A2 Spanish Grammar — 68 Topics & Common Mistakes

Preterite - Regular Verbs

Pretérito indefinido - Verbos regulares

The preterite tells what happened: finished actions in the past, like 'Ayer hablé con Ana' (Yesterday I spoke with Ana), including actions that lasted a stated time, like 'Viví dos años en Lima' (I lived in Lima for two years). Remove -ar, -er or -ir from the infinitive and add the endings. -ar verbs: -é, -aste, -ó, -amos, -asteis, -aron (hablé, hablaste, habló...). -er and -ir verbs share one set: -í, -iste, -ió, -imos, -isteis, -ieron (comí, comiste, comió...; viví, viviste, vivió...). The yo and él/ella forms need a written accent: 'hablo' means 'I speak', but 'habló' means 'he/she spoke'. One-syllable forms such as 'vi' and 'vio' (from ver) take no accent. Verbs ending in -car, -gar and -zar change their spelling in the yo form (busqué, llegué, empecé), and some very common verbs are irregular (fui, tuve, hice).

Preterite - Common Irregulars

Pretérito indefinido - Irregulares comunes

Many of the most common verbs are irregular in the preterite. Most of them use a special stem plus one shared set of endings: -e, -iste, -o, -imos, -isteis, -ieron. For example: tener → tuve, tuviste, tuvo; hacer → hice, hiciste, hizo; poder → pude, pudiste, pudo. These forms have no written accent: 'tuve', not 'tuvé'. When the stem ends in j, the ellos ending is -eron: 'dijeron', 'trajeron' (not 'dijieron'). Ser and ir share the same forms (fui, fuiste, fue, fuimos, fuisteis, fueron), and context tells you which verb it is: 'Fui a Madrid' (I went to Madrid), 'Fue un día largo' (It was a long day). Dar takes the -er/-ir endings: di, diste, dio. One-syllable forms such as fui, fue, di and dio never take a written accent.

Preterite - Stem Changes (e→i, o→u)

Pretérito indefinido - Cambios vocálicos (e→i, o→u)

The -ir verbs that change their stem in the present (pedir → pide, sentir → siente, dormir → duerme) also change in the preterite, but only in the él/ella/usted and ellos/ellas/ustedes forms. The e becomes i, and the o becomes u: pedir → pidió, pidieron; sentir → sintió, sintieron; dormir → durmió, durmieron. The yo, tú, nosotros and vosotros forms stay regular (pedí, pediste, pedimos, pedisteis). Stem-changing -ar and -er verbs lose their present-tense change in the preterite: pensó, volvió. A few stem-changing verbs, such as poder, querer and tener, and the -ir verbs venir and decir, have their own irregular preterites instead (pudo, quiso, tuvo, vino, dijo).

Preterite - Spelling Changes

Pretérito indefinido - Cambios ortográficos

Some verbs change their spelling in the preterite so that they keep the same sound. Verbs ending in -car, -gar and -zar change only in the yo form, before the ending -é: buscar → busqué, llegar → llegué, empezar → empecé. The other forms are normal (buscaste, buscó). Verbs like leer, creer and oír, whose stem ends in a vowel, write y instead of i in the él/ella and ellos/ellas forms: leer → leyó, leyeron; oír → oyó, oyeron. Traer and reír don't follow this pattern: trajo, trajeron (irregular) and rio, rieron. In their other forms, leer, creer and oír keep the i, with a written accent: leí, leíste, leímos, leísteis; oí, oíste, oímos.

Imperfect - Regular Verbs

Pretérito imperfecto - Verbos regulares

The imperfect describes the past as ongoing or habitual: what you used to do, what was happening, and what things were like. For example, 'De niño, jugaba en el parque' (As a child, I used to play in the park). -ar verbs take -aba: hablaba, hablabas, hablaba, hablábamos, hablabais, hablaban. -er and -ir verbs share -ía: comía, comías, comía, comíamos, comíais, comían (vivía...). Watch the spelling: the -ar endings are always written with b, every -ía form has a written accent on the í, and among the -ar forms only the nosotros form has one (hablábamos, but hablabais). Only three verbs are irregular in the imperfect (ser, ir, ver), so almost every verb follows these two patterns.

Imperfect - Ser, Ir, Ver

Pretérito imperfecto - Ser, Ir, Ver

Only three verbs are irregular in the imperfect: ser, ir and ver. Ser: era, eras, era, éramos, erais, eran ('Era muy tímido' = I was very shy). Ir: iba, ibas, iba, íbamos, ibais, iban, always written with b ('Iba al colegio a pie' = I used to walk to school). Ver: veía, veías, veía, veíamos, veíais, veían. Ver is only slightly irregular: it keeps the e of its infinitive, so it is veía, not vía. Watch the written accents: among the ser and ir forms only éramos and íbamos have one, while every form of ver does. Use era and eran for clock time in the past ('Eran las tres' = It was three o'clock) and iba a + infinitive for a past plan ('Iba a llamarte' = I was going to call you). As in the present, the location of a place or thing takes estar, not ser: 'El museo estaba en el centro'.

Preterite vs. Imperfect - Basic

Pretérito indefinido vs. Imperfecto - Básico

Both tenses talk about the past, but they show it differently. The preterite tells what happened: finished events, one after another, and actions with a stated length (Llegué a las ocho = I arrived at eight; Ayer llovió todo el día = It rained all day yesterday). The imperfect describes the background: habits, clock time and age, what people, places and the weather were like, and actions that were in progress (Cuando era niño, llovía mucho = When I was a child, it used to rain a lot; Eran las diez = It was ten o'clock; Tenía ocho años = I was eight). In a story, the imperfect sets the scene and the preterite moves the story forward: 'Leía en el sofá cuando sonó el teléfono' (I was reading on the sofa when the phone rang).

Present Perfect

Pretérito perfecto compuesto

The present perfect talks about past actions that are connected to now: things you have done today or this week, and experiences in your life. It has two parts: the present of haber (he, has, ha, hemos, habéis, han) plus a past participle. Regular participles end in -ado for -ar verbs (hablar → hablado) and -ido for -er/-ir verbs (comer → comido, vivir → vivido). A few common verbs have irregular participles, such as hacer → hecho, ver → visto and decir → dicho. After haber, the participle never changes for gender or number: 'Ella ha llegado', 'Ellos han llegado'. For example: 'Hoy he comido paella' (I've had paella today), '¿Has estado en México?' (Have you been to Mexico?). The helper verb is haber, not tener: 'I have seen' is 'he visto'. Keep the two parts together: 'no' and object pronouns go before haber ('No lo he visto'), and 'ya' goes before haber or at the end ('Ya he comido', 'He comido ya').

Irregular Past Participles

Participios pasados irregulares

Some very common verbs have irregular past participles that don't end in -ado or -ido. Learn them by heart: hacer → hecho, decir → dicho, ver → visto, escribir → escrito, poner → puesto, abrir → abierto, romper → roto, volver → vuelto, morir → muerto, resolver → resuelto, cubrir → cubierto, descubrir → descubierto. Most verbs built on them follow the same pattern: devolver → devuelto, describir → descrito. After haber, the participle never changes: 'He hecho la tarea' (I have done the homework), 'Ella ha hecho la cena' (not 'ha hecha'). Used as an adjective, it agrees with the noun: 'La puerta está abierta' (The door is open).

Simple Future - Regular

Futuro simple - Verbos regulares

The simple future says what will happen. It is easy to form: keep the whole infinitive and add -é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án. The endings are the same for -ar, -er and -ir verbs: hablaré (I will speak), comerás (you will eat), vivirá (he/she will live). Every form except nosotros (hablaremos) has a written accent. About a dozen very common verbs keep these endings but change their stem: tener → tendré, hacer → haré, poder → podré, salir → saldré. It is used for predictions (Mañana lloverá), promises (Te llamaré) and plans, and also for guesses about the present (¿Dónde estará Ana? = I wonder where Ana is). After 'cuando' (when) referring to the future, Spanish uses the present subjunctive, not the future: 'Cuando llegue, te llamaré' (When I arrive, I'll call you).

Simple Future - Irregular

Futuro simple - Verbos irregulares

A few very common verbs change their stem in the future, but they keep the normal endings (-é, -ás, -á, -emos, -éis, -án). There are three patterns. 1) The e of the -er ending disappears: poder → podré, saber → sabré, querer → querré, haber → habrá. 2) The vowel of the infinitive ending is replaced by d: tener → tendré, poner → pondré, venir → vendré, salir → saldré. 3) Two verbs have a short stem: hacer → haré, decir → diré. Verbs built on these usually change the same way (mantener → mantendré). Most other verbs are regular in the future, including ir (iré) and ser (seré).

Affirmative Imperative - Tú

Imperativo afirmativo - Tú

Use the tú command to tell a friend, a family member or a child to do something. For most verbs it is the same as the él/ella form of the present tense: habla (speak), come (eat), escribe (write), cierra (close). Eight common verbs have short irregular forms that you must learn: ven (venir), di (decir), haz (hacer), pon (poner), sal (salir), sé (ser), ten (tener), ve (ir). Pronouns are attached to the end: dime (tell me), ponlo (put it). If the stress then falls on the third-to-last syllable or earlier, add a written accent to keep it where it was: háblame (talk to me), siéntate (sit down).

Deber / Deber de

Deber - Obligación y probabilidad

'Deber' + infinitive expresses obligation or advice, like English 'must' or 'should': 'Debes estudiar' (You must study), 'No debes fumar aquí' (You mustn't smoke here). 'Deber de' + infinitive expresses a guess: 'Deben de ser las tres' (It must be about three o'clock). For guesses, plain 'deber' is also correct ('Deben ser las tres'). For obligation, leave out 'de': 'Debes de estudiar' is avoided in careful Spanish. Only 'deber' is conjugated; the second verb stays in the infinitive.

Soler + Infinitive

Soler + infinitivo

'Soler' + infinitive means 'to usually do' something. Only 'soler' is conjugated; the second verb stays in the infinitive: 'Suelo comer a las dos' (I usually eat at two). In the imperfect it describes past habits, like English 'used to': 'Solía jugar al fútbol' (I used to play football). In the present, 'soler' has an o→ue stem change: suelo, sueles, suele, solemos, soléis, suelen. In practice you only need two tenses: 'suelo' for habits now and 'solía' for habits in the past.

Acabar de + Infinitive

Acabar de + infinitivo

To say that something has just happened, use 'acabar de' + infinitive. Conjugate 'acabar' in the present and keep the second verb in the infinitive: 'Acabo de llegar' (I've just arrived), 'Acabamos de comer' (We've just eaten). The meaning is past, but 'acabar' is in the present. In a past story, use the imperfect for 'had just': 'Acababa de llegar cuando sonó el teléfono' (I had just arrived when the phone rang). Never leave out the 'de'.

Past Progressive

Pasado continuo

To talk about an activity that was going on in the past, use 'estar' in a past tense + the gerund: 'Estaba comiendo' (I was eating). The gerund ends in -ando for -ar verbs and -iendo for -er/-ir verbs; after a vowel, -iendo becomes -yendo (leer, leyendo), and stem-changing -ir verbs change e→i or o→u (pedir, pidiendo; dormir, durmiendo). The past progressive has two versions. 'Estaba' + gerund (imperfect) shows an action in progress at a past moment, often as the background when something else happened: 'Estaba leyendo cuando sonó el teléfono' (I was reading when the phone rang). 'Estuve' + gerund (preterite) sums up a finished activity as a whole, usually with its length stated: 'Estuve estudiando cuatro horas' (I spent four hours studying). Rule of thumb: interrupted or background action, 'estaba'; a measured length of time, 'estuve'.

Negative Imperative - Tú

Imperativo negativo - Tú

To tell a friend not to do something, you can't just put 'no' before the normal tú command ('habla'). Negative tú commands use 'no' + the tú form of the present subjunctive. Take the yo form of the present, drop the -o and add the 'opposite' ending: -es for -ar verbs, -as for -er and -ir verbs. 'Hablo' gives 'No hables' (Don't talk), 'como' gives 'No comas' (Don't eat), 'tengo' gives 'No tengas miedo' (Don't be afraid). Verbs ending in -car, -gar and -zar change their spelling before -e (c → qu, g → gu, z → c): 'No busques', 'No llegues tarde', 'No empieces'. A few verbs are irregular: 'No seas' (ser), 'No vayas' (ir), 'No estés' (estar). Pronouns go between 'no' and the verb: 'No lo hagas' (Don't do it).

Imperative - Usted/Ustedes

Imperativo - Usted/Ustedes

To give a polite instruction to someone you call usted, or to a group (ustedes), use the present subjunctive form, both for 'do' and for 'don't'. -ar verbs take -e / -en: 'Hable más despacio' (Speak more slowly), 'Hablen'. -er and -ir verbs take -a / -an: 'Coma', 'Escriban'. For the negative, just add 'no': 'No hable', 'No coman'. The form comes from the yo form of the present: 'tengo' gives 'tenga', 'digo' gives 'diga'. Verbs ending in -car, -gar and -zar change their spelling before -e (c → qu, g → gu, z → c): 'toque', 'llegue', 'empiece'. Five common verbs don't follow the yo form: 'sea' (ser), 'vaya' (ir), 'esté' (estar), 'dé' (dar), 'sepa' (saber). In affirmative commands, pronouns attach to the end, often with a written accent: 'Siéntese' (Sit down). In negative ones they go before the verb: 'No se siente'.

Pronoun Placement with Infinitives and Gerunds

Colocación de pronombres con infinitivos y gerundios

When a helper verb such as 'querer', 'poder', 'tener que', 'ir a' or 'estar' is followed by an infinitive or a gerund, an object or reflexive pronoun (me, te, lo, la, le, se, nos...) has two possible places, with the same meaning. It can attach to the end of the infinitive or gerund: 'Quiero verlo' (I want to see it), 'Estoy haciéndolo' (I'm doing it). Or it can go before the conjugated verb: 'Lo quiero ver', 'Lo estoy haciendo'. It can never go between the two verbs. Two pronouns stay together, indirect object first: 'Te lo quiero dar' or 'Quiero dártelo'. A gerund with an attached pronoun needs a written accent to keep the stress ('haciendo' becomes 'haciéndolo'), and so does an infinitive with two ('dártelo'). After 'para', 'sin' or 'antes de', and after 'hay que', the pronoun always attaches to the infinitive: 'para hacerlo', 'Hay que hacerlo'.

Ser vs Estar with Adjectives (Meaning Change)

Ser vs Estar - Cambio de significado

With some adjectives, 'ser' and 'estar' give two different meanings. 'Ser aburrido' means to be boring, but 'estar aburrido' means to be bored. 'Ser listo' means to be clever, but 'estar listo' means to be ready. 'Ser malo' means to be bad, but 'estar malo' means to be ill. A person who 'es rico' is rich, but food that 'está rica' tastes good. Other pairs work the same way: 'ser verde' (green) / 'estar verde' (unripe), 'ser vivo' (quick-witted) / 'estar vivo' (alive), 'ser seguro' (safe) / 'estar seguro' (sure). Use 'ser' for what someone or something is like, and 'estar' for the state it is in. Mixing them up changes what you say: 'Soy aburrido' means 'I'm a boring person', not 'I'm bored'.

Irregular Adjective Forms

Adjetivos irregulares

A few very common adjectives have a short form that is used before a singular noun. Before a masculine singular noun, 'bueno' becomes 'buen', 'malo' becomes 'mal', 'primero' becomes 'primer', 'tercero' becomes 'tercer', 'alguno' becomes 'algún' and 'ninguno' becomes 'ningún': 'un buen amigo', 'el primer día', '¿Hay algún problema?'. 'Grande' becomes 'gran' before any singular noun, masculine or feminine, and there it usually means 'great' rather than 'big': 'un gran hombre' (a great man), 'una gran ciudad'. Everywhere else the full form stays: 'una buena amiga', 'unos buenos amigos', 'El día es malo'.

Comparatives

Comparativos

To compare things, Spanish uses three patterns. 'Más ... que' means 'more ... than': 'Es más alto que yo' (He is taller than me). 'Menos ... que' means 'less ... than': 'Es menos caro que el otro' (It is less expensive than the other one). 'Tan ... como' means 'as ... as' with adjectives and adverbs: 'Es tan inteligente como su hermana' (She is as smart as her sister). In all three patterns, the adjective still agrees with the noun it describes: 'Mis hermanas son más altas que yo'. To compare amounts of something, put the noun after 'más' or 'menos' ('Tengo más libros que tú'), or use 'tanto/tanta/tantos/tantas + noun + como', which agrees with the noun: 'Tengo tantos libros como tú' (I have as many books as you). After a verb, use 'más que', 'menos que' or 'tanto como', and there 'tanto' never changes: 'Trabaja tanto como yo' (He works as much as I do). Before a number, use 'de' instead of 'que': 'más de treinta años', 'menos de diez euros'.

Superlatives

Superlativos

Superlatives say that something has the most or the least of a quality. To say 'the most/least ... in a group', use 'el/la/los/las' (+ noun) + 'más/menos' + adjective + 'de': 'Es el más alto de la clase' (He is the tallest in the class), 'la ciudad más bonita de España'. The article and the adjective agree with the noun, and the group is introduced by 'de', where English usually says 'in' or 'of'. 'The best' and 'the worst' are 'el mejor' and 'el peor', with no 'más', usually before the noun: 'el mejor restaurante de la ciudad'. To say 'extremely' without comparing (the absolute superlative), remove the adjective's final vowel and its written accent (if it has them) and add '-ísimo/-ísima/-ísimos/-ísimas': 'bueno' → 'buenísimo', 'fácil' → 'facilísimo'. Some spellings change: 'rico' → 'riquísimo', 'largo' → 'larguísimo'. Because '-ísimo' already means 'very', never add 'muy' to it.

Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives

Comparativos y superlativos irregulares

Four adjectives have special comparative forms that replace 'más + adjective': 'bueno' → 'mejor' (better), 'malo' → 'peor' (worse), and, for people's age, 'grande' → 'mayor' (older) and 'pequeño' → 'menor' (younger). So you say 'Este libro es mejor que ese' (not 'más bueno') and 'mi hermano mayor' (my older brother). When you compare, don't add 'más' ('mejor que', not 'más mejor que'), and say 'much better' with 'mucho', not 'muy': 'mucho mejor'. Add an article for the superlative: 'el/la mejor' (the best), 'el/la peor' (the worst), 'el/la mayor' (the oldest), 'el/la menor' (the youngest). These forms are the same for masculine and feminine ('el mejor', 'la mejor') and add -es when they describe a plural noun, even after 'ser': 'los mejores años', 'mis hermanos mayores', 'Estos zapatos son mejores que esos'. 'Mejor' and 'peor' are also adverbs. When they describe a verb, they never change: 'Mis hermanas cantan mejor que yo' (My sisters sing better than I do).

Double Object Pronouns

Pronombres de doble objeto

When you replace both the thing (direct object: lo, la, los, las) and the person who receives it (indirect object: me, te, nos, os) with pronouns, the indirect one always comes first: 'Me lo dio' (He gave it to me), 'Te la compré' (I bought it for you), 'Nos los traen' (They bring them to us). The pair goes right before a conjugated verb. With a helper verb followed by an infinitive or a gerund (querer, poder or ir a + infinitive, estar + gerund), put it before the conjugated verb ('Me lo va a dar') or attach it to the end ('Va a dármelo'). An infinitive on its own, for example after 'para', takes the pair attached: 'para dártelo'. With an affirmative command it is always attached: 'Dámelo' (Give it to me). When the pair is attached, the verb gets a written accent to keep its stress: dármelo, dártelo, dámelo. The two pronouns always stay together. If the indirect pronoun would be 'le' or 'les', it changes to 'se': 'Se lo di' (I gave it to him).

Le/Les to Se before Lo/La/Los/Las

Le/Les → Se + lo/la

The indirect object pronouns 'le' and 'les' can never stand right before 'lo', 'la', 'los' or 'las'. In that position they change to 'se': 'Se lo doy' (I give it to him), not 'Le lo doy'; 'Se la envié' (I sent it to them), not 'Les la envié'. This 'se' is not reflexive. It simply replaces 'le' or 'les'. Because 'se' can mean to him, to her, to you (usted), to them or to you all (ustedes), add 'a él', 'a ella', 'a usted', 'a ellos' or a name when the context doesn't make it clear: 'Se lo doy a ella' (I give it to her). Only 'le' and 'les' change: 'me lo', 'te lo', 'nos lo' and 'os lo' stay the same.

Stressed Possessive Pronouns

Pronombres posesivos tónicos

The stressed (long) possessives are 'mío' (mine), 'tuyo' (yours, tú), 'suyo' (his, hers, its, yours with usted or ustedes, theirs), 'nuestro' (ours) and 'vuestro' (yours, vosotros). Each has four forms, like mío, mía, míos, mías, and agrees with the thing owned, not with the owner: 'La casa es mía.' Use them in three ways: after 'ser' ('Este libro es mío', This book is mine), after a noun ('un amigo mío', a friend of mine), and with el, la, los, las instead of repeating a noun ('Tu casa es grande; la mía es pequeña', Your house is big; mine is small). The short forms 'mi', 'tu', 'su' only go before a noun.

Relative Pronoun Que

Pronombre relativo que

'Que' links a noun to a clause that describes it, like English 'who', 'that' or 'which'. It works for people and things and never changes form: 'La chica que vive aquí es mi amiga' (The girl who lives here is my friend), 'El libro que compré es interesante' (The book I bought is interesting). Unlike English 'that', 'que' can never be left out: 'El libro compré' is wrong. Use 'que' for people too, not 'quien', unless a preposition or a comma comes before it: 'El chico que habla', not 'El chico quien habla'. Inside the clause, 'que' already stands for the noun, so don't repeat it with another pronoun: 'La casa que compré', not 'La casa que la compré'. The relative 'que' has no written accent. Only 'qué' as a question or exclamation word has one, also in indirect questions: '¿Qué quieres?', 'No sé qué quieres'.

Indefinite Adjectives/Pronouns

Adjetivos/pronombres indefinidos

These words express 'all', 'every', 'other', 'same' and 'several'. 'Todo, toda, todos, todas' (all, every) agree with the noun and normally take an article or other determiner before it: 'todos los días' (every day), 'toda la clase' (the whole class). 'Otro, otra, otros, otras' (other, another) never take 'un' or 'una': 'otro café' (another coffee), not 'un otro café'. 'Cada' (each, every) never changes and goes with a singular noun: 'cada día' (every day). Only with a number is the noun plural: 'cada dos días' (every two days). 'Mismo, misma, mismos, mismas' (same, -self) agree: 'la misma clase' (the same class), 'yo misma' (I myself, said by a woman). 'Varios, varias' (several) are only plural: 'varios amigos' (several friends).

Reciprocal Pronouns

Pronombres recíprocos

A reciprocal verb shows two or more people doing something to each other. Spanish uses a plural verb with the matching pronoun, 'nos' for nosotros, 'os' for vosotros and 'se' for ellos, ellas and ustedes: 'Nos vemos mañana' (We'll see each other tomorrow), 'Os escribís mucho' (You write to each other a lot), 'Ana y Luis se quieren' (Ana and Luis love each other). These are the same pronouns as the reflexive ones, and they go in the same place: before a conjugated verb or attached to an infinitive ('Vamos a vernos'). So 'Se miran' can mean 'They look at each other' or 'They look at themselves'. The context usually decides, but you can add 'el uno al otro' ('la una a la otra' for two women) or 'mutuamente' to make 'each other' clear.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Pronombres demostrativos

A demonstrative pronoun points at something without naming it: 'Quiero esta' (I want this one). Spanish has three distances: 'este, esta, estos, estas' (this one, these: near me), 'ese, esa, esos, esas' (that one, those: near you or not far away) and 'aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas' (that one, those over there: far from both of us). They agree with the noun they replace: '¿Qué camisa quieres?' 'Esa.' There are also three neuter forms, 'esto', 'eso' and 'aquello', for something you haven't named ('¿Qué es esto?', What is this?) and for ideas or situations ('Eso no es verdad', That isn't true). The neuter forms never go before a noun.

Por vs Para

Por vs Para - Distinción

'Por' and 'para' can both mean 'for' in English, but they are not interchangeable. Use 'para' for goals: purpose ('Estudio para aprender'), the person who receives something ('Es para ti'), destinations ('Salgo para Madrid') and deadlines ('para el lunes'). 'Para' also gives an opinion ('Para mí, es fácil') and compares with what you would expect ('Para un niño, habla muy bien', for a child, he speaks very well). Use 'por' for causes and routes: reasons ('No duermo por el ruido'), doing something for someone's sake ('Lo hice por ti'), prices and exchanges ('diez euros por el libro'), movement through a place ('por el parque'), means of communication ('por teléfono') and rates ('dos veces por semana'). Transport is different: 'en coche', not 'por coche'. A helpful trick: 'para' points forward to a goal, while 'por' points back to a cause or describes the route.

Personal A (Extended)

A personal - Uso extendido

When the direct object of a verb is a specific person, Spanish puts 'a' in front of it: 'Veo a María' (I see María), 'Llamo a mi madre' (I call my mother). Words for people like 'alguien', 'nadie' and 'quién' take it too: 'No conozco a nadie', '¿A quién buscas?'. Ordinary things don't: 'Veo la casa'. With a person who is not specific (any teacher at all), the 'a' is usually left out: 'Busco un profesor'. And 'tener' normally takes no 'a', even with people: 'Tengo dos hermanos' (I have two brothers).

Por in Fixed Expressions

Expresiones con por

Spanish has many everyday expressions with 'por' that work as fixed units: 'por favor' (please), 'por ejemplo' (for example), 'por eso' (that's why), 'por fin' (at last), 'por supuesto' (of course), 'por lo menos' (at least), 'por lo general' (usually), 'por cierto' (by the way), 'por casualidad' (by chance, or 'by any chance' in a question) and 'por si acaso' (just in case). Learn each one as a whole phrase and keep every word. The preposition is always 'por': 'Por eso no voy' (That's why I'm not going), while 'para eso' means 'for that purpose'. The 'lo' in 'por lo menos' and 'por lo general' can't be left out, and 'at last' is 'por fin', not 'por final'. And don't translate the English word by word: 'of course' is 'por supuesto', not 'de curso'; 'by the way' is 'por cierto', not 'por el camino'; 'at least' is 'por lo menos' or 'al menos', not 'a menos'; and 'just in case' is 'por si acaso', not 'solo en caso'.

De for Material, Origin, Contents

De - Material, origen, contenido

Besides possession, 'de' links a noun to more information about it. Material: 'una mesa de madera' (a wooden table), 'un anillo de oro' (a gold ring). Origin: 'Soy de Colombia' (I'm from Colombia). Contents: 'un vaso de agua' (a glass of water), 'una taza de café' (a cup of coffee). Type: 'una clase de español' (a Spanish class). The main noun comes first and the extra information follows after 'de', unlike English 'wooden table' or 'Spanish class'. After 'ser' it works the same way: 'La mesa es de madera' (not 'es en madera'). For where someone or something is from, use 'de', not 'desde': 'Mi amigo es de Perú'.

A for Direction and Specific Times

A - Dirección y hora

The preposition 'a' does two everyday jobs. After verbs of movement it marks where you are going: 'Voy a Madrid' (I'm going to Madrid), 'Vamos a la playa' (We're going to the beach). 'Llegar' (arrive) takes 'a' too, even where English says 'arrive in' or 'arrive at': 'Llegamos a Roma' (We arrived in Rome). For your own home, 'casa' normally has no article: 'Voy a casa', 'Llego a casa'. And 'a' marks the clock time of an event: 'a las tres' (at three), 'a la una' (at one), and also 'a mediodía' (at noon). For 'on' + a day or 'in' + a month, don't use 'a': 'el lunes' (on Monday), 'en julio' (in July). 'A' + the article 'el' contracts to 'al': 'Voy al cine', not 'Voy a el cine'. For being in a place, use 'en' instead: 'Estoy en Madrid'.

En for Transport and Communication

En - Transporte y comunicación

To say how you travel, Spanish uses 'en' + the vehicle, with no article: 'en coche' (by car), 'en tren' (by train), 'en avión' (by plane), 'en autobús' (by bus). Don't copy English 'by' with 'por': 'Voy en coche', not 'Voy por coche'. Two common exceptions use 'a': 'a pie' (on foot) and 'a caballo' (on horseback). 'En' also says where you saw, read or heard something: 'Lo vi en la tele' (I saw it on TV), 'Lo leí en el periódico' (I read it in the newspaper). Don't copy English 'on' with 'sobre' here: 'sobre la tele' means on top of the TV set. But to talk or send something through a channel, use 'por': 'Hablo por teléfono' (I talk on the phone), 'Lo envié por correo' (I sent it by mail).

Desde...Hasta

'Desde' marks where something starts and 'hasta' where it ends, in time or in space: 'Trabajo desde las ocho hasta las cinco' (I work from eight to five), 'Caminamos desde el hotel hasta la playa' (We walked from the hotel to the beach). On their own, 'desde' means 'since' or 'from' a point ('desde enero', since January; 'Te llamo desde casa', I'm calling from home) and 'hasta' means 'until' or 'as far as' ('Espera hasta las cinco', Wait until five). For origin (where someone is from), use 'de', not 'desde': 'Soy de México' (I'm from Mexico). To say how long something has been going on, use the present tense + 'desde hace' + a length of time: 'Vivo aquí desde hace tres años' (I've lived here for three years). 'Hace tres años que vivo aquí' means the same.

Entre, Hacia, Sobre

'Entre' means 'between' or 'among' and takes no 'de': 'entre el banco y la farmacia', 'entre amigos'. After 'entre', use 'tú' and 'yo': 'entre tú y yo' (between you and me). 'Entre semana' means 'on weekdays'. 'Hacia' means 'toward' and goes straight before the article: 'Caminamos hacia el río' (not 'hacia al río'). With a time it means 'around' and replaces 'a': 'hacia las tres'. 'Sobre' means 'on' or 'on top of' ('sobre la mesa'), 'about' a topic ('un libro sobre España'), and 'around' with times and numbers ('sobre las diez', 'sobre cuarenta años'). Don't use 'acerca de' for 'around': it means 'about' only for a topic.

Indirect Questions

Preguntas indirectas

An indirect question is a question placed inside a longer sentence: 'No sé dónde está' (I don't know where it is) instead of '¿Dónde está?' (Where is it?). The question word keeps its written accent (tilde): dónde, qué, cómo, cuándo, quién, cuánto, por qué. The embedded question gets no ¿? of its own. For yes/no questions, use 'si' (if/whether), written without a tilde: 'No sé si viene' (I don't know if he's coming).

Exclamatory Sentences

Oraciones exclamativas

Exclamations express strong feelings such as surprise, delight or annoyance. In Spanish they open with ¡ and close with !. The most common pattern is '¡Qué + adjective, noun or adverb!': '¡Qué bonito!' (How pretty!), '¡Qué calor!' (It's so hot!), '¡Qué bien cocinas!' (You cook so well!). To say how well someone does something, use the adverb 'bien', not 'bueno'. For 'what a + adjective + noun', say '¡Qué + noun + tan/más + adjective!', with no un/una: '¡Qué casa tan grande!' (What a big house!). Use '¡Cómo + verb!' for how intensely something happens ('¡Cómo llueve!', It's really pouring!) and '¡Cuánto/a/os/as + noun!' for quantity ('¡Cuánta gente!', So many people!). Exclamative qué, cómo and cuánto always take a written accent (tilde). The 'que' that opens a good wish, as in '¡Que te vaya bien!' (All the best!), is a different word and has none.

Comparison Structures

Estructuras comparativas

Spanish has three comparison patterns. More/less than: 'más/menos + adjective, adverb or noun + que' ('Es más alto que yo', He's taller than me). As…as: 'tan + adjective or adverb + como' ('Es tan alto como tú', He's as tall as you). As much/as many…as: 'tanto/tanta/tantos/tantas + noun + como', agreeing with the noun ('Tiene tantos libros como yo', He has as many books as me). After a verb, use 'más que', 'menos que' or 'tanto como': 'Trabaja menos que tú' (He works less than you). So 'que' goes with más/menos, and 'como' with tan/tanto. A few comparatives are irregular and take no 'más' in a comparison: 'mejor' (better), 'peor' (worse) and, for people's age, 'mayor' (older) and 'menor' (younger). So say 'Este hotel es mejor que el otro', not 'más bueno'. After 'que' and 'como', use 'yo' and 'tú': 'que yo', not 'que mí'. Before a number, 'than' is 'de': 'más de veinte' (more than twenty).

Hay vs Estar

'Hay' and 'estar' both talk about things being somewhere, but they answer different questions. 'Hay' (there is / there are) says that something EXISTS and introduces something new, usually with un/una/unos/unas, a number, a quantity word or no article: 'Hay una farmacia cerca' (There's a pharmacy nearby). 'Estar' says WHERE a specific, known thing is, usually with el/la/los/las, a possessive or a name: 'La farmacia está en la esquina' (The pharmacy is on the corner). 'Hay' never changes for plural, and neither does its past form 'había': 'Hay tres libros', 'Había muchas personas' (not 'habían').

Basic Relative Clauses with Que

Oraciones relativas con que

'Que' (who, that, which) links a description to a noun, for people and things alike: 'La mujer que trabaja aquí' (The woman who works here), 'El libro que compré' (The book I bought). English can often leave out 'that', but Spanish never drops 'que'. In these basic clauses, 'que' is the subject ('que trabaja') or the direct object ('que compré'), and it has no written accent. As the subject, it takes a verb that agrees with the noun: 'las personas que viven aquí'. As the object, it needs no 'lo' or 'la': 'el libro que compré', not 'el libro que lo compré'.

Basic Reported Speech

Estilo indirecto básico

Reported speech (estilo indirecto) tells someone what another person said. Link the reporting verb to the message with 'que': 'Juan dice que viene' (Juan says he's coming). Change the person to fit the new speaker: Juan's 'Tengo hambre' becomes 'Juan dice que tiene hambre'. When the reporting verb is in the past (dijo, contó), the present usually becomes the imperfect: 'Estoy enfermo' becomes 'Dijo que estaba enfermo' (He said he was sick). The imperfect is always correct there. The present can stay only if what was said still holds now ('Me dijo que vive en Barcelona', and he still does). For yes/no questions, use 'si': 'Me preguntó si tenía coche' (She asked me if I had a car). Other questions keep their question word with its tilde: '¿Dónde vives?' becomes 'Me preguntó dónde vivía' (She asked me where I lived).

Cause Connectors

Conectores causales

To give a reason, use 'porque' (because) after the main idea: 'No voy porque estoy cansado' (I'm not going because I'm tired). Before a noun, 'because of' is 'por' or 'a causa de': 'No salgo por la lluvia'. To say the reason first, start the sentence with 'como' (since, as) and add a comma: 'Como llueve, no salgo' (Since it's raining, I'm not going out). Causal 'como' always comes before the main idea; after the main idea, use 'porque'. To make an excuse in conversation, use 'es que' (it's just that): 'Es que no tenía tiempo'. Watch the spelling: 'porque' = because, '¿por qué?' = why, 'el porqué' = the reason.

Contrast Connectors

Conectores de contraste

Spanish has two words for 'but' and one for 'although'. 'Pero' adds a contrast: 'Es caro, pero bonito' (It's expensive but pretty). It can also follow a negative when the second part adds a fact instead of replacing the first: 'No es rico, pero es feliz' (He isn't rich, but he's happy). 'Sino' comes after a negative and replaces what you denied with the right alternative: 'No es rojo, sino azul' (It isn't red, it's blue). Before a conjugated verb, use 'sino que': 'No corre, sino que camina' (He isn't running, he's walking). 'Aunque' (although) introduces a fact that doesn't stop the main action: 'Aunque llueve, salgo' (Although it's raining, I'm going out). Use 'aunque' or 'pero', not both: 'Aunque llueve, salgo' or 'Llueve, pero salgo', never 'Aunque llueve, pero salgo'.

Consequence Connectors

Conectores de consecuencia

To introduce a RESULT, state the cause first and then use a consequence connector: 'por eso' (that's why), 'así que' (so) or, in conversation, 'entonces' (so). 'No tenía dinero, por eso no fui' (I had no money, that's why I didn't go). 'Estaba cansado, así que me dormí' (I was tired, so I fell asleep). 'Así que' needs its 'que' ('así' alone usually means 'like this'), but as connectors, 'por eso' and 'entonces' take none: 'por eso no fui', not 'por eso que no fui'. English 'so' before a result is never 'tan', which means 'so' only before an adjective or adverb ('tan cansado'). Don't confuse these connectors with 'porque' (because), which introduces the cause, not the result.

Purpose with Para + Infinitive

Finalidad con para + infinitivo

To say what you do something FOR, its purpose, use 'para' + infinitive (English 'to' or 'in order to'): 'Estudio para aprender' (I study to learn), 'Ahorro para comprar un coche' (I'm saving to buy a car). This works when the person who does the main action also does the second one, or when no particular person is meant ('Sirve para abrir latas', It's for opening cans). The verb directly after 'para' is always the infinitive: 'para comprar', not 'para compro'. Don't add 'que': 'para que' is for a different person doing the second action, takes the subjunctive (B1) and is never followed by an infinitive, so 'para que comprar' is wrong. Don't drop 'para' ('Necesito gafas para leer', not 'Necesito gafas leer'), and don't use 'por' for a goal, because 'por' gives a cause. To ask about a purpose, use '¿Para qué?' (What for?); '¿Por qué?' means 'why?'.

Real Conditions with Si + Present

Condicionales reales con si + presente

For a real or likely condition, use 'si' (if) + present indicative. The result can be in the present, the future (or 'ir a' + infinitive) or the imperative: 'Si llueve, no salgo' (If it rains, I don't go out), 'Si estudias, aprobarás' (If you study, you'll pass), 'Si tienes tiempo, ven' (If you have time, come). Even when the condition is about the future, the verb after 'si' stays in the present: 'Si mañana hace sol, vamos a la playa', never 'si hará'. After 'si' (if), the present subjunctive and the conditional are wrong too ('si llueva', 'si tendría'), and a present 'si' clause doesn't normally take a conditional result: 'Si tengo tiempo, iré', not 'iría'. Write 'si' (if) without a written accent; 'sí' means 'yes'.

Time Connectors

Conectores temporales

Time connectors link two events in time. 'Cuando' (when) has no written accent as a connector: 'Cuando llego a casa, como' (When I get home, I eat). 'Mientras' (while) takes a conjugated verb, never an -ando/-iendo form, for two things happening at the same time: 'Mientras estudio, escucho música' (While I study, I listen to music). In the past, the background action after 'mientras' is in the imperfect: 'Mientras dormía, sonó el teléfono'. 'Durante' (during) takes a noun instead: 'durante la clase'. 'Antes de' (before) and 'después de' (after) take an infinitive, and the 'de' is never dropped: 'Antes de salir, cierro la puerta' (Before going out, I close the door). 'Hasta que' (until) and 'en cuanto' (as soon as, never 'en cuanto que') go before a conjugated verb: 'Esperé hasta que llegó el autobús'. At A2 you use these connectors with the indicative for habits and past events. For an event still in the future, never use the future after 'cuando': Spanish uses the present subjunctive, which you will study at B1: 'Cuando llegues, llámame' (When you arrive, call me), not 'cuando llegarás'.

Addition Connectors Advanced

Conectores de adición avanzados

Beyond 'y' and 'también', Spanish has more ways to add ideas. 'Además' (besides, also) adds another point: 'Es inteligente. Además, es simpático' (He's clever. He's also nice). Before a noun or an infinitive, use 'además de': 'Además de español, habla francés' (Besides Spanish, he speaks French). 'Tampoco' (not either) is the negative partner of 'también', so never say 'también no': 'Ana no come carne, y yo tampoco' (Ana doesn't eat meat, and neither do I). 'Ni... ni' means 'neither... nor'. Before the verb it needs no 'no': 'Ni Juan ni María vinieron'. After the verb, put 'no' before the verb: 'No bebo ni café ni té'. 'Tampoco' works the same way: 'Tampoco quiero ir' or 'No quiero ir tampoco'. 'Incluso' and 'hasta' mean 'even': 'Incluso los niños lo saben' (Even children know it). 'Not even' is 'ni siquiera': 'Ni siquiera sabe freír un huevo' (He can't even fry an egg).

Accent Marks on Preterite Forms

Acentos en el pretérito indefinido

When you conjugate regular verbs in the preterite (past) tense, the yo and él/ella/usted forms need a written accent (tilde). For -ar verbs, yo ends in -é (hablé) and él ends in -ó (habló). For -er/-ir verbs, yo ends in -í (comí) and él ends in -ió (comió). These accents are not optional: they mark the stress and can change the meaning ('hablo' = I speak, 'habló' = he spoke). Forms of only one syllable take no accent: 'vi', 'vio' (ver), 'di', 'dio' (dar), 'fui', 'fue' (ir, ser). Irregular preterites stressed on the stem take none either: 'tuve', 'hizo', 'dijo' (not 'hizó').

B vs V Spelling

Distinción ortográfica entre B y V

In Spanish, B and V sound exactly the same, so you can't hear which letter a word needs. A few rules help: write B before a consonant (hablar, abrir, blanco) and after M (también, hombre), and write V after N (enviar, invitar). The imperfect of -ar verbs always has B (hablaba). For many other words, such as vivir or bueno, you simply have to learn the spelling.

The Silent H

La H muda

The letter H is silent in native Spanish words: it has no sound at all, but you still have to write it. Most H words start with it (hoy, hacer, hablar, hay, hermano), but it can also appear inside a word (ahora, prohibir). Words that begin with the sound 'ue' are spelled hue-: huevo, hueso. Watch out for words that sound the same: 'a' (to) vs 'ha' (has), as in 'Voy a casa' and 'Ella ha comido'; 'e' (and) vs 'he' (I have); 'hay' (there is/are) vs 'ay' (ouch!); 'hecho' (done) vs 'echo' (I throw). CH is different: it has its own sound, as in 'mucho'.

Politeness Strategies

Estrategias de cortesía

Being polite in Spanish goes beyond using 'usted'. With strangers, teachers and in formal situations, soften your requests: use the conditional (¿Podría ayudarme?), say 'quisiera' instead of 'quiero', and ask a question instead of giving a command. Polite phrases such as por favor, disculpe and con permiso help too. Once you start with usted, keep its forms: 'Disculpe, ¿puede ayudarme?', not 'Disculpe, ¿puedes ayudarme?'. With friends and family, a direct request with 'por favor' is normal: 'Pásame la sal, por favor.'

Informal vs Formal Writing

Escritura informal vs. formal

Spanish keeps formal and informal writing clearly apart. Formal emails and letters (to a company, an official or a teacher) open with 'Estimado/a' (Dear) and a colon ('Estimada señora García:'), or with 'A quien corresponda:' (To whom it may concern) when you don't know the reader. They use usted all the way through ('Le escribo para...') and close with 'Atentamente' (Sincerely) or 'Un cordial saludo'. Messages to friends and family open with '¡Hola!' or 'Querido/a', use tú ('Te escribo para contarte...') and close with 'Un abrazo' (A hug) or 'Besos'. Don't mix the two: no tú after a formal opening such as 'Estimado señor' or 'Estimada señora García', no 'Querido' or 'Besos' in a business email, and no colloquial words like 'un montón de' or clipped forms like 'info' in formal writing.

False Friends (Spanish-English)

Falsos amigos (español-inglés)

Many Spanish words that look like English words mean the same thing (hotel, música, universidad), but a few false friends (falsos amigos) do not. 'Embarazada' means pregnant; for embarrassed, say 'avergonzado/a'. 'Éxito' means success; an exit is 'la salida'. 'Sensible' means sensitive; for sensible, say 'sensato/a'. 'Actualmente' means currently; for actually, say 'en realidad'. 'Realizar' means to carry out; to realize something is 'darse cuenta de'. Learn each false friend together with the word you really need.

Idiomatic Tener Expressions

Expresiones idiomáticas con tener

Spanish uses 'tener' (to have) + a noun for many states where English uses 'to be' + an adjective: 'Tengo hambre' means 'I'm hungry' (literally 'I have hunger'). Other common ones: tener sed (to be thirsty), tener sueño (sleepy), tener frío (cold), tener calor (hot), tener miedo (afraid), tener razón (right), tener suerte (lucky), tener prisa (in a hurry) and tener ganas de + infinitive (to feel like doing). Age works the same way: 'Tengo veinte años' (I'm twenty). Because these words are nouns, 'very' is 'mucho', 'mucha' or 'muchas' to agree with the noun, not 'muy': mucho frío, mucha sed, mucha hambre ('hambre' is feminine even though you say 'el hambre'), muchas ganas.

Verbs with Required Prepositions

Verbos con preposiciones obligatorias

Many Spanish verbs are followed by a fixed preposition, and it often differs from the English one: 'pensar en' (to think about someone or something), 'soñar con' (to dream about), 'depender de' (to depend on), 'preocuparse por' (to worry about). The preposition stays when an infinitive follows: 'Empecé a estudiar', 'Dejé de fumar', 'Insisto en pagar'. To ask for an opinion, use 'pensar de': '¿Qué piensas de la película?' (What do you think of the movie?). Learn each verb together with its preposition.

Articles with Abstract & General Nouns

Artículos con sustantivos abstractos y generales

When a noun means something in general (a whole idea or a whole category), Spanish puts the definite article (el, la, los, las) in front of it, even where English uses no article: 'La vida es bella' (Life is beautiful), 'Los perros son fieles' (Dogs are loyal), 'Me gusta la música' (I like music). This matters most when the noun is the subject of the sentence or comes after gustar. When you only mean 'some' of something, there is no article: 'Necesito paciencia' (I need patience). A language as the subject takes the article too ('El español es fácil'), but right after hablar or en it takes none: 'Hablo español', 'en español'.

Article Omission Rules

Omisión del artículo

Spanish usually uses more articles than English, but a few contexts take none. After ser, a bare profession or nationality takes no un/una: 'Soy profesor' (I'm a teacher), 'Es española' (She's Spanish). Once an adjective describes the person, un/una comes back: 'Es una profesora muy paciente'. There is no un/una after como meaning 'as' either: 'Trabajo como camarero' (I work as a waiter). Other contexts without an article are fixed phrases like 'en casa' and 'de noche', an unspecified amount after hay or verbs like necesitar ('Hay leche', 'Necesito pan'), most country names ('Vivo en España') and exclamations with qué ('¡Qué lástima!', What a pity!).

Ordinal Numbers (1st-10th)

Números ordinales (1.º-10.º)

Ordinal numbers give the position of something in a series. From 1st to 10th they are: primero, segundo, tercero, cuarto, quinto, sexto, séptimo, octavo, noveno, décimo (séptimo and décimo carry a written accent). They agree with the noun like adjectives: 'el segundo día', 'la primera vez', 'los primeros días'. Primero and tercero drop the -o before a masculine singular noun: 'el primer piso', 'el tercer día'. Above 10th, everyday Spanish usually puts an ordinary number after the noun: 'el piso once' (the 11th floor).

Otro Without Un (and Similar Determiners)

Otro sin un (y determinantes similares)

English 'another' looks like 'an + other', but Spanish otro already includes the 'a': say 'otro café' (another coffee), never 'un otro café'. Otro agrees with the noun (otra cerveza, otros días) and can follow el/la: 'el otro libro' (the other book). The plural takes no unos/unas ('otras preguntas'), 'the other one' is just 'el otro', and with a number otro comes first: 'otros dos cafés' (two more coffees). A few other words also go straight before the noun with no un/una: medio ('medio kilo' = half a kilo, 'media hora' = half an hour), cierto ('cierto día' = one day, a certain day) and cada ('cada día' = every day).

Cardinal Numbers 31-1000

Números cardinales 31-1000

From 31 to 99, Spanish joins the tens and the units with y, written as separate words: 'treinta y uno', 'cuarenta y dos', 'sesenta y siete'. A final uno becomes un before a masculine noun and una before a feminine one: 'treinta y un años', 'cuarenta y una sillas'. Exactly 100 is 'cien' ('cien euros'), and so is 100 before 'mil' ('cien mil'); when tens or units follow, it becomes 'ciento' ('ciento veinte'). There is no y after the hundreds: 'ciento cincuenta', not 'ciento y cincuenta'. The hundreds from 200 to 900 agree with the noun ('doscientos libros', 'doscientas páginas'), and three of them are irregular: quinientos (500), setecientos (700), novecientos (900). 1000 is just 'mil', with no 'un' in front: 'mil personas'.

Advanced Time Expressions

Expresiones avanzadas de la hora

Beyond the basic '¿Qué hora es?', Spanish has a few very common time expressions. 'Faltar ... para' says how much time is left, and faltar agrees with the amount of time: 'Falta una hora para la cena' (There's an hour to go before dinner), 'Faltan diez minutos para las tres' (It's ten to three). 'En punto' means exactly on the hour, 'a eso de' means 'around', and 'de la madrugada' is used for the small hours of the night. Timetables use the 24-hour clock ('a las 15:30'), with no 'de la tarde' after it. For how long something has been going on, use the present tense with 'desde hace' or 'hace ... que', not 'por': 'Vivo aquí desde hace dos años' = 'Hace dos años que vivo aquí' (I've lived here for two years). Hace stays singular even with a plural amount of time: 'hace tres meses', not 'hacen tres meses'.

Full Date Expressions

Expresiones completas de fecha

A full date in Spanish is el + day + de + month + de + year: 'el 15 de marzo de 2024'. Use el, not en, before the day ('Nací el 3 de julio'); en goes with a month or a year on its own ('en julio', 'en 1990'). Write the month with a small letter. The days are ordinary numbers ('el dos de febrero', 'el tres de marzo'); only the 1st can also be an ordinal: 'el primero de enero' or 'el uno de enero'. Years are read as one whole number, never split into pairs as in English: 1990 = 'mil novecientos noventa'. To ask the date, say '¿Qué fecha es hoy?' or '¿A cuántos estamos?'. The answer is 'Hoy es (el) 15 de marzo' or 'Estamos a 15 de marzo' (a, with no article).

Frequency Expressions

Expresiones de frecuencia

Frequency expressions say how often something happens: siempre (always), a menudo (often), a veces (sometimes), de vez en cuando (from time to time), casi nunca (hardly ever), nunca (never). For 'every', use todos los / todas las + a plural noun ('todos los días', 'todas las semanas') or cada + a singular noun ('cada día'); after a number, the noun is plural: 'cada dos días' (every other day). For a number of times, use vez, plural veces (not tiempo): 'una vez a la semana' (once a week), 'dos veces al mes' (twice a month), 'tres veces por semana' (three times a week). Watch out with nunca: if it comes after the verb, put no before the verb ('No voy nunca'); if it comes first, don't add no ('Nunca voy').