
- Bapak mau minum apa?Kamu mau minum apa? (to an older male customer)
`Bapak/Pak` is more respectful.
- Ibu Sari guru saya.ibu Sari guru saya.
Capitalize title with a name.
- Pak, boleh saya bertanya?Hei kamu, boleh saya bertanya? (too direct)
`Pak` is a polite address.
Common mistakes
Using `kamu` too broadly
Kamu mau apa? to a teacherBapak/Ibu mau apa? / Bapak/Ibu ingin apa?`Kamu` can sound too familiar.
Overusing `Anda` in warm service interactions
Anda mau pesan apa?Bapak/Ibu/Mas/Mbak mau pesan apa?`Anda` can sound distant or scripted.
Polite Requests with `tolong`, `mohon`, `silakan`
Permintaan sopan
`Tolong` means please help/do this, `mohon` is a more formal please/request, and `silakan` invites or permits someone to do something: Tolong tutup pintu, Mohon menunggu, Silakan duduk.
Key rule
Use `tolong` to request help/action, `mohon` for formal requests, and `silakan` to invite or permit.
Examples
- Tolong tutup pintunya.Silakan tutup pintunya. (sounds like permission, not request)
`Tolong` asks someone to do something.
- Mohon menunggu sebentar.Tolong menunggu sebentar. (possible, less formal)
`Mohon` is formal/polite.
- Silakan duduk.Tolong duduk. (can sound like command/request)
`Silakan` invites or permits sitting.
Common mistakes
Using `silakan` for requests for help
Silakan bantu saya.Tolong bantu saya. / Mohon bantuan.`Silakan` gives permission/invitation; `tolong` requests help.
Using `tolong` in very formal written notices where `mohon` fits better
Tolong menunggu.Mohon menunggu.`Mohon` is more formal/official.
Money and Prices: `rupiah`, `harga`, `bayar`, `berapa`
Uang dan harga
Use `rupiah` for Indonesian currency, `harga` for price, `bayar` for pay, and `berapa` to ask how much: Harganya berapa? Lima puluh ribu rupiah.
Key rule
Ask prices with `Harganya berapa?` and express amounts with number words plus `rupiah` or units like `ribu`.
Examples
- Harganya berapa?Berapa adalah harga?
`Harganya berapa?` is the natural shopping question.
- Harganya lima puluh ribu rupiah.Harganya lima puluh ribu dollar.
Use rupiah for Indonesian currency.
- Saya mau bayar sekarang.Saya mau membayar uang sekarang. (less natural in simple shopping)
`Bayar` is common in everyday payment contexts.
Common mistakes
Using English price word order
Berapa harga ini adalah?Harganya berapa? / Berapa harga ini?Indonesian questions keep simpler word order.
Forgetting `ribu` in spoken prices
lima puluh rupiah for Rp50.000lima puluh ribu rupiah`Ribu` means thousand.
Ordinal Numbers with `ke-`
Bilangan tingkat ke-
Ordinal numbers use `ke-`: pertama is first, kedua is second, ketiga is third, keempat is fourth. With digits, write `ke-2`, `ke-3`, and so on.
Key rule
Use attached `ke-` for ordinals, except common `pertama`; use hyphen with digits: ke-2.
Examples
- Ini lantai kedua.Ini lantai ke dua.
Ordinal with word form is attached.
- Dia anak pertama.Dia anak kesatu. (possible in some contexts, but `pertama` is normal)
`Pertama` is the common first.
- Bab ketiga sulit.Bab ke tiga sulit.
Write `ketiga` as one word.
Common mistakes
Writing word ordinals separately
ke dua, ke tigakedua, ketigaOrdinal `ke-` is a prefix.
Forgetting hyphen with digit ordinals
ke 5ke-5Use hyphen before digits.
Full Dates and Calendar Expressions
Tanggal lengkap
Full dates usually use day/month/year order: 17 Agustus 1945, 5 Mei 2026. `Tanggal berapa?` asks what date, and `pada tanggal...` is a formal way to say on a date.
Key rule
Use day-month-year order for full dates, capitalize month names, and use `tanggal` for date.
Examples
- Indonesia merdeka pada tanggal 17 Agustus 1945.Indonesia merdeka pada Agustus 17, 1945.
Indonesian uses day-month-year order.
- Hari ini tanggal 13 Mei 2026.Hari ini Mei 13 2026.
Put date before month.
- Acara itu diadakan pada tanggal 10 Juni 2026.Acara itu diadakan di tanggal 10 Juni 2026. (colloquial influence)
`Pada tanggal` is formal standard.
Common mistakes
Using English month-day order
Mei 13, 202613 Mei 2026Indonesian full dates use day-month-year.
Not capitalizing month names
17 agustus17 AgustusMonth names are capitalized.
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