Lenguia | B2 Spanish Grammar: 62 Topics & Examples

The imperfect subjunctive (-ra form) is the past partner of the present subjunctive. To form it, take the ellos/ellas/ustedes form of the preterite, drop -ron and add -ra, -ras, -ra, -ramos, -rais, -ran: hablaron → hablara, comieron → comiera, tuvieron → tuviera. The nosotros form takes a written accent (tilde): habláramos, tuviéramos. Use it after a trigger in the past or the conditional ('Quería que vinieras', 'Me gustaría que vinieras'), in unreal 'if' clauses ('Si tuviera dinero, viajaría'), after ojalá for unlikely wishes ('Ojalá pudiera ir'), after como si ('Habla como si fuera el jefe') and in the polite 'Quisiera un café'.

Key rule

Take the ellos preterite, drop -ron and add -ra, -ras, -ra, -ramos, -rais, -ran (tuvieron → tuviera; nosotros: tuviéramos). Use it after triggers in the past or conditional, in unreal si-clauses, after ojalá for unlikely wishes, after como si, and in polite quisiera.

Examples

Si tuviera dinero, viajaría por el mundo.
Si tendría dinero, viajaría por el mundo.
In an unreal 'if' clause, si takes the imperfect subjunctive (tuviera). The conditional (tendría) belongs only in the result clause (viajaría).
Ojalá pudiera ir a la fiesta.
Ojalá puedo ir a la fiesta.
Ojalá takes the subjunctive, never the indicative (puedo). The imperfect subjunctive pudiera presents the wish as unlikely; 'Ojalá pueda ir' would present it as still possible.
Quería que hablaras con tu hermano.
Quería que hablas con tu hermano.
Querer que needs the subjunctive, and with the past main verb quería it is the imperfect subjunctive: hablaras. The indicative hablas is wrong here.

Common mistakes

Using the conditional instead of the imperfect subjunctive after 'si'
Si tendría tiempo, iría.
Si tuviera tiempo, iría.
In an unreal 'if' clause about the present or future, si takes the imperfect subjunctive, never the conditional. The conditional goes in the result clause (iría).
Using the present subjunctive when the imperfect subjunctive is needed
Quería que hables con él ayer, pero no pudiste.
Quería que hablaras con él ayer, pero no pudiste.
After a past main verb like quería, use the imperfect subjunctive: hablaras. The talk was meant for yesterday and never happened, so the present subjunctive hables is wrong. After a past verb, the present subjunctive is only accepted for something still ahead now.

B2Verb tenses

Imperfect Subjunctive (-se form)

Pretérito imperfecto de subjuntivo (forma -se)

The -se form is the second set of endings for the imperfect subjunctive: hablase instead of hablara, comiese instead of comiera, tuviese instead of tuviera. You build it the same way: take the ellos/ellas/ustedes form of the preterite, drop -ron and add -se, -ses, -se, -semos, -seis, -sen. Only the nosotros form takes a written accent (tilde): hablásemos, tuviésemos. In most sentences both forms mean exactly the same ('Quería que vinieses' = 'Quería que vinieras'). The -se form has two limits: it is not used for polite requests ('Quisiera un café', not 'Quisiese un café'), and it never replaces the conditional in the result clause ('Si pudiera, lo compraría', not 'lo comprase'). The -se form is more common in Spain than in Latin America, and more frequent in writing than in speech.

Key rule

Take the ellos preterite, drop -ron and add -se, -ses, -se, -semos, -seis, -sen (tuviese; nosotros: tuviésemos). It is interchangeable with -ra in subordinate and si-clauses, but never in polite main-clause forms like quisiera and never in place of the conditional.

Examples

Quería que hablase con el director.
Quería que hablaba con el director.
After a past main verb like quería que, use the imperfect subjunctive: hablase (or hablara, which means the same). The imperfect indicative hablaba is wrong here.
Si tuviese más tiempo, leería más libros.
Si + imperfect subjunctive in the -se form is fully correct; tuviese and tuviera are interchangeable here. The result clause keeps the conditional (leería).
Dudaba que él pudiese resolver el problema.
Pudiese (from pudieron) is the -se alternative to pudiera. Both are correct after dudaba que.

Common mistakes

Using the -se form in main-clause polite expressions
Quisiese reservar una mesa.
Quisiera reservar una mesa.
The -se form cannot be used for standalone polite requests. Only the -ra form (quisiera) functions in main clauses for courtesy.
Using the -se form instead of the conditional in the result clause
Si tuviera tiempo, te ayudase.
Si tuviera tiempo, te ayudaría.
The -se form can replace the -ra form, but never the conditional. The result clause of an unreal condition needs the conditional: ayudaría.

B2Verb tenses

Pluperfect Subjunctive

Pretérito pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo

The pluperfect subjunctive is hubiera (or hubiese) + past participle: hubiera hablado, hubieras comido, hubiéramos ido. It is the subjunctive version of 'had done'. Use it for past situations that did not happen, above all in 'if' clauses: 'Si hubiera sabido la verdad, no habría venido' (If I had known the truth, I wouldn't have come). The result clause takes habría + participle, or hubiera + participle, which is just as correct ('no hubiera venido'); if the result is about the present, it takes the simple conditional ('Si lo hubiera hecho antes, ahora no tendría este problema'). The 'if' clause itself never takes habría: 'Si habría sabido' is wrong. Use it also for regrets with ojalá ('Ojalá hubiera estudiado más' = I wish I had studied more) and after a trigger in the past when its action happened earlier ('No creía que hubieran terminado' = I didn't think they had finished).

Key rule

Hubiera/hubiese + past participle is the subjunctive of 'had done'. Use it in si-clauses about a past that did not happen, with habría (or hubiera) + participle for a past result and the simple conditional for a present one; in regrets with ojalá; and after a past trigger for an earlier action. Never put habría in the 'if' clause itself.

Examples

Si hubiera sabido la verdad, no habría venido.
Si habría sabido la verdad, no habría venido.
In an 'if' clause, si takes the pluperfect subjunctive (hubiera sabido), never the conditional perfect (habría sabido). Habría belongs in the result clause.
Ojalá hubiéramos llegado a tiempo.
Ojalá llegamos a tiempo.
Ojalá needs the subjunctive, and a regret about something that did not happen takes the pluperfect subjunctive: hubiéramos llegado. The indicative llegamos is wrong after ojalá.
No creía que hubieran terminado el proyecto.
No creía que terminaron el proyecto.
No creía que expresses doubt in the past about an earlier action, so it takes the pluperfect subjunctive (hubieran terminado), not the indicative terminaron.

Common mistakes

Using the conditional perfect in the si-clause instead of the pluperfect subjunctive
Si habría llegado antes, te habría visto.
Si hubiera llegado antes, te habría visto.
In an 'if' clause, si never takes the conditional perfect (habría llegado). Use the pluperfect subjunctive (hubiera llegado); habría goes in the result clause.
Using the preterite instead of the pluperfect subjunctive after ojalá
Ojalá estudié más para el examen.
Ojalá hubiera estudiado más para el examen.
A regret about the past (I didn't study enough) takes ojalá + pluperfect subjunctive. The preterite states a fact and cannot follow ojalá.

B2Verb tenses

Historical Present (Presente histórico)

Presente histórico

The historical present uses ordinary present-tense forms to tell past events, which makes them feel vivid and close: 'En 1492, Colón llega a América' instead of 'llegó'. It is very common in Spanish history books, biographies, timelines, news headlines and everyday anecdotes ('Entonces entro y me dice...'). Telling the same events in the past tenses is always correct too, so the present is a matter of style. A date or a past context must make clear that you are telling the past, and a passage should not jump between present and past at random. Everything else follows the normal rules: irregular forms stay irregular (muere, salgo), triggers still take the subjunctive ('le pide que pinte'), and time words count from the story's moment ('al día siguiente', not 'mañana').

Key rule

Use the ordinary present indicative, irregular forms included, to narrate past events vividly, anchored by a date or a past context. The past tenses are always an acceptable alternative; don't switch between present and past at random within a passage.

Examples

En 1492, Colón llega a América.
Historical present: the date places the event in the past, and the present llega makes it vivid. 'En 1492, Colón llegó a América' (preterite) is equally correct.
Cervantes nace en Alcalá de Henares en 1547 y muere en Madrid en 1616.
Cervantes nace en Alcalá de Henares en 1547 y more en Madrid en 1616.
The historical present uses ordinary present forms, stem changes included: morir → muere (o → ue). 'More' does not exist.
Entonces salgo de la tienda y veo a mi profesor.
Entonces salo de la tienda y veo a mi profesor.
In an anecdote, the present makes the story lively. Irregular yo forms stay irregular: salir → salgo, not salo. The preterite (salí, vi) would also be correct.

Common mistakes

Switching tenses at random within one passage
Colón llega a América en 1492. Después exploró las islas. Luego establece una colonia.
Colón llega a América en 1492. Después explora las islas. Luego establece una colonia.
In a timeline or summary, choose one tense and keep it. Jumping from llega to exploró and back to establece breaks the sequence and confuses the reader. A single switch at a dramatic moment of a spoken story is fine.
Forgetting the subjunctive after a trigger in a historical-present narration
Napoleón ordena a sus tropas que avanzan hacia Moscú.
Napoleón ordena a sus tropas que avancen hacia Moscú.
The historical present only replaces past indicative forms. A trigger like ordenar que still needs the subjunctive: avancen.

B2Verb tenses

Sequence of Tenses in Indicative

Correlación temporal en indicativo

When you report what someone said or thought with a past verb (dijo, contó, pensaba), the verb in the que-clause usually moves one step back in time: present → imperfect ('Estoy cansado' → 'Dijo que estaba cansado'), future → conditional ('Vendré' → 'Dijo que vendría'), present perfect → pluperfect ('He terminado' → 'Dijo que había terminado'). A preterite can move back to the pluperfect or stay as it is: 'Llegué el viernes' → 'Dijo que había llegado el viernes' or 'Dijo que llegó el viernes'. The imperfect, pluperfect and conditional don't change. With a present main verb (dice, cree), nothing shifts: 'Dice que está cansado'. If what was said still holds now, you may keep the original tense: 'Me dijo que vive en Madrid' (he still does), 'Me dijo que vendrá el lunes' (Monday is still ahead).

Key rule

After a past main verb, move the que-clause back one step: present → imperfect, future → conditional, present perfect (and optionally preterite) → pluperfect; the imperfect, pluperfect and conditional stay. Keep the present, future or present perfect only if it still holds or is still ahead now.

Examples

Dice que no tiene hambre.
Dice que no tenía hambre. (intended: He says he isn't hungry.)
With a present main verb (dice), nothing shifts: the present stays present. 'Dice que no tenía hambre' is correct Spanish, but it means he says he wasn't hungry at some earlier time.
Hace diez años, Pablo me dijo que tenía veinte años.
Hace diez años, Pablo me dijo que tiene veinte años.
After a past main verb, the present shifts to the imperfect (tenía). Keeping tiene is only possible for something still true now, and Pablo is no longer twenty.
Ayer me dijo que llegaría a las tres, pero llegó a las cinco.
Ayer me dijo que llegará a las tres, pero llegó a las cinco.
After a past main verb, the future shifts to the conditional (llegaría). The arrival is already over, so the future llegará is impossible.

Common mistakes

Keeping the present tense after a past main verb
Anoche me dijo que tiene hambre, así que le preparé la cena.
Anoche me dijo que tenía hambre, así que le preparé la cena.
After a past main verb, the present shifts to the imperfect (tenía). The hunger belonged to last night, so keeping tiene is wrong.
Using future instead of conditional after a past main verb
Prometió que vendrá a la fiesta, pero no vino.
Prometió que vendría a la fiesta, pero no vino.
After a past main verb, the future shifts to the conditional (vendría). The party is over, so the future vendrá is impossible.

B2Verb tenses

Sequence of Tenses in Subjunctive

Correlación temporal en subjuntivo

The tense of the subjunctive follows the tense of the main verb. After a present, present perfect, future or command, you normally use the present subjunctive: 'Quiero que vengas', 'Dile que venga'. After a past tense or the conditional, you normally use the imperfect subjunctive: 'Quería que vinieras', 'Sería mejor que vinieras'. For an action that happened earlier, use the compound forms: 'No creo que haya llegado' (present main verb), 'No creía que hubiera llegado' (past main verb). A present main verb can also take the imperfect subjunctive for a past event: 'No creo que viniera ayer'. After a past main verb, the present subjunctive is accepted for something still ahead now ('Me pidió que venga mañana'), but not for something already over ('Le pedí que me ayudara y vino').

Key rule

Present-sphere main verbs (present, present perfect, future, imperative) normally take the present subjunctive; past-sphere main verbs (past tenses and the conditional) normally take the imperfect subjunctive. For an earlier action, use haya + participle after a present-sphere verb and hubiera + participle after a past-sphere verb.

Examples

Quiero que venga a la fiesta.
Quiero que viniera a la fiesta.
The present main verb quiero looks forward, so it takes the present subjunctive: venga. The imperfect subjunctive viniera does not fit after quiero.
Quería que viniera a la fiesta de ayer.
Quería que venga a la fiesta de ayer.
The past main verb quería takes the imperfect subjunctive: viniera. The party is over, so the present subjunctive venga is impossible.
Le pedí que me ayudara con la mudanza y vino enseguida.
Le pedí que me ayude con la mudanza y vino enseguida.
The past main verb pedí plus a request that has already been fulfilled takes the imperfect subjunctive: ayudara, not the present subjunctive ayude.

Common mistakes

Using imperfect subjunctive after a present main verb
Quiero que viniera a cenar.
Quiero que venga a cenar.
Quiero looks forward from the present, so it takes the present subjunctive: venga, not the imperfect subjunctive viniera.
Using present subjunctive after a past main verb
Ayer le pedí que me ayude con el informe, pero no tuvo tiempo.
Ayer le pedí que me ayudara con el informe, pero no tuvo tiempo.
The past main verb pedí plus a request that is already over takes the imperfect subjunctive: ayudara, not ayude.

B2Verb tenses

Conditional Perfect

Condicional compuesto (condicional perfecto)

The conditional perfect is habría + past participle: habría hablado, habrías hecho, habríamos ido. It means 'would have done' and describes what would have happened in the past if things had been different: 'Habría ido si hubiera podido' (I would have gone if I had been able to). It is the result half of an unreal past condition; the si-clause itself takes hubiera + participle, never habría. In the result clause, hubiera + participle is also standard and very common: 'Si lo hubiera sabido, hubiera venido'. When that result lies in the past, the simple conditional is wrong: 'Anoche habría ido a la fiesta si me hubieran invitado', not 'Anoche iría a la fiesta si me hubieran invitado'. A result about the present, however, takes the simple conditional: 'Si hubiera aceptado ese trabajo, ahora viviría en Madrid'. The conditional perfect can also guess about something that had already happened before a past moment: 'Cuando llegamos, ya habría salido' (He had probably left by the time we arrived). Don't confuse habría (would have) with había (had).

Key rule

Habría + past participle says what would have happened in the past. It forms the past result of 'si + pluperfect subjunctive' (hubiera + participle can replace it there; a present result takes the simple conditional), and habría + participle can also guess about what had probably happened before a past moment ('Cuando llegamos, ya habría salido'). Never put habría in the 'if' clause itself.

Examples

Habría ido a tu fiesta si hubiera podido, pero estaba enfermo.
Iría a tu fiesta si hubiera podido, pero estaba enfermo.
The party is over (estaba enfermo), so the result needs the conditional perfect habría ido. The simple conditional iría refers to the present or future.
Ayer habríamos llegado a tiempo si no hubiera habido tráfico.
Ayer llegaríamos a tiempo si no hubiera habido tráfico.
The result is in the past (ayer), so it needs the conditional perfect: habríamos llegado. The simple conditional llegaríamos refers to the present or future.
Te lo habría dicho antes, pero no tenía tu número.
Te lo diría antes, pero no tenía tu número.
Something that would have happened in the past but didn't needs habría + participle: habría dicho. The simple conditional diría cannot express 'would have told' here.

Common mistakes

Using simple conditional instead of conditional perfect for past counterfactuals
Anoche iría a la fiesta si me hubieran invitado.
Anoche habría ido a la fiesta si me hubieran invitado.
The result is in the past (anoche), so it needs the conditional perfect: habría ido. The simple conditional iría only works for a result in the present or future ('Ahora estaría en la fiesta si me hubieran invitado').
Using conditional in the if-clause instead of pluperfect subjunctive
Habría venido si lo habría sabido.
Habría venido si lo hubiera sabido.
In an 'if' clause, si never takes the conditional. Use the pluperfect subjunctive: si lo hubiera sabido.

B2Verb tenses

Future and Conditional for Probability

Futuro y condicional de probabilidad

Spanish uses the future to guess about the present and the conditional to guess about the past. '¿Dónde estará Juan?' means 'I wonder where Juan is', and 'Tendrá unos treinta años' means 'He's probably about thirty'. 'Serían las tres cuando llegó' means 'It was probably around three when he arrived'. For something that has probably already happened, use the future perfect: 'Ya habrá llegado' (He has probably arrived by now), not 'Ya llegará'. For something that had probably happened before a past moment, use the conditional perfect: 'Cuando llegamos, ya habría salido' (He had probably already left when we arrived). The forms are the normal future and conditional, irregular stems included (tendrá, saldría), and haber meaning 'there is/are' stays singular: 'Habría unas cincuenta personas'. Only the meaning changes, from a future or a hypothesis to a guess.

Key rule

Move a fact one tense forward to turn it into a guess: present → future (estará), present perfect → future perfect (habrá llegado), imperfect or preterite → conditional (serían), pluperfect → conditional perfect (habría salido).

Examples

¿Dónde estará Juan? No contesta al teléfono.
The future estará is a guess about now: 'I wonder where Juan is.' '¿Dónde está Juan?' would be a plain question asking for information.
Serían las tres cuando llegó.
Serán las tres cuando llegó.
A guess about a past moment (cuando llegó) takes the conditional: serían ('it was probably about three'). The future serán can only guess about the present. 'Eran las tres' would state it as a fact.
Tendrá unos treinta años.
Tenerá unos treinta años.
Future of probability: 'He's probably about thirty.' It uses the normal future forms, irregular stems included: tener → tendrá.

Common mistakes

Building the future from the infinitive for irregular verbs
¿Por qué no contesta? Tenerá el teléfono apagado.
¿Por qué no contesta? Tendrá el teléfono apagado.
The future of probability uses the normal future forms, so irregular stems stay irregular: tener → tendrá, salir → saldrá, saber → sabrá, haber → habrá.
Making haber plural in an estimate
Habrán unas cien personas en la plaza.
Habrá unas cien personas en la plaza.
Haber meaning 'there is/are' has no plural, also in the future of probability: habrá unas cien personas ('there are probably about a hundred people').

B2Verb usage

Aspectual Periphrases with Gerund

Perífrasis aspectuales con gerundio

Besides 'estar + gerundio', Spanish uses other verbs + gerund to show how an action unfolds. Only the first verb is conjugated; the gerund never changes. 'Ir + gerundio' = gradual progress, with no 'a' ('La situación va mejorando', not 'va a mejorando'). 'Andar + gerundio' = going around doing something, often with a critical tone ('Anda diciendo tonterías'); its preterite is 'anduvo', not 'andó'. 'Seguir / continuar + gerundio' = still doing it ('Sigue lloviendo'). 'Llevar + time + gerundio' = how long it has been going on ('Llevo dos horas esperando'); here 'llevar' is not used in the preterite ('llevé') or in compound tenses ('he llevado'). 'Venir + gerundio' = a trend building up from the past until now ('Los precios vienen subiendo desde marzo'); with a bare amount of time like 'dos horas', use 'llevar' instead. To say that something has not happened, use 'sin' + infinitive with 'llevar' and 'seguir': 'Lleva tres días sin dormir' (not 'no durmiendo'), 'Sigue sin llamar'.

Key rule

Conjugate only the auxiliary and keep the main verb in the gerund: 'ir' for gradual progress, 'andar' for going around doing something, 'seguir / continuar' for an action still going on, 'llevar + time' for how long it has lasted, and 'venir' for a trend building up from the past.

Examples

La situación va mejorando poco a poco.
La situación va a mejorando poco a poco.
'Ir + gerundio' ('va mejorando') describes gradual progress and takes no 'a'. 'Va a mejorar', with an infinitive, is a different structure: the near future ('it is going to improve'). Mixing the two gives the wrong 'va a mejorando'.
Anduvo diciendo por ahí que le debían dinero.
Andó diciendo por ahí que le debían dinero.
'Andar + gerundio' means going around doing something, here with a critical tone: he went around telling people they owed him money. Only 'andar' is conjugated, and its preterite is irregular: anduve, anduviste, anduvo, anduvimos, anduvisteis, anduvieron. 'Andó' is a common mistake.
Sigue lloviendo, así que nos quedamos en casa.
Sigue llover, así que nos quedamos en casa.
'Seguir' takes the gerund, never the infinitive: 'sigue lloviendo' means 'it is still raining'.

Common mistakes

Adding 'a' to 'ir + gerundio' (mixing it with 'ir a + infinitive')
Mi español va a mejorando con la práctica.
Mi español va mejorando con la práctica.
'Ir + gerundio' describes gradual progress and never takes 'a'. 'Ir a + infinitive' is the near future ('va a mejorar' = it is going to improve). The two structures can't be combined.
Using 'venir + gerundio' with an amount of time
Vengo tres años viviendo aquí.
Llevo tres años viviendo aquí.
'Venir + gerundio' can't take a bare amount of time; it goes with 'desde' or 'desde hace'. To say how long something has been going on until now, use 'llevar + time + gerundio': 'Llevo tres años viviendo aquí' (I have been living here for three years).

B2Verb usage

Causative Hacer

Hacer causativo

'Hacer + infinitive' means 'to make someone do something' or 'to have something done': 'Esa película me hizo llorar' (That film made me cry), 'Hizo reparar el coche' (He had the car repaired). The infinitive follows 'hacer' directly: don't put 'a' before it ('hizo a reparar' is wrong) and don't use a gerund instead ('me hizo llorando' is wrong). Object pronouns normally go before the conjugated form of 'hacer' ('Me hizo esperar'), and a specific person made to act takes personal 'a' ('Hizo salir a los alumnos'). With a full clause, use 'hacer que' + subjunctive: 'La lluvia hizo que suspendieran el partido'. 'Hacerse + infinitive' means 'to make oneself...': 'hacerse entender' (to make oneself understood). Don't confuse 'hacer' with 'dejar + infinitive', which means 'to let': 'Déjame salir' (Let me go out). 'Mandar + infinitive' means 'to order' something done: 'El rey mandó construir un castillo' (The king had a castle built).

Key rule

Use 'hacer' directly followed by an infinitive (no 'a', never a gerund) to say that someone makes a person do something or has something done ('Me hizo esperar'). With a full clause, use 'hacer que' + subjunctive; use 'dejar' for letting and 'mandar' for ordering.

Examples

Hizo reparar el coche.
Hizo el coche reparar.
The infinitive comes right after 'hacer', and its object ('el coche') follows the infinitive: 'hizo reparar el coche' (he had the car repaired). Putting the object in between is wrong.
Esa película me hizo llorar.
Esa película me hizo llorando.
Causative 'hacer' takes an infinitive, never a gerund: 'me hizo llorar' (it made me cry).
¿El informe? El jefe se lo hizo repetir tres veces.
¿El informe? El jefe le lo hizo repetir tres veces.
'Repetir' has its own direct object ('lo' = el informe), so the person made to repeat it is an indirect object ('le'). Before lo, la, los, las, 'le' becomes 'se': 'se lo hizo repetir' (the boss made him repeat it three times). 'Le lo' is never possible.

Common mistakes

Using a gerund instead of an infinitive after 'hacer'
Me hizo esperando una hora.
Me hizo esperar una hora.
Causative 'hacer' takes an infinitive, never a gerund. English 'kept me waiting' tempts learners to use the gerund, but Spanish says 'me hizo esperar'.
Inserting a preposition between 'hacer' and the infinitive
Hizo a reparar el coche.
Hizo reparar el coche.
No preposition goes between 'hacer' and the infinitive. The infinitive follows 'hacer' directly.

B2Verb usage

Perception Verbs + Infinitive/Gerund

Verbos de percepción + infinitivo/gerundio

After perception verbs ('ver', 'oír', 'escuchar', 'sentir'), you can describe the action you perceived with an infinitive or a gerund. The infinitive shows the whole event: 'La vi salir' (I saw her leave). The gerund shows the action in progress: 'La vi saliendo' (I saw her as she was leaving). Both are correct; the choice changes the perspective, much as in English. The person you perceive is a direct object. A pronoun goes before a conjugated perception verb ('La vi salir', not 'Vi ella salir' or 'Vi la salir'). When the perception verb is an infinitive, the pronoun attaches to it or goes before the conjugated verb: 'Quiero verte bailar' or 'Te quiero ver bailar', not 'Quiero ver bailarte'. 'A ella' needs 'la' as well: 'La vi a ella', not 'Vi a ella'. A noun for a specific person takes personal 'a' ('Vi a María bailar'). Weather verbs take only the infinitive: 'Oí llover toda la noche'.

Key rule

Perception verb + object + infinitive shows the whole event ('La vi cruzar la calle'); perception verb + object + gerund shows the action in progress ('La vi cruzando la calle'). The person perceived is a direct object: lo, la, los, las before the verb, or personal 'a' before a noun for a specific person.

Examples

La vi salir del edificio.
The infinitive presents the whole event: I saw her leave the building. 'La vi saliendo del edificio' is also correct, but it means I saw her as she was coming out, in the middle of the action.
Lo oí cantando en la ducha.
Oí a él cantando en la ducha.
The gerund 'cantando' means he was in the middle of singing when I heard him. The person heard is a direct object, so use the pronoun 'lo' before the verb. 'A él' alone can't be the object; for emphasis, say 'Lo oí a él'.
Anoche la oí llegar muy tarde.
Anoche oí ella llegar muy tarde.
English says 'I heard her arrive', but 'her' is an object, so Spanish uses the direct object pronoun 'la' before the verb, not the subject pronoun 'ella'.

Common mistakes

Using a subject pronoun for the person perceived
Vi él salir de la tienda.
Lo vi salir de la tienda.
In 'I saw him leave', 'him' is a direct object. Spanish uses the direct object pronoun 'lo' before the conjugated verb, not the subject pronoun 'él'.
Using a stressed pronoun without the unstressed one
Vi a ella bailar con Pedro.
La vi bailar con Pedro.
'A ella' can't be the object on its own. Use 'la' before the verb; add 'a ella' only for emphasis: 'La vi a ella bailar con Pedro'.

B2Verb usage

Spanish Gerund Restrictions

Restricciones del gerundio en español

The Spanish gerund (-ando, -iendo) does much less than English '-ing'. It tells you how, when or why the main action happens: 'Llegó corriendo' (He arrived running), 'Aprendí español viviendo en México' (I learned Spanish by living in Mexico). It can't describe a noun like an adjective: say 'una caja que contiene libros', not 'una caja conteniendo libros'. A gerund for what someone is doing at that moment is fine after 'hay' or a verb like 'ver': 'Hay gente esperando', 'Vi a una mujer vendiendo flores'. It can't express a later, separate action: say 'Huyó y fue detenido horas después', not 'Huyó, siendo detenido horas después'. And it isn't a noun: use the infinitive as a subject and after a preposition ('Fumar es malo', 'antes de salir'), and a conjugated verb after 'mientras' ('mientras caminaba').

Key rule

Use the gerund for how, when or why something happens, at the same time as the main action or just before it ('Salió corriendo'). Don't use it for a lasting quality of a noun ('una caja que contiene libros', not 'conteniendo'), for a later action ('huyó y fue detenido', not 'siendo detenido'), or as a noun ('Fumar es malo', not 'Fumando').

Examples

Tengo un vecino que habla cinco idiomas.
Tengo un vecino hablando cinco idiomas.
The gerund can't describe a noun like an adjective. English says 'a neighbor speaking five languages', but Spanish needs a relative clause: 'un vecino que habla cinco idiomas'.
Vivo en un edificio que tiene piscina.
Vivo en un edificio teniendo piscina.
'Teniendo' would describe the noun 'edificio', which a gerund can't do. Use a relative clause: 'un edificio que tiene piscina' (or simply 'con piscina').
El ladrón huyó y fue detenido horas después.
El ladrón huyó, siendo detenido horas después.
The arrest happened hours after the escape. A gerund can't express a later action, so link the two with 'y' and a conjugated verb.

Common mistakes

Using gerund as an adjective modifying a noun
Recibí un paquete conteniendo documentos.
Recibí un paquete que contenía documentos.
The Spanish gerund can't work as an adjective. English 'a package containing documents' needs a relative clause in Spanish: 'un paquete que contenía documentos'.
Using a gerund for an action that happened later
Estudió Derecho en Salamanca, trasladándose después a Madrid.
Estudió Derecho en Salamanca y después se trasladó a Madrid.
The move to Madrid came after the studies. A gerund can't express a later action; link the two events with 'y' and a conjugated verb.

B2Verb usage

Pseudo-Copulative Verbs (ponerse, quedarse, volverse, hacerse, llegar a ser)

Verbos pseudocopulativos (ponerse, quedarse, volverse, hacerse, llegar a ser)

English can use 'become' (or 'get', 'turn', 'go') for almost any change. Spanish chooses the verb according to the type of change. 'Ponerse' + adjective is a quick, usually temporary change of mood, health or appearance: 'Se puso rojo' (He turned red). 'Quedarse' is the state someone is left in after something happens: 'Se quedó dormido' (He fell asleep), 'Se quedó sin trabajo' (He lost his job). 'Volverse' + adjective is a deep, lasting change in someone's character, or in the nature of a thing or situation: 'Se volvió muy desconfiado' (He became very distrustful), 'La situación se volvió insostenible' (The situation became unbearable). 'Hacerse' is a change that comes from effort, a decision or a natural process: 'Se hizo médico' (He became a doctor). 'Llegar a ser' is reaching a position or status after a long process: 'Llegó a ser presidenta' (She became president). 'Convertirse en' (to turn into) is followed by a noun, never an adjective: 'Se convirtió en un tirano' (He turned into a tyrant). All of them except 'llegar a ser' normally take a pronoun that matches the subject: 'me puse', 'te quedaste', 'se volvió'. 'Quedar' can also appear without it: 'Quedó viuda'.

Key rule

Choose the verb by the type of change: 'ponerse' + adjective for quick, usually temporary changes of mood, health or appearance; 'quedarse' for the state left after an event; 'volverse' + adjective for deep, lasting changes of character or nature; 'hacerse' for changes that come from effort, a decision or a gradual process; 'llegar a ser' for reaching a status after a long process. 'Convertirse en' needs a noun, never an adjective.

Examples

Se puso rojo de vergüenza.
Se hizo rojo de vergüenza.
Blushing is a quick, involuntary physical change, so Spanish uses 'ponerse'. 'Hacerse' is for changes that come from effort, a decision or a slow process, so it does not fit a blush.
Se quedó dormido en el sofá.
Se volvió dormido en el sofá.
'Quedarse dormido' (to fall asleep) describes the state he ended up in. 'Volverse' is for deep, lasting changes of character or nature and never combines with 'dormido'.
Con los años, se volvió muy tacaño.
Con los años, se convirtió en muy tacaño.
A lasting change of character is expressed with 'volverse' + adjective. 'Convertirse en' must be followed by a noun ('se convirtió en un tacaño'), so it cannot go directly before an adjective like 'tacaño'.

Common mistakes

Using 'ponerse' for a change of lifestyle or identity
Se puso vegetariano hace dos años.
Se hizo vegetariano hace dos años.
Becoming vegetarian is a decision about your way of life, so Spanish uses 'hacerse'. 'Ponerse' + adjective describes a change of mood, health or appearance, usually quick and passing, such as 'ponerse nervioso' or 'ponerse rojo'.
Using 'volverse' with a profession
Tras años de estudio, se volvió médico.
Tras años de estudio, se hizo médico.
'Volverse' describes changes of character and is not used with a bare noun of profession. A profession someone trains for takes 'hacerse' ('llegar a ser' is also possible when you want to stress the achievement).

B2Verb usage

Perfective vs Imperfective Aspect Across Tenses

Aspecto perfectivo e imperfectivo en todos los tiempos

Aspect is the way you view an action: as a completed whole or as something still in progress. You already know it from the past: the preterite 'comió' presents the meal as finished, while the imperfect 'comía' shows it going on. The same choice runs through the other tenses. The compound tenses with 'haber' show an action as already completed before a reference point: 'Ya ha terminado' (She has already finished), 'Para el lunes habré terminado' (By Monday I'll have finished). 'Estar' + gerund shows it in progress at that point: 'A las ocho estaré trabajando' (At eight I'll be working). In the past, a stated total length closes a single event, so it takes the preterite: 'Ayer trabajé ocho horas', not 'trabajaba'. 'En' + time says how long something took to finish ('Construyó la casa en seis meses'), while an action with no endpoint takes 'durante' ('Caminó durante dos horas'). States such as 'saber' or 'tener hambre' don't normally take 'estar' + gerund, and a few verbs change meaning in the preterite: 'supo' usually means 'found out' and 'conoció' usually means 'met'.

Key rule

Choose the viewpoint: the preterite and the compound tenses with 'haber' present an action as completed (comió, ha comido, había comido, habrá comido), while the imperfect and 'estar' + gerund present it as ongoing (comía, está comiendo, estaba comiendo, estará comiendo). A single past event with a stated total length takes the preterite (Ayer trabajé ocho horas), and some verbs often change meaning in the preterite (supo = found out, conoció = met, no quiso = refused).

Examples

Ya ha terminado el informe.
Ya está terminando el informe. (intended: She has already finished the report.)
'Ha terminado' (present perfect) presents the work as completed: the report is done. 'Está terminando' ('estar' + gerund) shows the work still in progress, so it cannot say that the report is finished.
A las ocho estará durmiendo.
A las ocho habrá dormido. (intended: At eight she will be sleeping.)
'Estará durmiendo' (future progressive) places you inside the action: at eight, the sleeping will be going on. 'Habrá dormido' (future perfect) would present the sleep as already over by eight, which is not the intended meaning.
Cuando llegué, Marta ya había comido.
Cuando llegué, Marta ya comía. (intended: When I arrived, Marta had already eaten.)
'Había comido' (pluperfect) presents the meal as completed before the moment of arrival. 'Ya comía' (imperfect) would mean that she was already eating when I arrived: the meal was still in progress.

Common mistakes

Using the future progressive for an action that will be complete by a deadline
Para el viernes estaré terminando el proyecto. (intended: By Friday I will have finished the project.)
Para el viernes habré terminado el proyecto.
'Para el viernes' (by Friday) is a deadline by which the action is complete, so Spanish uses the future perfect. The future progressive 'estaré terminando' says the work will still be in progress on Friday.
Using the imperfect of 'conocer' for meeting someone
Conocía a mi mujer en una fiesta en 2015.
Conocí a mi mujer en una fiesta en 2015.
In the preterite, 'conocer' marks the moment the acquaintance begins: 'conocí' = I met. The imperfect 'conocía' describes knowing someone as an ongoing state and cannot report a first meeting at a specific party.

B2Verb usage

Infinitive vs Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses

Infinitivo frente a subjuntivo en oraciones subordinadas

After verbs of wanting, feeling or influencing, the choice depends on who does each action. Same subject: use the infinitive, with no 'que'. 'Quiero ir' (I want to go: I want, I go). Different subjects: use 'que' + subjunctive. 'Quiero que vayas' (I want you to go: I want, you go). So don't say 'Quiero que yo vaya' for yourself, and don't copy English 'I want you to go' as 'Quiero tú ir'. Impersonal expressions of need, possibility or judgment work the same way: 'Es importante descansar' (a general statement) but 'Es importante que descanses' (you in particular) and 'Es posible que llueva mañana' (a particular event). The same goes for 'para', 'antes de' and 'sin': 'Estudio para aprobar' (I study to pass) but 'Te lo explico para que lo entiendas' (I'm explaining it so that you understand it). The main exception is verbs of permission, prohibition, command and advice (permitir, prohibir, dejar, mandar, aconsejar). They also allow an object pronoun + infinitive: 'Te prohíbo fumar' means the same as 'Te prohíbo que fumes'. 'Decir' in the sense 'tell someone to' is not one of them: 'Le dije que saliera' (I told him to leave), not 'Le dije salir'.

Key rule

After verbs of wanting, feeling or influencing, impersonal expressions such as 'es importante' or 'es necesario', and 'para', 'antes de' or 'sin', use the infinitive when both verbs have the same subject or the statement is general (Quiero ir, Estudio para aprobar, Es importante descansar), and 'que' + subjunctive when someone else does the action or the statement is about a particular person or event (Quiero que vayas, Te lo explico para que lo entiendas, Es importante que descanses, Es posible que llueva). Verbs of permission, prohibition, command and advice are the main exception: they also allow pronoun + infinitive (Te prohíbo fumar), but 'decir' does not (Le dije que saliera, not Le dije salir).

Examples

Quiero ir al cine.
Quiero que yo vaya al cine.
The person who wants and the person who goes are the same (I want, I go), so Spanish uses the infinitive. 'Que' + subjunctive signals that someone else does the action, so 'Quiero que yo vaya' sounds wrong.
Quiero que vengas a mi fiesta.
Quiero tú venir a mi fiesta.
Different subjects (I want, you come) need 'que' + subjunctive. English 'I want you to come' cannot be copied with an infinitive: an infinitive after 'querer' cannot have its own subject.
Me alegro de haberte conocido.
Me alegro de que yo te haya conocido.
Same subject (I'm glad, I met you), so 'alegrarse de' takes the infinitive. The perfect infinitive 'haber conocido' places the meeting before the gladness. 'De que' + subjunctive is only for someone else's action: 'Me alegro de que hayas venido'.

Common mistakes

Using an infinitive when the subjects differ
Necesito tú ayudarme con la mudanza.
Necesito que me ayudes con la mudanza.
I need and you help: the subjects differ, so Spanish needs 'que' + subjunctive. After a verb like 'necesitar' or 'querer', the infinitive cannot carry a different subject, as English 'I need you to help me' does.
Using 'que' + subjunctive with the same subject
Espero que yo llegue a tiempo.
Espero llegar a tiempo.
The person who hopes is the person who arrives, so Spanish uses the infinitive. 'Que' + subjunctive after 'esperar' is reserved for someone else: 'Espero que llegues a tiempo'.

B2Verb usage

Pronominal Verbs: Meaning Changes with Se

Verbos pronominales: cambios de significado con se

Many Spanish verbs change meaning when they take a pronoun (me, te, se, nos, os, se). These are not true reflexives: nobody does anything to themselves. 'Ir' is 'to go (somewhere)', but 'irse' is 'to leave': 'Me voy' (I'm leaving). 'Dormir' is 'to sleep', but 'dormirse' is 'to fall asleep': 'Me dormí a las once' (I fell asleep at eleven). 'Parecer' is 'to seem' or 'to look': 'Parece cansado' (He looks tired). 'Parecerse a' is 'to resemble': 'Se parece a su madre' (She looks like her mother). In the same way, 'quedarse' is 'to stay', 'llevarse bien' is 'to get along', 'encontrarse con' is 'to run into' and 'acordarse de' is 'to remember'. With 'comer' or 'beber', the pronoun stresses that something was finished completely, so it needs a specific or measured object: 'Se comió toda la pizza', but 'Comí pizza', not 'Me comí pizza'. 'Caerse' is the everyday verb for falling ('Me caí'), and 'Se me cayó el vaso' (I dropped the glass) presents the fall as an accident. The pronoun always matches the subject: 'me voy', 'te vas', 'nos vamos'.

Key rule

A pronoun (me, te, se, nos, os, se) can change a verb's meaning (parecer 'seem' / parecerse a 'resemble', quedar 'arrange to meet' / quedarse 'stay'), mark a departure or moment of change (irse 'leave', dormirse 'fall asleep') or stress completion (comerse toda la pizza). The pronoun always matches the subject, and each pair must be learned individually.

Examples

Se fue sin despedirse.
Fue sin despedirse. (intended: He left without saying goodbye.)
'Irse' means 'to leave': 'se fue' = he left. Plain 'ir' means 'to go somewhere', with the destination stated or clear from context ('Fue al trabajo sin despedirse'), so 'Fue sin despedirse' does not say that he left.
El niño se durmió en el coche.
El niño durmió en el coche. (intended: The child fell asleep in the car.)
'Dormirse' marks the moment of falling asleep. 'Dormir' describes sleeping as an activity, so 'El niño durmió en el coche' means that the child spent the time (or the night) asleep in the car.
Se cayó de la bicicleta.
'Caerse' is the everyday verb for a person or object losing balance and falling, so this is the normal way to say it. Plain 'caer' also exists, but it is typical of written reports ('El ciclista cayó en la última curva') and of things that come down from above ('Cae la nieve', 'Cayó la noche').

Common mistakes

Dropping the pronoun and losing the intended meaning
Ya voy. (intended: I'm leaving now.)
Ya me voy.
'Irse' means 'to leave': 'Ya me voy' (I'm leaving now). Without 'me', 'Ya voy' means 'I'm coming!' or 'I'm on my way', the answer you give when someone calls you.
Adding the pronoun where it does not belong
Se parece interesante.
Parece interesante.
'Parecer' (to seem, to look) takes no pronoun of its own: 'Parece interesante' (It looks interesting). 'Parecerse a' means 'to resemble' and is a different verb.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive After Temporal Conjunctions (Future Reference)

Subjuntivo con conjunciones temporales de futuro

After time conjunctions such as cuando (when), en cuanto and tan pronto como (as soon as), hasta que (until) and después de que (after), the mood depends on when the action happens. If it is still to come, use the subjunctive, never the future: 'Cuando llegues, cenaremos' (When you arrive, we'll have dinner), not 'Cuando llegarás'. If it is a habit or has already happened, use the indicative: 'Cuando llego a casa, ceno' (When I get home, I have dinner); 'Cuando llegué, cenamos' (When I arrived, we had dinner). After después de que, a past event can also take the imperfect subjunctive: 'Después de que llegara, cenamos' (After he arrived, we had dinner). Antes de que (before) is the exception: it always takes the subjunctive, even in the past: 'Salí antes de que llegara' (I left before he arrived).

Key rule

After temporal conjunctions such as cuando, en cuanto, tan pronto como, hasta que and después de que, use the subjunctive, never the future, for an action that is still to come, and the indicative for habits and past events. Antes de que always takes the subjunctive, and después de que also allows the imperfect subjunctive for past events.

Examples

Cuando llegues a casa, llámame.
Cuando llegas a casa, llámame.
The arrival hasn't happened yet, so the subjunctive 'llegues' is required after 'cuando', not the indicative 'llegas'.
En cuanto termine la reunión, iré a verte.
En cuanto termina la reunión, iré a verte.
The meeting hasn't ended yet (future reference), so 'en cuanto' requires the subjunctive 'termine', not the indicative 'termina'.
Antes de que salga el sol, quiero estar en la carretera.
Antes de que sale el sol, quiero estar en la carretera.
'Antes de que' always requires the subjunctive 'salga', never the indicative 'sale'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after cuando with future reference
Cuando tengo dinero, compraré un coche.
Cuando tenga dinero, compraré un coche.
Having the money is still in the future (the main clause is in the future: 'compraré'), so 'cuando' takes the present subjunctive 'tenga', not the indicative 'tengo'.
Using indicative after antes de que
Cierra la puerta antes de que llega el frío.
Cierra la puerta antes de que llegue el frío.
'Antes de que' always requires the subjunctive, regardless of context. Use 'llegue', not 'llega'.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Aunque + Indicative vs. Subjunctive

Aunque con indicativo y subjuntivo

Aunque means 'even though' or 'even if', and the mood of the verb tells you which. With the indicative, you state a fact: 'Aunque llueve, salgo' (Even though it's raining, I'm going out). With the subjunctive, you don't present it as a fact. You use it for something that may or may not happen: 'Aunque llueva mañana, saldré' (Even if it rains tomorrow, I'll go out). Don't use the future for a mere possibility: 'Aunque lloverá mañana' would say that it will rain. You also use the subjunctive for something the listener already knows, to brush it aside: 'Aunque sea tu jefe, no puede hablarte así' (He may be your boss, but he can't talk to you like that). For an unlikely or unreal situation, use the imperfect subjunctive with the conditional: 'Aunque me lo pidiera, no lo haría' (Even if he asked me, I wouldn't do it). For an unreal past, use the pluperfect subjunctive: 'Aunque hubiera llovido, habríamos ido' (Even if it had rained, we would have gone).

Key rule

Aunque + indicative states a fact ('even though'). Aunque + subjunctive does not assert: it presents a possibility ('even if') or grants a fact both speakers already know as beside the point ('it may be so, but').

Examples

Aunque llueve, vamos al parque.
Aunque llueva, vamos al parque. (intended: Even though it's raining, we're going to the park.)
The speaker is telling you that it is raining right now, so the indicative 'llueve' is used. The subjunctive 'llueva' would not give you that news: it would mean 'even if it rains', or brush aside rain you already know about.
Aunque llueva mañana, iremos a la playa.
Aunque lloverá mañana, iremos a la playa. (intended: Even if it rains tomorrow, we'll go to the beach.)
Tomorrow's rain is uncertain, so 'even if' needs the subjunctive 'llueva'. The future indicative 'lloverá' would assert that it will rain ('even though it will rain').
Aunque no tengo dinero, soy feliz.
Both moods are correct. The indicative 'tengo' simply states the fact. The subjunctive 'Aunque no tenga dinero, soy feliz' refers to the same real situation but brushes it aside as unimportant (I may not have money, but I'm happy).

Common mistakes

Using the present indicative for an unreal situation
Aunque tengo mucho dinero, no me compraría ese coche. (intended: Even if I had a lot of money, I wouldn't buy that car.)
Aunque tuviera mucho dinero, no me compraría ese coche.
You're imagining the situation: you don't actually have a lot of money. For an unreal situation, aunque takes the imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera', and the main clause is in the conditional ('compraría'). The indicative 'tengo' would state that you really do have a lot of money.
Always using indicative after aunque regardless of meaning
Aunque llueve mañana, iremos al concierto. (intended: Even if it rains tomorrow, we'll go to the concert.)
Aunque llueva mañana, iremos al concierto.
You don't know whether it will rain tomorrow ('even if'), so aunque takes the subjunctive 'llueva'. The indicative 'llueve' would assert that it is going to rain.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Concessive Conjunctions + Subjunctive

Conjunciones concesivas con subjuntivo

Besides aunque, Spanish has other concessive conjunctions: a pesar de que (despite the fact that), por más que and por mucho que (no matter how much), por poco que (no matter how little) and aun cuando (even if). Like aunque, they take the subjunctive for a concession that is hypothetical or still to come: 'Por más que lo intentes, no lo conseguirás' (No matter how hard you try, you won't manage it). The indicative states a fact: 'Por más que lo intento, no lo consigo' (No matter how hard I try, I can't do it). With real effort, the subjunctive is also common, because it presents the effort as useless: 'Por más que lo intente, no lo consigo'. Before an adjective or adverb, use por muy … que or por más … que: 'Por muy difícil que sea, lo haré' (However difficult it is, I'll do it). The formal si bien (although) takes the indicative. Use que before a conjugated verb ('a pesar de que llovía'), but not before a noun or an infinitive ('a pesar de la lluvia', 'a pesar de estar cansado').

Key rule

Por más que, por mucho que, aun cuando and a pesar de que work like aunque: the subjunctive for hypothetical or future concessions, the indicative to state a fact, though the subjunctive can also present a real fact as already known or an effort as useless. Si bien takes the indicative.

Examples

Por más que lo intente, no consigo entenderlo.
Both moods are correct here. The subjunctive 'intente' presents the real effort as pointless (no matter how hard I try). The indicative 'Por más que lo intento' would simply assert that the effort happens.
A pesar de que hacía frío, salimos a pasear.
A pesar de hacía frío, salimos a pasear.
Before a conjugated verb you need 'a pesar de que': 'a pesar de que hacía frío'. Without que, 'a pesar de' takes a noun ('a pesar del frío') or an infinitive. The indicative 'hacía' reports the cold as a fact.
Por mucho que estudies, si no descansas, no rendirás bien.
Por mucho que estudiarás, si no descansas, no rendirás bien.
This is general advice about future performance, so 'por mucho que' takes the present subjunctive 'estudies', not the future indicative 'estudiarás'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after por más que in hypothetical contexts
Por más que trabajas mañana, no vas a terminar a tiempo. (intended: No matter how hard you work tomorrow, you won't finish on time.)
Por más que trabajes mañana, no vas a terminar a tiempo.
When expressing a forward-looking or hypothetical concession, por más que takes the subjunctive 'trabajes', not the indicative 'trabajas'.
Using subjunctive after si bien
Si bien la economía haya crecido, el desempleo persiste.
Si bien la economía ha crecido, el desempleo persiste.
'Si bien' is a formal concessive that states a fact, so it takes the indicative 'ha crecido', not the subjunctive 'haya crecido'.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Conditional Conjunctions Requiring Subjunctive

Conjunciones condicionales que exigen subjuntivo

Some conjunctions set a condition and always take the subjunctive: con tal de que (provided that), siempre y cuando (as long as), a condición de que (on condition that), a menos que and a no ser que (unless), and en caso de que (in case). For example: 'Te presto el coche con tal de que lo cuides' (I'll lend you the car provided you look after it). In the past, they take the imperfect subjunctive: 'Llevé un paraguas en caso de que lloviera' (I took an umbrella in case it rained). Siempre que takes the subjunctive when it means 'as long as' ('Iré siempre que vengas'), but the indicative when it means 'whenever' and describes a habit ('Siempre que llueve, me quedo en casa'). Plain si (if) takes the indicative for real conditions, never the present subjunctive: 'Si llueve, no salgo'. With the same subject in both clauses, con tal de and a condición de usually take an infinitive, without que: 'Lo haré con tal de aprobar' (I'll do it if that's what it takes to pass).

Key rule

Con tal de que, siempre y cuando, siempre que ('as long as'), a condición de que, a menos que, a no ser que and en caso de que always take the subjunctive. Siempre que meaning 'whenever' takes the indicative for habits, and plain si never takes the present subjunctive.

Examples

Iré a la fiesta siempre que tú vengas conmigo.
Iré a la fiesta siempre que tú vienes conmigo.
'Siempre que' in its conditional sense (as long as) requires the subjunctive 'vengas', not the indicative 'vienes'.
No aprobarás a menos que estudies más.
No aprobarás a menos que estudias más.
'A menos que' (unless) always requires the subjunctive: 'estudies', not 'estudias'.
Te presto el libro con tal de que me lo devuelvas mañana.
Te presto el libro con tal de que me lo devuelves mañana.
'Con tal de que' (provided that) always takes the subjunctive 'devuelvas', not the indicative 'devuelves'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after a menos que
No salgo a menos que deja de llover.
No salgo a menos que deje de llover.
'A menos que' (unless) always takes the subjunctive: 'deje', not the indicative 'deja'.
Confusing habitual siempre que (indicative) with conditional siempre que (subjunctive)
Siempre que vengas a Madrid, comes paella. (intended: Every time you come to Madrid, you eat paella.)
Siempre que vienes a Madrid, comes paella.
Here 'siempre que' means 'every time that' and describes a habit, so it takes the indicative 'vienes'. With the subjunctive 'vengas', the clause would point to the future ('whenever you come' or 'as long as you come'), and the present 'comes' would sound like an instruction ('Whenever you come to Madrid, make sure you eat paella').

B2Subjunctive triggers

Si + Imperfect/Pluperfect Subjunctive for Hypothetical Conditions

Oraciones condicionales hipotéticas con si + subjuntivo

For a situation that is unreal or unlikely now or in the future, use si + imperfect subjunctive, then the conditional: 'Si tuviera dinero, viajaría' (If I had money, I would travel). For a past situation that did not happen, use si + pluperfect subjunctive, then the conditional perfect: 'Si hubiera sabido la verdad, no habría dicho nada' (If I had known the truth, I wouldn't have said anything). The si-clause never takes the present subjunctive ('si tenga') or the conditional ('si tendría'). A real or likely condition takes the present indicative instead: 'Si tengo dinero, viajaré' (If I have money, I'll travel).

Key rule

Unreal or unlikely present or future: si + imperfect subjunctive, then the conditional (Si tuviera dinero, viajaría). Unreal past: si + pluperfect subjunctive, then the conditional perfect (Si hubiera sabido, habría ido). The if-clause never takes the present subjunctive or the conditional.

Examples

Si tuviera dinero, viajaría por el mundo.
Si tenga dinero, viajaría por el mundo.
After 'si' for hypothetical conditions, use the imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera', never the present subjunctive 'tenga'.
Si pudiera volar, iría a Japón mañana.
Si pueda volar, iría a Japón mañana.
Hypothetical si-clauses require the imperfect subjunctive 'pudiera', not the present subjunctive 'pueda'.
Si hubiera sabido la verdad, no habría dicho nada.
Si habría sabido la verdad, no habría dicho nada.
Past counterfactuals require the pluperfect subjunctive 'hubiera sabido' after si, not the conditional perfect 'habría sabido'.

Common mistakes

Using present subjunctive after si
Si tenga tiempo, iría al cine.
Si tuviera tiempo, iría al cine.
The present subjunctive never follows 'if' si. With the conditional 'iría' in the result, the condition is hypothetical and needs the imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera'. For a real condition, use the present indicative instead: 'Si tengo tiempo, iré al cine'.
Using the conditional in the si-clause
Si tendría dinero, compraría un coche.
Si tuviera dinero, compraría un coche.
The conditional goes only in the result clause, just as English 'would' does: 'If I had money' has no 'would', and 'Si tuviera dinero' has no conditional. The si-clause takes the imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera'; the conditional 'compraría' belongs in the result.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Mixed Conditional Sentences with Si

Oraciones condicionales mixtas con si

A mixed conditional links two different times. A past condition can have a present result: si + pluperfect subjunctive, then the conditional: 'Si hubiera estudiado medicina, ahora sería médico' (If I had studied medicine, I would be a doctor now). A present condition can explain a past result: si + imperfect subjunctive, then the conditional perfect: 'Si fuera más responsable, no habría perdido el trabajo' (If I were more responsible, I wouldn't have lost the job). A time word in the result clause, such as ahora or ayer, tells you which form the result needs. As in every unreal condition, the si-clause never takes the conditional or the present subjunctive.

Key rule

Past condition + present result: si + pluperfect subjunctive, then the conditional (Si hubiera estudiado, ahora tendría...). Present condition + past result: si + imperfect subjunctive, then the conditional perfect (Si fuera más valiente, habría hablado...).

Examples

Si hubiera estudiado más, ahora tendría un mejor trabajo.
Si hubiera estudiado más, ahora habría tenido un mejor trabajo.
The past condition (not studying) has a present consequence (the job you have now). 'Ahora' calls for the simple conditional 'tendría', not the conditional perfect 'habría tenido'.
Si fuera más responsable, no habría perdido el trabajo.
Si soy más responsable, no habría perdido el trabajo.
The condition is a present trait, but it is contrary to fact (I am not responsible enough), so it takes the imperfect subjunctive 'fuera', not the present indicative 'soy'. The past result uses the conditional perfect 'habría perdido'.
Si no hubiera comido tanto anoche, ahora me sentiría mejor.
Si no hubiera comido tanto anoche, ahora me habría sentido mejor.
Last night's overeating affects how you feel now. 'Ahora' calls for the simple conditional 'me sentiría', not the conditional perfect 'me habría sentido'.

Common mistakes

Using the same tense pattern for both clauses when time frames differ
Si hubiera estudiado más, habría tenido un mejor trabajo ahora.
Si hubiera estudiado más, tendría un mejor trabajo ahora.
When the result is about the present ('ahora'), use the simple conditional 'tendría', not the conditional perfect 'habría tenido'. The conditional perfect places the result in the past.
Using imperfect subjunctive for a clearly past condition
Si estudiara más el año pasado, ahora sabría más.
Si hubiera estudiado más el año pasado, ahora sabría más.
The time marker 'el año pasado' places the condition in the past: you did not study enough then. Use the pluperfect subjunctive 'hubiera estudiado', not the imperfect subjunctive 'estudiara'.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Como si + Imperfect/Pluperfect Subjunctive

Como si + subjuntivo imperfecto o pluscuamperfecto

Como si (as if) compares what happens with an imagined situation. It takes only the imperfect or the pluperfect subjunctive, never the indicative, the present subjunctive or the conditional. Use the imperfect subjunctive for something imagined at the same time as the main verb: 'Habla como si fuera español' (He speaks as if he were Spanish). Use the pluperfect subjunctive for something imagined before it: 'Actuó como si no hubiera pasado nada' (He acted as if nothing had happened).

Key rule

Como si takes only the imperfect subjunctive (imagined at the same time as the main verb) or the pluperfect subjunctive (imagined as earlier), whatever the tense of the main verb. Never the indicative, the present subjunctive or the conditional.

Examples

Habla español como si fuera nativo.
Habla español como si es nativo.
Como si always takes the subjunctive, even though English allows 'as if he is'. Use the imperfect subjunctive 'fuera', not the indicative 'es'.
Gasta dinero como si no hubiera un mañana.
Gasta dinero como si no hay un mañana.
After como si, use the subjunctive. Here 'hubiera' (imperfect subjunctive of haber) is needed, not the indicative 'hay'.
Actuó como si no hubiera pasado nada.
Actuó como si no pasó nada.
The comparison refers to something prior to the main action, so use the pluperfect subjunctive 'hubiera pasado', not the preterite 'pasó'.

Common mistakes

Using the indicative after como si
Habla como si sabe mucho.
Habla como si supiera mucho.
Como si always requires the subjunctive. The indicative 'sabe' must become the imperfect subjunctive 'supiera'.
Using the present subjunctive after como si
Actúa como si sea el jefe.
Actúa como si fuera el jefe.
Como si only accepts the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, never the present subjunctive. 'Sea' must become 'fuera'.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive in Relative Clauses with Indefinite Antecedent

Subjuntivo en cláusulas relativas con antecedente indefinido

In a relative clause (que...), use the subjunctive when the person or thing you describe is not identified: you are looking for one or need one, you ask whether one exists, or you say none exists. 'Busco a alguien que hable francés' (I'm looking for someone who speaks French, whoever that may be); 'No hay nadie que sepa la respuesta' (There's nobody who knows the answer). Use the indicative for a real, known one: 'Conozco a alguien que habla francés' (I know someone who speaks French). After a past main verb, the subjunctive is normally imperfect: 'Buscaba a alguien que hablara francés' (I was looking for someone who spoke French). The -quiera forms normally take the subjunctive too: 'Dondequiera que vayas, te seguiré' (Wherever you go, I'll follow you).

Key rule

Use the subjunctive in a relative clause when the antecedent is unidentified, hypothetical or denied (Busco a alguien que hable francés; No hay nadie que sepa). Use the indicative when it is specific and known (Conozco a alguien que habla francés). The -quiera forms (quienquiera que, dondequiera que) normally take the subjunctive.

Examples

Busco a alguien que hable francés.
Busco a alguien que habla francés. (intended: I'm looking for anyone at all who speaks French.)
You have no particular person in mind: anyone who speaks French will do. This unidentified antecedent takes the subjunctive 'hable'. The indicative 'habla' would only fit if you were looking for one particular person you already know about.
Conozco a alguien que habla francés.
Conozco a alguien que hable francés.
The person exists and is known. Use the indicative 'habla' because the antecedent is specific and real.
No hay nadie que sepa la respuesta.
No hay nadie que sabe la respuesta.
The antecedent is denied (nobody). Negated existence requires the subjunctive: 'sepa', not 'sabe'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative when the antecedent is hypothetical or unidentified
Quiero un trabajo que paga bien. (intended: I want a job, any job, that pays well.)
Quiero un trabajo que pague bien.
No particular job is meant, and you haven't found one yet, so the antecedent is hypothetical. Use the subjunctive 'pague', not the indicative 'paga', which would only fit one particular job you already know about.
Using subjunctive when the antecedent is known and specific
Tengo un hermano que viva en Madrid.
Tengo un hermano que vive en Madrid.
The brother exists and is known. A specific, real antecedent requires the indicative 'vive', not the subjunctive 'viva'.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Belief Verbs and Polarity: Indicative vs. Subjunctive

Verbos de creencia y polaridad: indicativo vs. subjuntivo

Opinion phrases such as 'creo que', 'pienso que', 'supongo que', 'me parece que' and 'parece que' take the indicative when they are affirmative, because you present the idea as true: 'Creo que viene' (I think he's coming). When they are negated, the idea is no longer asserted, so the subjunctive follows: 'No creo que venga' (I don't think he's coming). 'No es que' also takes the subjunctive: 'No es que no quiera, es que no puedo' (It's not that I don't want to, it's that I can't). In a yes/no question the indicative is the neutral choice ('¿Crees que viene?'); the subjunctive is also correct and adds a note of doubt ('¿Crees que venga?').

Key rule

Affirmative opinion verbs (creo que, pienso que, me parece que) take the indicative; negated ones (no creo que, no parece que) and 'no es que' take the subjunctive. In yes/no questions the indicative is neutral and the subjunctive adds doubt.

Examples

Creo que María tiene razón.
Creo que María tenga razón.
Affirmative 'creo que' presents María being right as true, so it takes the indicative 'tiene', not the subjunctive 'tenga'.
No creo que María tenga razón.
No creo que María tiene razón.
Negated 'no creo que' no longer asserts the idea, so it takes the subjunctive 'tenga', not the indicative 'tiene'.
¿Crees que venga a la fiesta?
In a yes/no question both moods are correct. The subjunctive 'venga' adds a note of doubt and is especially common in Latin America. The indicative '¿Crees que viene a la fiesta?' is the neutral choice.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after negated 'creer que'
No creo que él sabe la verdad.
No creo que él sepa la verdad.
'No creo que' does not assert that he knows the truth, so it takes the subjunctive 'sepa', not the indicative 'sabe'.
Using subjunctive after affirmative 'creer que'
Creo que sea importante estudiar más.
Creo que es importante estudiar más.
Affirmative 'creo que' gives your opinion as true, so it takes the indicative 'es', not the subjunctive 'sea'.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Después de que and Temporal Conjunctions: Indicative vs. Subjunctive

Después de que y conjunciones temporales: indicativo vs. subjuntivo

After después de que, hasta que, en cuanto, tan pronto como and mientras, the mood depends on time. For something that has already happened, or happens as a habit, use the indicative: 'Después de que llegó, cenamos' (After he arrived, we had dinner). For something still to come, use the subjunctive, never the future: 'Después de que llegue, cenaremos' (After he arrives, we'll have dinner). 'Antes de que' always takes the subjunctive, even in the past: 'Limpié la casa antes de que llegara' (I cleaned the house before he arrived). For a past event, 'después de que' also allows the imperfect subjunctive, mostly in writing: 'después de que llegara'. If both clauses have the same subject, use después de + infinitive: 'Después de cenar, salí' (After having dinner, I went out).

Key rule

After temporal conjunctions, use the indicative for events that have happened or happen habitually, and the subjunctive (never the future) for events still to come. 'Antes de que' always takes the subjunctive, and 'después de que' also allows the imperfect subjunctive for past events.

Examples

Después de que llegó, empecé a cocinar.
Después de que llegue, empecé a cocinar.
The arrival already happened, so the time clause takes the indicative preterite 'llegó'. The present subjunctive 'llegue' refers to the future and clashes with the past 'empecé'.
Después de que llegue, empezaremos a comer.
Después de que llega, empezaremos a comer.
The arrival has not happened yet, so 'después de que' takes the present subjunctive 'llegue', not the indicative 'llega'.
Esperaré hasta que termines.
Esperaré hasta que terminas.
The finishing has not happened yet, so 'hasta que' takes the subjunctive 'termines', not the indicative 'terminas'.

Common mistakes

Using the present subjunctive for a past event
Ayer, después de que llegue mi hermano, cenamos.
Ayer, después de que llegó mi hermano, cenamos.
The arrival already happened ('ayer'), so use the indicative preterite 'llegó'. The present subjunctive 'llegue' would present the arrival as still to come, which clashes with 'ayer' and the past 'cenamos'. In writing you will also see the imperfect subjunctive 'llegara' for past events after 'después de que'; that is correct too.
Using indicative for future events with 'hasta que'
No me iré hasta que terminas.
No me iré hasta que termines.
The finishing has not happened yet, so 'hasta que' takes the subjunctive 'termines', not the indicative 'terminas'.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Fixed Subjunctive Phrases and Idiomatic Expressions

Frases hechas con subjuntivo y expresiones idiomáticas

Some everyday expressions have a built-in subjunctive that no other verb or conjunction triggers, so you learn them as units. Hedges limit what you claim: 'que yo sepa' (as far as I know), 'que yo recuerde' (as far as I remember). Everyday wishes start with 'que': '¡Que te vaya bien!' (All the best!), '¡Que descanses!' (Sleep well!). The concessive pattern puts the same subjunctive verb before and after a relative word such as 'lo que', 'como' or 'donde': 'pase lo que pase' (whatever happens), 'digan lo que digan' (whatever they say), 'sea como sea' (be that as it may). In a past story it moves to the imperfect subjunctive: 'pasara lo que pasara' (whatever happened). The indicative is wrong in all of them: 'Que yo sepa, no hay clase mañana', not 'Que yo sé'.

Key rule

Some expressions contain a built-in subjunctive: hedges (que yo sepa, que yo recuerde), wishes (¡Que te vaya bien!) and the reduplicated concessive pattern (pase lo que pase, digan lo que digan). Never use the indicative in them; in past narratives the concessive pattern switches to the imperfect subjunctive (pasara lo que pasara).

Examples

Que yo sepa, no han llegado todavía.
Que yo sé, no han llegado todavía.
'Que yo sepa' (as far as I know) is a fixed hedging phrase with the subjunctive 'sepa'. The indicative 'sé' is not possible in it.
Digan lo que digan, seguiré con mi plan.
Dicen lo que dicen, seguiré con mi plan.
'Digan lo que digan' (whatever they say) is the concessive reduplication pattern, which needs the subjunctive in both verbs: 'digan', not 'dicen'.
Sea como sea, tenemos que terminar hoy.
Sea como es, tenemos que terminar hoy.
'Sea como sea' (be that as it may, anyway) is a fixed concessive phrase that repeats the same subjunctive form of 'ser' in both positions. Switching the second verb to the indicative 'es' breaks the pattern.

Common mistakes

Using indicative in concessive reduplication phrases
Dicen lo que dicen, yo no cambio de opinión.
Digan lo que digan, yo no cambio de opinión.
The concessive pattern needs the subjunctive in both verb positions: 'digan lo que digan', not the indicative 'dicen lo que dicen'.
Using indicative in hedging phrases
Que yo sé, no hay problema.
Que yo sepa, no hay problema.
'Que yo sepa' (as far as I know) is a fixed expression with the subjunctive 'sepa'. The indicative 'sé' is not possible in it.

B2Subjunctive triggers

Imperfect Subjunctive for Courtesy and Softening

Imperfecto de subjuntivo de cortesía y atenuación

With three verbs, querer, poder and deber, the -ra form of the imperfect subjunctive can stand on its own instead of the conditional to soften what you say: 'Quisiera un café, por favor' (I'd like a coffee, please), 'Debieras descansar más' (You should rest more), '¿Pudiera usted ayudarme?' (Could you help me?). 'Quisiera' is by far the most common and is used everywhere. It means 'I'd like' now, not 'I wanted' (that is 'quería'). The -se form cannot do this: in a request, say 'quisiera', never 'quisiese'. Verbs such as gustar keep the conditional: 'Me gustaría saber…', not 'Me gustara saber…'.

Key rule

With querer, poder and deber, the -ra imperfect subjunctive (quisiera, pudiera, debiera) can replace the conditional to soften requests and advice. The -se form cannot do this, and verbs such as gustar keep the conditional (me gustaría, not me gustara).

Examples

Quisiera reservar una mesa para dos, por favor.
Quiera reservar una mesa para dos, por favor.
The polite 'I'd like' is the imperfect subjunctive 'quisiera'. 'Quiera' is the present subjunctive and cannot mean 'I'd like'.
¿Pudiera usted repetir eso, por favor?
¿Podiera usted repetir eso, por favor?
The -ra form is built on the preterite stem: 'pudieron' → 'pudiera'. 'Podiera' does not exist. ('¿Podría usted repetir eso?' is an equally polite and more common alternative.)
Debiera usted considerar otras opciones.
Debiese usted considerar otras opciones.
'Debiera' (= 'debería') softens the advice. Only the -ra form can replace the conditional; the -se form 'debiese' cannot.

Common mistakes

Using the -se form for courtesy instead of -ra
Quisiese un vaso de agua, por favor.
Quisiera un vaso de agua, por favor.
Only the -ra form can replace the conditional in a polite request. 'Quisiese' cannot be used this way; use 'quisiera'.
Using the present subjunctive 'quiera' instead of 'quisiera'
Quiera hablar con el gerente, por favor.
Quisiera hablar con el gerente, por favor.
The polite 'I'd like' is the imperfect subjunctive 'quisiera'. 'Quiera' is the present subjunctive and cannot mean 'I'd like'.

B2Agreement

Ambiguous-Gender Nouns

Sustantivos de género ambiguo

A few Spanish nouns have ambiguous gender: they can be masculine or feminine, and both are correct. The key example is 'mar': 'el mar' in everyday Spanish, 'la mar' in the language of sailors and poets. 'Azúcar' also works both ways ('el azúcar', 'la azúcar'). You choose the gender, but the adjective must follow your choice: 'el mar tranquilo' or 'la mar tranquila', never 'la mar tranquilo'. With 'azúcar', the mix 'el azúcar blanca' is also accepted, but 'la azúcar blanco' is always wrong. 'Arte' is usually masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural: 'el arte moderno', 'las bellas artes'. A second group changes meaning with gender: 'el orden' is order or sequence ('el orden alfabético'), 'la orden' is a command; 'el capital' is money, 'la capital' is a capital city.

Key rule

Ambiguous nouns such as 'mar' and 'azúcar' accept either gender, but the words that agree with them must follow the gender you choose ('la mar tranquila', never 'la mar tranquilo'; the mix 'el azúcar blanca' is an accepted exception); 'arte' is usually masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural. Nouns such as 'orden', 'capital' and 'cometa' change meaning with gender, so the article decides what you say.

Examples

El mar estaba tranquilo.
La mar estaba tranquilo.
'Mar' is normally masculine in everyday Spanish, so 'el mar' takes 'tranquilo'. The incorrect sentence switches to feminine 'la mar' but keeps the masculine adjective. Whichever gender you choose, the adjective must match it: 'la mar estaba tranquila'.
La mar estaba brava esa noche.
La mar estaba bravo esa noche.
'La mar' is correct in the language of sailors and in literature, and it needs feminine agreement: 'brava', not 'bravo'.
El azúcar blanco se disolvió rápido.
La azúcar blanco se disolvió rápido.
'Azúcar' accepts both genders: 'el azúcar blanco' (the more common choice) and 'la azúcar blanca' are both correct, and the mixed 'el azúcar blanca' is also accepted as a special case of this noun. The one combination that never works is a feminine article with a masculine adjective: 'la azúcar blanco'.

Common mistakes

Using feminine article with 'arte' in the singular
La arte contemporánea me interesa.
El arte contemporáneo me interesa.
In the singular, 'arte' is normally masculine, so the adjective is masculine too: 'el arte contemporáneo'. 'La arte' is never possible, because 'arte' begins with a stressed 'a' and takes 'el' in the singular. In the plural it is feminine: 'las artes contemporáneas'.
Confusing 'el orden' and 'la orden'
El orden del juez fue contundente.
La orden del juez fue contundente.
A judge's command is 'la orden'. 'El orden' refers to sequence or arrangement, like 'el orden alfabético'.

B2Agreement

Epicene Nouns: Fixed Grammatical Gender

Sustantivos epicenos: género gramatical fijo

Epicene nouns have one fixed gender that stays the same whatever the sex of the person or animal. 'La víctima' and 'la persona' are always feminine, even for a man; 'el personaje' and 'el ser humano' are always masculine, even for a woman. The articles, adjectives and participles that go with the noun agree with it, not with the real person: 'La víctima, un hombre de 30 años, fue trasladada al hospital.' Many animal names work the same way. To say the animal's sex, add 'macho' or 'hembra' and keep the noun's gender: 'la jirafa macho', 'el mosquito hembra'. With people, however, a subject pronoun in a new sentence refers to the real person: 'Hablé con la víctima, un joven de veinte años. Él me contó lo que pasó.'

Key rule

Epicene nouns keep one gender for both sexes: the articles, adjectives and participles that go with them agree with that gender, not with the real sex ('la víctima fue trasladada', even for a man). For animals, add 'macho' or 'hembra' and keep the noun's gender ('la jirafa macho').

Examples

La víctima fue rescatada por los bomberos.
El víctimo fue rescatado por los bomberos.
'Víctima' is feminine for everyone, and there is no masculine form 'víctimo'. Even if the victim is a man, say 'la víctima fue rescatada'.
La persona más indicada para el puesto es Pedro.
La persona más indicado para el puesto es Pedro.
'Persona' is always feminine, so the adjective that goes with it is feminine too: 'la persona más indicada', even though the person is Pedro.
El personaje principal de la novela es una mujer valiente.
La personaje principal de la novela es una mujer valiente.
'Personaje' is always masculine: 'el personaje principal', even when the character is a woman.

Common mistakes

Inventing a non-existent gendered form of an epicene noun
El víctimo del robo declaró ante la policía.
La víctima del robo declaró ante la policía.
'Víctima' has no masculine form. It is always 'la víctima' regardless of the sex of the person.
Changing the article to match the referent's sex
El persona que llamó era un hombre.
La persona que llamó era un hombre.
'Persona' is always feminine. Use 'la persona' even when referring to a male individual.

B2Agreement

Complex Subject-Verb Agreement

Concordancia compleja sujeto-verbo

Four situations need extra care. (1) 'Haber' meaning 'there is / there are' stays singular in every tense, and so does a verb placed in front of it: 'Había tres personas', 'Hubo varios accidentes', 'Ha habido problemas', 'Va a haber cambios', 'Puede haber retrasos'. In standard Spanish, 'habían', 'hubieron', 'han habido' and 'pueden haber' are wrong here. (2) Subjects joined by 'y' take a plural verb, and subjects joined by 'ni…ni' before the verb normally do too. Two infinitives joined by 'y' are the exception: they normally take a singular verb ('Me gusta leer y viajar'). If one of the subjects is 'yo', the verb takes the nosotros form: 'Mi hermano y yo vivimos en Madrid', 'Ni tú ni yo lo sabemos.' (3) Collective nouns such as 'la gente', 'el público' or 'el equipo' take a singular verb: 'La gente dice…', 'El equipo ganó'. After 'la mayoría de', 'la mitad de' or 'un grupo de' + a plural noun, both numbers are correct: 'La mayoría de los estudiantes aprobó / aprobaron.' (4) A subject placed after the verb still agrees with it: 'En esta calle viven muchas familias.'

Key rule

Existential 'haber' is singular in every tense ('hay', 'había', 'hubo', 'ha habido', 'va a haber'), and subjects joined by 'y' take a plural verb, in the nosotros form if 'yo' is included (two infinitives normally take a singular one: 'Me gusta leer y viajar'). Collective nouns such as 'la gente' and 'el equipo' take a singular verb, but after 'la mayoría de' or 'un grupo de' + a plural noun either number is correct.

Examples

La mayoría de los estudiantes aprobaron el examen.
Both 'aprobaron' and 'aprobó' are correct here. The singular agrees with 'la mayoría'; the plural agrees with 'los estudiantes' and is very common, because the focus is on the individual students.
Mañana habrá muchas personas en la manifestación.
Mañana habrán muchas personas en la manifestación.
Existential 'haber' stays singular in every tense, including the future: 'habrá', not 'habrán', even with 'muchas personas'.
Había tres personas esperando.
Habían tres personas esperando.
Existential 'haber' in the imperfect is 'había', however many people were waiting. 'Habían' is common in speech in many regions, but it is not standard.

Common mistakes

Pluralizing existential 'haber'
Habían muchas opciones disponibles.
Había muchas opciones disponibles.
Existential 'haber' is singular in every tense: 'había', whatever the number of options. The plural 'habían' is widespread in the speech of many regions, even among native speakers, but it is not standard.
Using singular verb with two coordinated subjects joined by 'y'
Mi hermano y mi hermana trabaja en la misma empresa.
Mi hermano y mi hermana trabajan en la misma empresa.
Two subjects joined by 'y' form a plural subject and require a plural verb: 'trabajan'.

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B2Pronouns

Relative Pronoun Cuyo/a/os/as

Pronombre relativo cuyo/a/os/as

'Cuyo' means 'whose' in a relative clause: 'La autora cuyo libro leí' (the author whose book I read). Unlike English 'whose', it has four forms: cuyo, cuya, cuyos, cuyas. It agrees with the noun that follows it, the thing possessed, not with the owner: 'la mujer cuyo marido', 'el hombre cuya casa', 'la ciudad cuyas playas'. It comes before that noun and replaces the article: 'cuyo libro', not 'cuyo el libro'. If the clause needs a preposition, it goes before 'cuyo': 'el hombre a cuyo hijo conocí' (from 'conocí a su hijo'). 'Cuyo' belongs mainly to careful and written Spanish. Replacing it with 'que su' ('el hombre que su casa…') is common in casual speech but is not standard.

Key rule

'Cuyo/cuya/cuyos/cuyas' means 'whose'. It comes before the possessed noun in place of the article ('cuyo libro', 'cuya última novela') and agrees with that noun in gender and number, not with the owner.

Examples

La autora cuyo libro leí es colombiana.
La autora cuya libro leí es colombiana.
'Cuyo' agrees with 'libro' (masculine singular), the thing possessed, not with 'autora'. The owner being a woman does not make it 'cuya'.
La mujer cuyas ideas admiro trabaja en esta universidad.
La mujer cuya ideas admiro trabaja en esta universidad.
The number also comes from the possessed noun: one woman, several ideas, so 'cuyas' (feminine plural, like 'ideas'), not singular 'cuya'.
Vivo en un país cuya economía crece muy rápido.
Vivo en un país cuyo economía crece muy rápido.
'Cuya' agrees with 'economía' (feminine singular), not with 'país' (masculine).

Common mistakes

Making 'cuyo' agree with the possessor instead of the possessed noun
La escritora cuya marido es periodista vive en Barcelona.
La escritora cuyo marido es periodista vive en Barcelona.
'Cuyo' must agree with 'marido' (masculine singular), not with 'escritora' (feminine). The possessed noun determines the form.
Replacing 'cuyo' with 'que su' in formal writing
El profesor que sus clases eran tan interesantes se jubiló.
El profesor cuyas clases eran tan interesantes se jubiló.
'Que su' is heard in casual speech, but it is considered incorrect in standard Spanish. In writing, use 'cuyo', here 'cuyas' to agree with 'clases'.

B2Pronouns

Leísmo, Laísmo, and Loísmo

Leísmo, laísmo y loísmo

In standard Spanish, the choice between 'le' and 'lo' / 'la' depends on the pronoun's function (direct or indirect object), not on the person's gender. Direct objects take 'lo', 'la', 'los', 'las': 'Lo vi' (I saw him), 'La vi' (I saw her). Indirect objects take 'le', 'les' for men and women alike: 'Le dije la verdad' (I told him or her the truth). The verb decides which one the person is: with 'decir', 'dar', 'preguntar', 'pedir', 'regalar', 'escribir' and 'gustar', the person is an indirect object ('Le escribo cada semana'); with 'ver', 'llamar', 'invitar' and 'conocer', a direct object ('La invité'). Three regional deviations exist. Leísmo uses 'le' as a direct object ('Le vi'). The RAE accepts it for one male person ('A Juan le vi ayer'), so you will hear it, but 'lo vi' is always correct. It is also accepted with usted ('Encantado de conocerle'). But 'le' as a direct object for a woman ('A Ana le llamé') or a thing ('El libro le leí') and plural 'les' ('Les vi') are not standard: say 'la llamé', 'lo leí', 'los vi'. Laísmo uses 'la' as an indirect object ('La dije la verdad') and loísmo uses 'lo' as an indirect object ('Lo di el libro'). Both are errors in standard Spanish.

Key rule

Choose the pronoun by function first: 'lo/la/los/las' (which also show gender) for direct objects, 'le/les' for indirect objects, for men and women alike. Leísmo ('le' as a direct object) is accepted for one male person ('A Juan le vi') and with usted, but 'le' for things or women, plural 'les' ('Les vi'), laísmo ('La dije la verdad') and loísmo ('Lo di el libro') are not standard.

Examples

A Juan lo vi ayer en la calle.
'Lo' is the standard direct object pronoun for a man, correct everywhere. In central and northern Spain you will also hear 'A Juan le vi ayer en la calle'. This leísmo is accepted by the RAE because the pronoun refers to one male person, so both versions are correct.
¿Dónde está mi paraguas? No lo encuentro.
¿Dónde está mi paraguas? No le encuentro.
'Paraguas' is a thing and the direct object of 'encontrar', so the pronoun is 'lo'. Leísmo is only accepted for male persons; 'le' for a thing is not standard.
Le dije la verdad a María.
La dije la verdad a María.
With 'decir', the person you tell is the indirect object and the thing you say ('la verdad') is the direct object. The indirect object pronoun is 'le' for a woman too. 'La dije' is laísmo.

Common mistakes

Using 'la' as indirect object for feminine referents (laísmo)
A mi hermana la dije que viniera temprano.
A mi hermana le dije que viniera temprano.
In 'decir algo a alguien', the person told is the indirect object, so the pronoun is 'le' for a man or a woman. Using 'la' here is laísmo.
Using 'le' for non-human direct objects (unaccepted leísmo)
El libro le leí en dos días.
El libro lo leí en dos días.
Leísmo is only accepted for male persons. 'El libro' is a thing and the direct object of 'leer', so the pronoun is 'lo'.

B2Pronouns

Ethical Dative (Dativo ético)

Dativo ético: implicación emocional del hablante

The ethical dative is an extra 'me', 'te', 'nos' or 'os' that shows that the speaker (or the listener) is emotionally involved in what happens, although they take no part in the action. A worried parent says 'El niño no me come' (the child won't eat, and it worries me). 'No me le hables así a tu madre' means 'Don't talk to your mother like that (it upsets me)'. This 'me' does not mean 'to me' or 'for me', and you can always leave it out: 'El niño no come' is correct, just neutral. When the ethical 'me' meets other pronouns, it comes after 'se', 'te' and 'os' and before third-person pronouns such as 'le', 'lo' or 'la': 'Mi hija se me casa', 'No te me vayas a caer', 'No me le hables así'. It is typical of informal speech.

Key rule

The ethical dative is an optional 'me', 'te', 'nos' or 'os' that adds the speaker's or listener's emotional involvement without adding a participant ('El niño no me come'). It follows the normal pronoun order: after 'se', 'te' and 'os', before 'le' ('No te me vayas a caer', 'No me le hables así').

Examples

No me le hables así a tu madre.
No le me hables así a tu madre.
The ethical 'me' is first person and 'le' is third person, and a first-person pronoun always comes before 'le', 'lo' or 'la': 'me le', never 'le me'. Here 'le' is the ordinary indirect object that refers to the mother, and 'me' adds the speaker's displeasure.
El niño no me come nada.
'El niño no come nada' is also correct and simply states a fact. With 'me', a worried parent is speaking: the child won't eat, and that affects the parent personally. The 'me' does not mean 'to me' or 'for me'.
Mi hija se me casa en junio.
'Mi hija se casa en junio' is also correct: neutral news. The ethical 'me' adds the parent's emotion, such as pride or a touch of nostalgia. 'Se' belongs to 'casarse' and comes first; 'me' follows it.

Common mistakes

Confusing the ethical dative with a true indirect object
No me le hables así. (intended: Don't talk to me like that.)
No me hables así.
In 'No me le hables así', 'le' is the person being spoken to and 'me' is only the ethical dative, so it means 'Don't talk to him or her like that'. If you are the person spoken to, 'me' is the real indirect object and there is no 'le'.
Putting the ethical 'me' before 'se'
Mi hija me se casa en junio.
Mi hija se me casa en junio.
'Se' always comes first in a group of unstressed pronouns. The 'se' of 'casarse' is followed by the ethical 'me': 'se me', never 'me se'.

B2Pronouns

Aspectual Se (Completion/Totality)

Se aspectual: significado de totalidad o culminación

Aspectual 'se' is an optional pronoun added to verbs like 'comer', 'beber', 'leer', 'aprender' and 'saber' to present the action as complete: the whole thing was eaten, drunk, read or learned. 'Comió la pizza' (he ate the pizza) is neutral; 'Se comió la pizza' stresses that he ate all of it. The pronoun changes with the subject: me comí, te comiste, se comió, nos comimos, os comisteis, se comieron. It is not reflexive, and it needs a bounded object, that is, a whole thing or a counted amount ('la pizza', 'una pizza', 'tres cervezas'), never a bare noun: 'he ate pizza' is 'comió pizza', not 'se comió pizza'. With 'ir' and 'llevar' it changes the meaning: 'fue' means 'he went', 'se fue' means 'he left'; 'llevó' means 'he took (somewhere)', 'se llevó' means 'he took away'.

Key rule

Aspectual 'se' (me, te, se, nos, os, se, agreeing with the subject) is an optional addition to verbs like 'comer', 'beber', 'leer', 'aprender' and 'saber' that presents the action as complete: 'Se comió toda la pizza'. It needs a bounded object ('he ate pizza' is 'comió pizza', not 'se comió pizza'), and with 'ir' and 'llevar' it changes the meaning: 'irse' means to leave, 'llevarse' to take away.

Examples

Mi hermano se comió toda la pizza.
Mi hermano se comió pizza.
Aspectual 'se' presents the eating as complete, so it needs a bounded object such as 'toda la pizza' or 'una pizza entera'. With a bare noun, drop the 'se': 'Mi hermano comió pizza'.
Me bebí tres cervezas.
Se bebí tres cervezas.
The aspectual pronoun agrees with the subject. The subject here is 'yo', so the pronoun is 'me': 'me bebí'. 'Se' is only for él, ella, usted, ellos, ellas and ustedes.
Se leyó el libro en una noche.
'Leyó el libro en una noche' is also correct. 'Se leyó' stresses that the reader got through the whole book, cover to cover, which suits the idea of doing it in a single night.

Common mistakes

Using aspectual 'se' with a bare noun as the object
Anoche mi padre se bebió vino.
Anoche mi padre bebió vino. / Anoche mi padre se bebió una botella de vino.
Aspectual 'se' presents the action as complete, so the object must be a bounded amount (la botella, una botella, tres copas). With a bare noun such as 'vino', leave out the 'se'.
Using 'saberse' for a fact introduced by 'que'
Me sé que la reunión es mañana.
Sé que la reunión es mañana.
'Saberse' means to know something thoroughly because you have learned it, and it takes a noun object: 'Me sé la lección', 'Me sé los nombres'. To report a fact with 'que', use plain 'saber'.

B2Pronouns

Middle Voice Se (Subject Affected, No Agent)

Se de voz media: el sujeto se ve afectado sin agente

Middle voice 'se' turns a verb like 'romper' (to break something) into 'romperse' (to break): the thing that changes becomes the subject, the verb agrees with it, and no one is presented as causing it. Compare 'Juan rompió el vaso' (Juan broke the glass) with 'El vaso se rompió' (The glass broke) and 'Se rompieron los vasos' (The glasses broke). English often uses the same verb for both, but with verbs like 'romper', 'abrir', 'apagar' or 'quemar' Spanish needs the 'se': 'La puerta se abrió', not 'La puerta abrió'. Some change-of-state verbs take no 'se', so learn each verb with its pattern: 'Los precios aumentaron' (Prices rose). Add an indirect object pronoun after 'se' to say who it happened to by accident: 'Se me cayó el teléfono' (I dropped my phone).

Key rule

With verbs like 'romper', 'abrir', 'apagar' or 'quemar', use middle voice 'se' when the thing that changes is the subject and no one is presented as causing it ('El vaso se rompió', 'La puerta se abrió'), but some change-of-state verbs take none ('Los precios aumentaron'). The verb agrees with the thing; add me, te, le, nos, os or les after 'se' for the person affected by accident ('Se me cayó el teléfono'), and use the active verb to say who did it.

Examples

Se rompió el vaso.
Rompió el vaso. (intended: The glass broke.)
'Romper' on its own is transitive, so 'Rompió el vaso' means that someone broke the glass. To say that the glass broke, with no one presented as the cause, Spanish needs 'se': 'Se rompió el vaso'.
De repente, la puerta se abrió sola.
De repente, la puerta fue abierta sola.
'Se abrió' presents the opening as something that happened to the door with no one involved, which is why it combines with 'sola' (by itself). The passive 'fue abierta' means that someone opened it, so it contradicts 'sola'.
Se me cayó el teléfono al suelo.
Caí el teléfono al suelo.
'Caer' cannot take an object, so 'Caí el teléfono' is impossible. Spanish makes the phone the subject ('se cayó el teléfono') and adds 'me' for the person it happened to, presenting the drop as an accident.

Common mistakes

Using the accidental 'se + indirect object' pattern for a deliberate action
Se me rompió el vaso a propósito.
Rompí el vaso a propósito.
'Se me rompió' presents the event as something that just happened to you, so it contradicts 'a propósito' (on purpose). If you did it deliberately, use the active verb.
Omitting 'se' with intransitive change-of-state verbs
La puerta abrió.
La puerta se abrió.
Many change-of-state verbs need 'se' when the thing that changes is the subject. Without 'se', 'abrir' is transitive and needs someone who opens something. ('La tienda abre a las nueve' is a different use: opening for business.)

B2Pronouns

Redundant/Doubled Object Pronouns

Pronombres de objeto redundantes o duplicados

Spanish often uses an object pronoun together with the noun or pronoun it refers to, in the same sentence. This is called doubling: in 'Le di el libro a María', 'le' and 'a María' are the same person. Sometimes doubling is optional: with an indirect object noun after the verb, 'Di el libro a María' is also correct, although the version with 'le' is very common. Sometimes it is required: with a stressed pronoun ('A mí me gusta', never 'A mí gusta'), with verbs like 'gustar' ('A Ana le encanta el cine'), and when a definite direct object or an indirect object is moved to the front as the topic ('A Juan lo vi ayer', 'A mi madre le compré un regalo'). A fronted direct object that has no article and refers to nothing in particular takes no pronoun: 'Dinero no tengo'. The pronoun agrees with what it doubles: 'A María la vi', 'Les envié una carta a mis padres'.

Key rule

Doubling is required with stressed pronouns ('A mí me gusta', 'Los vi a ellos'), with 'gustar'-type verbs ('A Ana le encanta') and with a definite direct object or an indirect object fronted as the topic ('A Juan lo vi', 'A mi madre le compré un regalo'). With an indirect object noun after the verb it is optional but very common ('Le di el libro a María'), and the pronoun must agree in number ('Les di el libro a mis padres').

Examples

A Juan lo vi ayer en el parque.
A Juan vi ayer en el parque.
'A Juan' is the direct object, moved to the front as the topic of the sentence. A fronted definite direct object must be picked up by the pronoun 'lo'.
Le di el libro a María.
'Le' and 'a María' refer to the same person. With an indirect object noun after the verb, this doubling is optional: 'Di el libro a María' is also correct, but the version with 'le' is the usual one in everyday speech.
A mí me gusta el café.
A mí gusta el café.
The stressed pronoun 'a mí' only adds emphasis; the real indirect object of 'gustar' is 'me', and it cannot be left out.

Common mistakes

Omitting the clitic with a fronted direct object
A María vi ayer.
A María la vi ayer.
When a definite direct object is moved to the front as the topic, it must be picked up by the pronoun that matches it: 'a María' → 'la'.
Omitting the clitic with stressed pronouns (a mí, a ti, etc.)
A mí gusta la música.
A mí me gusta la música.
Stressed pronouns (a mí, a ti, a él, a nosotros...) always appear together with the matching unstressed pronoun. 'A mí' adds emphasis; 'me' is the real indirect object.

B2Prepositions

Formal Prepositions: Tras and Mediante

Preposiciones formales: tras y mediante

'Tras' and 'mediante' are one-word prepositions typical of formal Spanish: news reports, academic texts and official documents. 'Tras' usually means 'after', like 'después de': 'Tras la reunión, firmaron el acuerdo' (After the meeting, they signed the agreement). It can also mean 'behind', like 'detrás de', but 'detrás de' is not used for 'after' an event ('detrás de la reunión' is wrong). Don't confuse 'tras' with the adverb 'atrás' (back), which can't take a noun directly: 'Dio un paso atrás' (He took a step back). 'Mediante' means 'by means of' or 'through', like 'por medio de': 'Resolvieron el conflicto mediante el diálogo' (They resolved the conflict through dialogue). Both go straight before their complement. 'Tras' takes a noun or an infinitive, never a gerund ('tras recibir', not 'tras recibiendo'). 'Mediante' takes a noun, with no 'de' or 'a' after it and normally no infinitive ('mediante la negociación', not 'mediante negociar').

Key rule

'Tras' (after; behind) and 'mediante' (by means of, through) are formal prepositions that go directly before their complement: 'tras' + noun or infinitive, 'mediante' + noun. Avoid 'mediante de', 'mediante a' and 'tras' + gerund.

Examples

Tras la reunión, firmaron el acuerdo.
Detrás de la reunión, firmaron el acuerdo.
'Tras' here means 'after' in time: 'After the meeting, they signed the agreement.' 'Detrás de' means 'behind' and is not used for 'after' an event, so it cannot express 'after the meeting'.
Mediante un acuerdo bilateral, resolvieron el conflicto.
Mediante de un acuerdo bilateral, resolvieron el conflicto.
'Mediante' is a one-word preposition and takes its noun directly: 'By means of a bilateral agreement, they resolved the conflict.' Learners add 'de' by analogy with 'por medio de', but 'mediante de' is wrong.
El Gobierno aprobó la reforma mediante un decreto extraordinario.
El Gobierno aprobó la reforma mediante a un decreto extraordinario.
'Mediante' takes its complement directly: 'by means of an extraordinary decree'. Learners sometimes add 'a' by analogy with 'gracias a', but 'mediante a' is wrong.

Common mistakes

Using a gerund after 'tras'
Tras recibiendo el premio, dio un breve discurso.
Tras recibir el premio, dio un breve discurso.
After 'tras', as after 'después de', Spanish uses the infinitive, not the gerund. English 'after receiving' tempts learners to write 'tras recibiendo', but the correct form is 'tras recibir'.
Adding 'de' after 'mediante'
Lo lograron mediante de un esfuerzo enorme.
Lo lograron mediante un esfuerzo enorme.
'Mediante' is a one-word preposition that goes directly before its noun. Unlike 'por medio de', it has no 'de'.

B2Prepositions

Queísmo and Dequeísmo

Queísmo y dequeísmo

Some verbs, adjectives and nouns need 'de' before a 'que' clause, and others do not. Dequeísmo is adding a 'de' that does not belong: 'Pienso que es verdad', not 'Pienso de que es verdad'. Queísmo is dropping a 'de' that is required: 'Me alegro de que vengas', not 'Me alegro que vengas'. To check, replace the clause with 'eso': 'Me alegro de eso' has 'de', so you write 'de que'; 'Pienso eso' has no 'de', so you write just 'que'. Both slips are common even among native speakers, but careful Spanish avoids them.

Key rule

Keep 'de' before 'que' only if the verb, adjective or noun takes 'de' before a noun: replace the clause with 'eso' to check ('Me alegro de eso', so 'Me alegro de que...'; 'Pienso eso', so 'Pienso que...'). An extra 'de' is dequeísmo; a missing one is queísmo.

Examples

Pienso que tienes razón.
Pienso de que tienes razón.
Dequeísmo: 'pensar' takes a direct clause with 'que'. Test: 'Pienso eso' (correct), not 'Pienso de eso'.
Me alegro de que hayas venido.
Me alegro que hayas venido.
Queísmo: 'alegrarse de' requires 'de'. Test: 'Me alegro de eso' (correct), not 'Me alegro eso'.
Creo que es una buena idea.
Creo de que es una buena idea.
Dequeísmo: 'creer' takes a direct clause with 'que'. Test: 'Creo eso', not 'Creo de eso'.

Common mistakes

Dequeísmo with 'pensar'
Pienso de que deberíamos irnos.
Pienso que deberíamos irnos.
'Pensar' takes a direct complement introduced by 'que'. The 'eso' test confirms: 'Pienso eso', not 'Pienso de eso'. Adding 'de' is a dequeísmo error.
Queísmo with 'alegrarse de'
Me alegro que todo haya salido bien.
Me alegro de que todo haya salido bien.
'Alegrarse' requires the preposition 'de' before the clause. The 'eso' test: 'Me alegro de eso'. Omitting 'de' is a queísmo error. (With the non-reflexive verb 'alegrar', 'Me alegra que todo haya salido bien' is also correct: there the clause is the subject, so there is no 'de'.)

B2Prepositions

Verbal Preposition Regime

Régimen preposicional de los verbos

Many Spanish verbs are tied to a fixed preposition that introduces their complement: 'depender de' (depend on), 'consistir en' (consist of), 'confiar en' (trust), 'soñar con' (dream of/about), 'contar con' (count on), 'acordarse de' (remember), 'atreverse a' (dare to). The preposition often differs from the English one, so learn each verb together with its preposition: 'Todo depende de ti' (It all depends on you), 'Sueño con viajar' (I dream of traveling). Dropping the preposition or copying the English one ('depender en', 'consistir de') is a mistake. One exception to know: when a whole clause tells what you dreamt, use 'soñar que' with no 'con': 'Soñé que volaba' (I dreamt I was flying).

Key rule

Many verbs take a fixed preposition that often differs from English: 'depender de', 'consistir en', 'contar con', 'confiar en', 'atreverse a'. Learn each verb with its preposition, and keep it before nouns, infinitives and 'que' clauses alike ('Confío en que todo saldrá bien').

Examples

Tu éxito depende de tu esfuerzo.
Tu éxito depende en tu esfuerzo.
'Depender' takes 'de' (not 'en', as English 'depend on' might suggest). 'Depender de' = to depend on.
La dieta consiste en comer más verduras.
La dieta consiste de comer más verduras.
'Consistir' takes 'en' (not 'de', as English 'consist of' might suggest). 'Consistir en' = to consist of.
Insistió en pagar la cena.
Insistió de pagar la cena.
'Insistir' takes 'en'. 'Insistir en' = to insist on.

Common mistakes

Using 'en' with 'depender' (English interference from 'depend on')
Todo depende en las circunstancias.
Todo depende de las circunstancias.
English 'depend on' uses 'on', but Spanish 'depender' requires 'de', not 'en'. This is one of the most common preposition errors for English speakers.
Using 'de' with 'consistir' (English interference from 'consist of')
El trabajo consiste de atender a los clientes.
El trabajo consiste en atender a los clientes.
English 'consist of' uses 'of', but Spanish 'consistir' requires 'en', not 'de'. (To say 'is made up of' parts, Spanish usually uses 'constar de': 'El examen consta de tres partes'.)

B2Prepositions

Advanced Por/Para Nuances

Matices avanzados de por y para

Beyond the basic uses, 'por' and 'para' appear in fixed expressions whose meaning you learn as a whole. 'Por mí' means 'fine by me, I don't mind' ('Por mí, haz lo que quieras'), while 'para mí' means 'in my opinion' ('Para mí, es la mejor opción'). 'Estar por' + infinitive says that something is still to be done when the subject is a thing ('El informe está por escribir') and means 'to be tempted to' when it is a person ('Estoy por llamarla'); in Latin America it also means 'to be about to' ('El tren está por salir'). With a noun, 'estar por' can mean 'to be in favor of' ('Estoy por la reforma'), while 'no estar para' means 'not to be in the mood for' ('No estoy para bromas'). Verbs with 'por': 'ir por' (go and get), 'tomar por' (mistake for), 'dar por' (consider as), 'pasar por' (pass for; stop by). With 'para': 'no es para tanto' (it's not that big a deal).

Key rule

'Por mí' = fine by me (no objection); 'para mí' = in my opinion. 'Estar por' + infinitive = still to be done (with a thing as subject), tempted to (with a person) or, in Latin America, about to; 'no estar para' = not in the mood for; and the fixed verbs 'ir por', 'tomar por', 'dar por' and 'pasar por' take 'por', while 'no es para tanto' takes 'para'.

Examples

Por mí, haz lo que quieras.
Para mí, haz lo que quieras. (intended: Fine by me, do whatever you want.)
'Por mí' signals permission or indifference: 'Fine by me, do what you want.' 'Para mí' cannot give permission: it gives an opinion ('If you ask me, …') or means 'for me' ('For me, make whatever you like', said to someone who is cooking), so it does not say 'fine by me'.
Para mí, esta es la mejor solución.
Por mí, esta es la mejor solución.
'Para mí' introduces a personal opinion: 'In my opinion, this is the best solution.' 'Por mí' means 'fine by me' and cannot introduce an opinion.
El tren está por salir.
In Latin America, 'estar por + infinitive' commonly means 'to be about to': 'The train is about to leave.' In Spain the usual form is 'El tren está a punto de salir', which works everywhere; you may also hear 'El tren está para salir'. All three are correct.

Common mistakes

Confusing 'por mí' (indifference) with 'para mí' (opinion)
Por mí, el examen fue muy difícil.
Para mí, el examen fue muy difícil.
'Para mí' expresses a personal opinion ('In my opinion'). 'Por mí' means 'fine by me' and signals indifference or permission, which makes no sense when saying how difficult something was.
Using 'estar para' when meaning 'to be in favor of'
Estoy para la reforma educativa.
Estoy por la reforma educativa.
'Estar por' + noun can mean 'to be in favor of' (more commonly: 'Estoy a favor de la reforma educativa'). 'Estar para' means 'to be in the mood for' or 'to be about to', neither of which fits here.

B2Prepositions

Preposition + Infinitive as Complement

Preposición + infinitivo como complemento

Spanish often links a verb or adjective to a following infinitive with a preposition. 'Al + infinitive' means 'when / upon doing': 'Al llegar a casa, encendí la luz' (When I got home, I turned on the light). Many verbs need 'a' ('empezar a', 'aprender a', 'volver a') or 'de' ('dejar de', 'acabar de', 'tratar de'): 'Empezó a llover' (It started to rain). Others take the infinitive directly: 'Quiero ir', 'Puedo ayudarte'. The preposition can change the meaning: 'Dejé de salir' (I stopped going out), but 'Mis padres no me dejaban salir' (My parents didn't let me go out). Adjectives such as 'fácil' and 'difícil' take 'de' when the subject is the thing the action is done to: 'Este libro es fácil de leer' (This book is easy to read), but 'Es fácil leer este libro' (It's easy to read this book).

Key rule

'Al + infinitive' means 'when / upon doing', and each verb takes its own preposition before an infinitive ('empezar a', 'dejar de', 'tardar en') or none ('querer', 'poder'). Adjectives like 'fácil' take 'de' only when the subject is what the infinitive acts on: 'Este libro es fácil de leer', but 'Es fácil leer este libro'.

Examples

Al llegar a casa, me preparé la cena.
Al llegando a casa, me preparé la cena.
'Al + infinitive' means 'when / upon arriving'. The verb after 'al' must be an infinitive; the gerund 'llegando' copies the English '-ing' form.
Empezó a llover de repente.
Empezó llover de repente.
'Empezar' requires the preposition 'a' before an infinitive: 'empezar a + infinitive' = to begin to do something.
Este problema es difícil de resolver.
Este problema es difícil resolver.
'Este problema' is the thing being solved, so 'difícil' links to the infinitive with 'de'. Compare 'Es difícil resolver este problema', where the infinitive phrase is the subject and there is no 'de'.

Common mistakes

Omitting 'a' after verbs of beginning
Empezó nevar a las cinco de la tarde.
Empezó a nevar a las cinco de la tarde.
'Empezar', 'comenzar', and 'ponerse' all require 'a' before an infinitive. This preposition cannot be omitted.
Omitting 'de' after adjectives of ease/difficulty
Esta canción es fácil cantar.
Esta canción es fácil de cantar.
The subject ('esta canción') is what gets sung, so 'de' is required between the adjective and the infinitive. Without 'de', you would need the impersonal pattern: 'Es fácil cantar esta canción'.

B2Syntax

Hypothetical Conditional (Si + Imperfect Subjunctive)

Condicional hipotético (Si + imperfecto de subjuntivo)

Use this pattern to imagine a situation that is unreal or unlikely, now or in the future. The si-clause takes the imperfect subjunctive (the -ra or the -se form), and the main clause takes the conditional: 'Si tuviera tiempo, viajaría más' (If I had time, I would travel more). Never put the conditional or the present subjunctive after this 'if' si: say 'si tuviera', not 'si tendría' or 'si tenga'. Either clause can come first. A comma normally follows the si-clause when it comes first; in the other order, no comma is needed: 'Viajaría más si tuviera tiempo.'

Key rule

For an unreal or unlikely condition about the present or future, use si + imperfect subjunctive (-ra or -se) and put the conditional in the main clause: 'Si tuviera tiempo, viajaría.' Never put the conditional or the present subjunctive after this 'if' si.

Examples

Si tuviera tiempo, viajaría más.
Si tendría tiempo, viajaría más.
After this 'if' si, use the imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera', never the conditional 'tendría'. The conditional belongs in the main clause: 'viajaría'.
Si fuera rico, donaría mucho dinero.
Si sería rico, donaría mucho dinero.
The si-clause takes the imperfect subjunctive 'fuera', not the conditional 'sería'.
Compraría un coche si ganara la lotería.
Compraría un coche si ganaría la lotería.
When the main clause comes first, the si-clause still takes the imperfect subjunctive: 'ganara', not 'ganaría'. No comma is needed in this order.

Common mistakes

Using the conditional after si
Si tendría dinero, compraría un coche.
Si tuviera dinero, compraría un coche.
After an 'if' si, standard Spanish never uses the conditional. The condition takes the imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera'; the conditional 'compraría' belongs only in the main clause.
Using the present indicative with a conditional result
Si tengo tiempo, viajaría más.
Si tuviera tiempo, viajaría más.
A present indicative condition presents the trip as a real possibility and pairs with the present, the future or an imperative: 'Si tengo tiempo, viajaré más.' With the conditional 'viajaría', the condition is imaginary and needs the imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera'.

B2Syntax

Counterfactual Past Conditional (Si + Pluperfect Subjunctive)

Condicional contrafáctico (Si + pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo)

Use this pattern to imagine a different past: a condition that did not happen and what would have followed. The si-clause takes the pluperfect subjunctive (hubiera or hubiese + past participle), and the main clause takes the conditional perfect (habría + past participle): 'Si hubiera estudiado más, habría aprobado' (If I had studied more, I would have passed). In the main clause, 'hubiera aprobado' is also correct and very common. In the si-clause itself, never use habría: say 'si hubiera estudiado', not 'si habría estudiado'.

Key rule

For a past condition that did not happen, use si + hubiera/hubiese + past participle, and habría (or hubiera) + past participle in the main clause: 'Si hubiera estudiado, habría aprobado.' Never put habría in the si-clause itself.

Examples

Si hubiera estudiado más, habría aprobado.
Si habría estudiado más, habría aprobado.
After si, use the pluperfect subjunctive 'hubiera estudiado', never the conditional perfect 'habría estudiado'.
Si hubieras llegado a tiempo, habrías visto el espectáculo.
Si habrías llegado a tiempo, habrías visto el espectáculo.
After si, the tú form is the pluperfect subjunctive 'hubieras llegado', not the conditional perfect 'habrías llegado'. 'Habrías' belongs in the main clause.
Si hubiera llovido, nos habríamos quedado en casa.
Si llovió, nos habríamos quedado en casa.
The preterite 'llovió' treats the rain as something that may really have happened. A result that did not happen ('nos habríamos quedado') needs an unreal condition: 'hubiera llovido'.

Common mistakes

Using the conditional perfect after si
Si habría venido antes, habría conseguido entradas.
Si hubiera venido antes, habría conseguido entradas.
After an 'if' si, standard Spanish never uses the conditional, simple or perfect. Use the pluperfect subjunctive 'hubiera venido'; 'habría' belongs in the main clause.
Using the imperfect subjunctive for a past condition
Si tuviera más tiempo ayer, habría terminado el informe.
Si hubiera tenido más tiempo ayer, habría terminado el informe.
'Ayer' puts the condition in the past, so it needs the pluperfect subjunctive 'hubiera tenido'. The imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera' refers to the present or the future.

B2Syntax

Como si Constructions (As if)

Construcciones con como si

Como si (as if, as though) compares what happens with an imagined situation. It takes only the imperfect or the pluperfect subjunctive, never the indicative, the present subjunctive or the conditional. Use the imperfect subjunctive for something imagined at the same time as the main verb: 'Habla como si lo supiera todo' (He talks as if he knew everything). Use the pluperfect subjunctive for something imagined as earlier: 'Me miró como si nunca me hubiera visto' (She looked at me as if she had never seen me). On its own, it makes an ironic exclamation: '¡Como si me importara!' (As if I cared!).

Key rule

Como si takes only the imperfect subjunctive (imagined at the same time as the main verb) or the pluperfect subjunctive (imagined as earlier), whatever the tense of the main verb. Never use the indicative, the present subjunctive or the conditional after it.

Examples

Gasta dinero como si fuera millonario.
Gasta dinero como si es millonario.
Como si always takes the subjunctive, even though English allows 'as if he is'. Use the imperfect subjunctive 'fuera', not the indicative 'es'.
Me trató como si no me conociera.
Me trató como si no me conocía.
The imagined situation (not knowing me) is at the same time as the treatment, so como si takes the imperfect subjunctive 'conociera', not the imperfect indicative 'conocía'.
Habló como si hubiera vivido en España.
Habló como si había vivido en España.
The imagined life in Spain comes before the speaking, so use the pluperfect subjunctive 'hubiera vivido', not the pluperfect indicative 'había vivido'.

Common mistakes

Using the present indicative after como si
Habla como si sabe todo.
Habla como si supiera todo.
Como si introduces an unreal comparison and always takes the subjunctive. English 'as if he knows' leads learners to the indicative 'sabe'; Spanish needs the imperfect subjunctive 'supiera'.
Using the present subjunctive after como si
Actúa como si sea el jefe.
Actúa como si fuera el jefe.
Como si never takes the present subjunctive, even after a present main verb. Use the imperfect subjunctive 'fuera' (or 'fuese').

B2Syntax

Concessive Clauses (Aunque, Por más que, A pesar de que, Si bien)

Oraciones concesivas (Aunque, Por más que, A pesar de que, Si bien)

A concessive clause names an obstacle that does not stop the main action. With aunque, the mood shows how you present that obstacle. The indicative states it as a fact: 'Aunque llueve, vamos a salir' (Even though it's raining, we're going out). The subjunctive presents a possibility, or brushes aside a fact you both know: 'Aunque llueva mañana, iremos' (Even if it rains tomorrow, we'll go). For an imagined situation, use the imperfect subjunctive with a conditional: 'Aunque lloviera, iríamos' (Even if it rained, we would go). A pesar de que, aun cuando and por más que / por mucho que (no matter how much) follow the same logic. Without que, a pesar de takes an infinitive or a noun ('a pesar del frío'), and mucho agrees with a noun that follows it ('por mucha prisa que tengas'). Si bien (although) is formal and takes the indicative. Don't start the main clause with pero after an aunque clause.

Key rule

Aunque, a pesar de que, aun cuando and por más / mucho que take the indicative for a fact you assert, and the subjunctive for a possibility or for a known fact you brush aside; an imagined situation takes the imperfect subjunctive with a conditional. Si bien takes the indicative, and after an aunque clause the main clause does not start with pero.

Examples

Aunque llueve, vamos a salir.
Aunque llueve, pero vamos a salir.
Aunque already marks the contrast, so the main clause does not start with pero. Use one connector: 'Aunque llueve, vamos a salir' or 'Llueve, pero vamos a salir.' The indicative 'llueve' states that it is raining.
Aunque llueva mañana, iremos a la playa.
Aunque llueve mañana, iremos a la playa. (intended: Even if it rains tomorrow, we'll go to the beach.)
Tomorrow's rain is only a possibility, so 'even if' takes the subjunctive 'llueva'. The indicative 'llueve' would assert that it will rain ('even though it's going to rain tomorrow').
Por más que lo intentes, no lo conseguirás.
Por más que lo intentarás, no lo conseguirás.
The future efforts are hypothetical, so por más que takes the present subjunctive 'intentes', not the future 'intentarás'. For a real, ongoing effort, the indicative is correct: 'Por más que lo intento, no lo consigo.'

Common mistakes

Leaving out que after por más / por mucho
Por más lo intento, no me sale.
Por más que lo intento, no me sale.
The connector is por más que (or por mucho que), and que cannot be dropped. The indicative 'intento' fits because the speaker asserts a real, repeated effort (the subjunctive 'intente' would present it without asserting it). For a hypothetical effort, use the subjunctive: 'Por más que lo intentes, no te saldrá.'
Using the subjunctive after si bien
Si bien sea cierto que el desempleo ha bajado, los salarios siguen estancados.
Si bien es cierto que el desempleo ha bajado, los salarios siguen estancados.
Si bien is a formal connector ('although') that takes the indicative. 'Si bien es cierto que...' is a very common way to open a concession in formal writing.

B2Syntax

Result/Consecutive Clauses (Tan...que, Tanto...que, Tal...que)

Oraciones consecutivas (Tan...que, Tanto...que, Tal...que)

Result clauses say that something is so intense that it has a consequence. Use tan before adjectives and adverbs ('Es tan alto que no cabe por la puerta': He is so tall that he doesn't fit through the door), tanto/tanta/tantos/tantas before nouns, agreeing with them ('Tiene tantos libros que no le caben en casa'), tanto after a verb ('Trabaja tanto que apenas duerme'; never 'tan mucho') and tal/tales before nouns, with no un ('Había tal ruido que no podíamos hablar': There was such a noise that we couldn't talk). For emphasis, a sentence often starts with ser + tal: 'Era tal su alegría que se puso a llorar' (Such was her joy that she started to cry). In hacer frío/calor and tener hambre/sed/sueño, the key word is a noun, so say 'Hacía tanto frío' and 'Tenía tanta hambre', not 'tan frío' or 'tan hambre'. The result is introduced by que, which can't be left out the way English 'that' can.

Key rule

Use tan before adjectives and adverbs, tanto/tanta/tantos/tantas before nouns (agreeing with them: 'tanto frío', 'tanta hambre'), invariable tanto after a verb (never 'tan mucho'), and tal/tales before nouns; then que + the result. Que can't be dropped, and the result is usually in the indicative.

Examples

Es tan alto que no cabe por la puerta.
Es tanto alto que no cabe por la puerta.
Before an adjective, use tan, which never changes: 'tan alto'. Tanto goes before nouns or after verbs.
Tiene tantos amigos que nunca está solo.
Tiene tan amigos que nunca está solo.
Before a noun, use tanto and make it agree: 'amigos' is masculine plural, so 'tantos amigos'. Tan never goes before a noun.
Había tal ruido que no podíamos hablar.
Había tan ruido que no podíamos hablar.
Before a noun, use tal ('such') or tanto ('so much'): 'tal ruido' or 'tanto ruido', never 'tan ruido'.

Common mistakes

Using tanto before an adjective instead of tan
Está tanto cansado que no puede moverse.
Está tan cansado que no puede moverse.
Tan goes before adjectives and adverbs; tanto goes before nouns or after verbs. 'Cansado' is an adjective, so use 'tan'.
Using tan before a noun instead of tanto/tanta/tantos/tantas
Tiene tan dinero que no sabe qué hacer con él.
Tiene tanto dinero que no sabe qué hacer con él.
Before a noun, use tanto, agreeing in gender and number with the noun ('dinero' is masculine singular). Tan is only for adjectives and adverbs.

B2Syntax

Alternatives to the Passive Voice

Alternativas a la voz pasiva

Spanish has a passive with ser + past participle ('El puente fue construido en 1990'), but it is much rarer than the English passive and sounds stiff in conversation. When the doer is unknown or unimportant, Spanish usually chooses one of four alternatives: passive se, where the verb agrees with the noun ('Se venden coches'); impersonal se, with a singular verb, used with specific people marked by 'a' and before 'que' ('Se busca a los responsables', 'Se dice que...'); the third-person plural with no subject, for an unspecified 'they' ('Dicen que va a llover'); and estar + past participle, for the state that results from an action ('La puerta está abierta'). People who are not specific, typically a plural noun without an article, usually take no 'a', and then the verb agrees with them as in passive se: 'Se buscan camareros', 'Se necesitan más profesores'. Passive se does not normally name the doer with 'por': to say who did it, use the active voice ('El Gobierno construyó el puente') or the ser-passive ('El puente fue construido por el Gobierno').

Key rule

When the doer is unknown or unimportant, use passive se ('Se venden pisos'), impersonal se with a singular verb before 'a' + specific people ('Se busca a los responsables'), the subjectless third-person plural ('Dicen que...') or estar + participle for a resulting state ('La tienda está cerrada'). Keep ser + participle mainly for formal writing, especially with a 'por' agent.

Examples

Se venden coches de segunda mano.
Coches de segunda mano son vendidos.
'Se venden coches' is the normal way to say 'cars are sold'; the verb is plural because 'coches' is plural. The calque 'Coches de segunda mano son vendidos' is wrong: Spanish does not normally start a sentence with a bare plural noun as the subject, and the present-tense ser-passive sounds foreign for a general activity like this.
Se dice que va a nevar mañana.
Es dicho que va a nevar mañana.
'Se dice que...' is the standard equivalent of 'it is said that...'. 'Es dicho que' is not used in Spanish.
Dicen que el restaurante es muy bueno.
Ellos dicen que el restaurante es muy bueno. (intended: People say the restaurant is very good.)
For an unspecified 'they', Spanish uses the verb alone: 'Dicen que...'. With 'ellos', the sentence refers to specific people already mentioned, so it no longer means 'people say'.

Common mistakes

Failing to make the verb agree with the noun in pasiva refleja
Se vende coches aquí.
Se venden coches aquí.
In pasiva refleja, the verb must agree in number with the noun: 'coches' is plural, so 'se venden', not 'se vende'.
Confusing estar + participle with ser + participle
La casa es construida desde hace dos años.
La casa está construida desde hace dos años.
'Estar + participle' expresses the resulting state (the house is already built). 'Ser + participle' refers to the building process, which does not fit 'desde hace dos años'.

B2Connectors

Advanced Contrast Connectors

Conectores de contraste avanzados

At B2 you can go beyond 'pero' and 'sin embargo'. 'En cambio' (on the other hand) sets two contrasting facts side by side, most often about different people or situations: 'Yo madrugo; en cambio, mi hermano duerme hasta tarde.' 'Por el contrario' (on the contrary) can do the same, and after a negative statement it introduces the opposite that is true: 'No estaba triste; por el contrario, estaba feliz.' 'En cambio' cannot do this second job, and it should not be confused with 'a cambio' (in exchange). 'Ahora bien' (that said) opens a new sentence that adds a reservation. 'Con todo' (even so) states what holds despite the previous point. 'Si bien' (although) is a formal conjunction that introduces its own clause, takes the indicative and is not followed by 'pero': 'Si bien es caro, lo voy a comprar.'

Key rule

'En cambio' sets two contrasting facts side by side; 'por el contrario' does too and, after a negation, introduces the true opposite. 'Ahora bien' adds a reservation, 'con todo' states what holds despite the obstacle, and 'si bien' + indicative is a formal 'although' that heads its own clause, with no 'pero' after it.

Examples

Mi hermana es muy extrovertida; en cambio, yo soy bastante tímido.
'En cambio' sets two different people side by side on the same trait. Because two different people are compared, 'por el contrario' would also be correct here; 'en cambio' is the more usual choice.
No estaba enfadado. Por el contrario, estaba encantado con la noticia.
No estaba enfadado. En cambio, estaba encantado con la noticia.
After a negative statement, 'por el contrario' introduces the opposite that is really true: he wasn't angry; he was delighted. 'En cambio' only sets two facts side by side as a contrast, so it cannot correct what has just been denied.
El plan parece bueno. Ahora bien, debemos considerar los riesgos.
El plan parece bueno. Si bien, debemos considerar los riesgos.
'Ahora bien' opens a new sentence and adds a reservation to what you have just accepted. 'Si bien' means 'although' and must introduce its own clause ('Si bien el plan parece bueno, debemos...'), so it cannot stand alone before a comma.

Common mistakes

Using 'en cambio' to correct a negative statement
El examen no fue fácil. En cambio, fue dificilísimo.
El examen no fue fácil. Al contrario, fue dificilísimo.
After a negation, the opposite that is really true is introduced with 'al contrario' or 'por el contrario'. 'En cambio' only sets two contrasting facts side by side ('El examen de inglés fue fácil; en cambio, el de física fue dificilísimo'), so it cannot correct what has just been denied.
Adding 'pero' after 'si bien'
Si bien es inteligente, pero no estudia.
Si bien es inteligente, no estudia.
'Si bien' already marks the concession, so adding 'pero' doubles the connector. As with 'aunque', the main clause starts without 'pero'.

B2Connectors

Advanced Temporal Connectors

Conectores temporales avanzados

These connectors express time relationships more precisely than 'cuando' and 'mientras'. 'A medida que' and 'conforme' (as) link two changes that progress together: 'A medida que pasaban los días, me sentía mejor.' When a single event interrupts an ongoing action, use 'mientras' for the ongoing action instead: 'Mientras dormía, sonó el teléfono.' 'Mientras tanto' (meanwhile) is not a conjunction: it opens a new sentence about something happening at the same time ('Yo cocinaba. Mientras tanto, ella ponía la mesa'). 'Nada más' + infinitive means 'right after, as soon as': 'Nada más llegar, me llamó.' 'Una vez que' (once) introduces a step that has to be completed first, and 'no bien' is a mainly literary 'as soon as' that takes the preterite for a single past event: 'No bien llegó, empezó a llover.' Like 'cuando', 'a medida que', 'conforme', 'una vez que' and 'no bien' take the subjunctive for future events: 'Una vez que termines, avísame.'

Key rule

'A medida que' / 'conforme' = two changes progressing together; 'mientras tanto' = meanwhile, opening a new sentence; 'nada más' + infinitive = right after; 'una vez que' = once; 'no bien' = mainly literary 'as soon as'. After 'a medida que', 'conforme', 'una vez que' and 'no bien', use the indicative for present and past facts and the subjunctive for future events.

Examples

A medida que avanzaba el día, hacía más calor.
A medida que avanzara el día, hacía más calor.
The day really did advance, so 'a medida que' takes the indicative, and the imperfect 'avanzaba' matches the ongoing 'hacía'. The subjunctive is only for progress that has not happened yet.
Conforme pasan los años, la tecnología evoluciona.
Conforme pasan los años, la tecnología evolucionó.
Both processes are general truths, so both verbs are in the present. The preterite 'evolucionó' breaks the parallel between the two processes.
Yo estudié toda la tarde. Mientras tanto, mis amigos fueron al cine.
Yo estudié toda la tarde mientras tanto mis amigos fueron al cine.
'Mientras tanto' is not a conjunction: it opens a new sentence (or follows a semicolon) and is followed by a comma. To join the two actions in one sentence, use 'mientras'.

Common mistakes

Using a conjugated verb after 'nada más' instead of infinitive
Nada más salió, empezó a llover.
Nada más salir, empezó a llover.
In the sense 'as soon as', 'nada más' takes the infinitive: 'nada más salir'. With a conjugated verb, use 'en cuanto' or 'apenas': 'En cuanto salió, empezó a llover.'
Using indicative instead of subjunctive with future 'una vez que'
Una vez que llegas a casa, llámame.
Una vez que llegues a casa, llámame.
'Llámame' points to the future, so 'una vez que' takes the subjunctive: 'llegues'.

B2Connectors

Advanced Consequence Connectors

Conectores de consecuencia avanzados

At B2 you can replace 'por eso' and 'así que' with more formal consequence connectors. 'Por consiguiente' and 'en consecuencia' (consequently) introduce an ordinary main clause, so the verb is usually in the indicative: 'Los datos son claros. Por consiguiente, debemos actuar.' Don't confuse 'en consecuencia' with 'a consecuencia de' (as a result of), which is followed by the cause: 'a consecuencia del apagón'. 'De ahí que' (hence) is different: the verb after it always goes into the subjunctive, even for facts: 'Llovió mucho; de ahí que el río se desbordara.' Before a clause, keep the 'que' ('de ahí el río se desbordó' is wrong). 'De modo que' and 'de manera que' take the indicative for a result, something that follows as a fact ('Estudió mucho, de modo que aprobó'), and the subjunctive for a purpose, a goal still to be reached ('Habla alto, de modo que todos te oigan').

Key rule

'Por consiguiente' and 'en consecuencia' introduce an ordinary main clause, usually in the indicative. 'De ahí que' always takes the subjunctive. 'De modo que' / 'de manera que' take the indicative for a result and the subjunctive for a purpose.

Examples

No había suficiente presupuesto. De ahí que se cancelara el proyecto.
No había suficiente presupuesto. De ahí que se canceló el proyecto.
'De ahí que' always takes the subjunctive, even for a fact. The context is past, so the imperfect subjunctive 'se cancelara' is used, not the indicative 'se canceló'.
Los resultados fueron negativos. Por consiguiente, se modificó el tratamiento.
Los resultados fueron negativos. Por consiguiente, se modificara el tratamiento.
'Por consiguiente' introduces an ordinary main clause, here with the indicative preterite 'se modificó'. It does not trigger the subjunctive.
Hubo una huelga de transportes. En consecuencia, miles de personas llegaron tarde.
Hubo una huelga de transportes. En consecuencia, miles de personas llegaran tarde.
'En consecuencia' is followed by an ordinary main clause, so the indicative 'llegaron' reports what happened. The subjunctive 'llegaran' cannot be the main verb here.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'de ahí que'
Llueve mucho. De ahí que las calles están mojadas.
Llueve mucho. De ahí que las calles estén mojadas.
'De ahí que' always takes the subjunctive, even for a fact: 'estén', not 'están'.
Using subjunctive after 'por consiguiente'
El tren se retrasó. Por consiguiente, llegáramos tarde.
El tren se retrasó. Por consiguiente, llegamos tarde.
'Por consiguiente' does not trigger the subjunctive. The clause after it is an ordinary main clause, here in the preterite: 'llegamos'.

B2Connectors

Advanced Conditional Connectors

Conectores condicionales avanzados

Besides 'si', Spanish has conditional connectors that make a condition stricter or more formal. 'Siempre y cuando' and 'siempre que' (provided that, as long as), 'a condición de que' and 'con la condición de que' (on the condition that) take the subjunctive, never the future or the conditional: 'Te lo presto siempre y cuando me lo devuelvas.' Keep the 'de' in 'a condición de que' and 'con la condición de que'. 'Siempre que' can also mean 'whenever'; for habits it then takes the indicative: 'Siempre que viajo, compro recuerdos.' In everyday speech, 'como' + subjunctive means 'if', mostly in warnings: 'Como no vengas, me enfado.' With the indicative, 'como' means 'since': 'Como no vienes, me voy.'

Key rule

'Siempre y cuando', 'a condición de que', 'con la condición de que' and 'siempre que' meaning 'provided that' take the subjunctive. 'Siempre que' meaning 'whenever' takes the indicative for habits. 'Como' + subjunctive is a colloquial 'if', mostly for warnings; 'como' + indicative means 'since'.

Examples

Puedes salir siempre y cuando hagas los deberes primero.
Puedes salir siempre y cuando haces los deberes primero.
'Siempre y cuando' takes the subjunctive: 'hagas', not the indicative 'haces'.
Aceptaré el puesto con la condición de que me ofrezcan un buen salario.
Aceptaré el puesto con la condición de que me ofrecen un buen salario.
'Con la condición de que' presents a condition that is not yet fulfilled, so it takes the subjunctive: 'ofrezcan', not 'ofrecen'.
Te prestaré el coche a condición de que lo cuides.
Te prestaré el coche a condición de que lo cuidas.
'A condición de que' takes the subjunctive: 'cuides', not 'cuidas'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'siempre y cuando'
Puedes quedarte siempre y cuando pagas el alquiler.
Puedes quedarte siempre y cuando pagues el alquiler.
'Siempre y cuando' is a conditional connector that always takes the subjunctive: 'pagues', not 'pagas'.
Using imperfect subjunctive with 'como' for present threats
Como no vinieras, me enfado.
Como no vengas, me enfado.
For a present or future warning, 'como' takes the present subjunctive, matching the present 'me enfado'. The imperfect subjunctive only appears in past or hypothetical frames ('Me dijo que, como no fuera, se enfadaría').

B2Register

Subjunctive & Conditional for Politeness

Subjuntivo y condicional para la cortesía

Spanish makes requests, wishes and suggestions more polite by replacing the plain present with the conditional (podría, querría, me gustaría) or with 'quisiera', the -ra imperfect subjunctive of 'querer': 'Quisiera un café' (I would like a coffee) is more courteous than 'Quiero un café' (I want a coffee), and '¿Podría ayudarme?' more than '¿Puede ayudarme?'. Only the -ra form works this way, so 'quisiese' is wrong here. When one of these polite forms introduces a clause with 'que', that clause normally takes the imperfect subjunctive: 'Le agradecería que me llamara' (I would be grateful if you called me). With usted, keep every form consistent: '¿Podría usted...?', not '¿Podrías usted...?'.

Key rule

Soften requests with the conditional (podría, querría, me gustaría) or the -ra form 'quisiera' (not 'quisiese'). After conditional formulas with 'que' (le agradecería que, ¿le importaría que...?, convendría que), use the imperfect subjunctive: 'Le agradecería que me llamara'.

Examples

Quisiera reservar una mesa para dos, por favor.
Quisiese reservar una mesa para dos, por favor.
'Quisiera' (the -ra imperfect subjunctive of 'querer') is a polite way to say 'I would like', softer than 'quiero'. Only the -ra form has this use in a main clause, so 'quisiese' is wrong here.
¿Podría usted indicarme dónde está la salida?
¿Podrías usted indicarme dónde está la salida?
The conditional 'podría' together with 'usted' makes a courteous question for a stranger. 'Podrías' is the tú form, so it clashes with 'usted'.
Le agradecería que me enviara el informe antes del viernes.
Le agradecería que me enviaría el informe antes del viernes.
'Le agradecería que' is the standard formula for formal written requests. The verb after 'que' goes in the imperfect subjunctive ('enviara'), not the conditional ('enviaría').

Common mistakes

Regularizing the irregular stem of the polite conditional
Querería hablar con el director.
Querría hablar con el director.
'Querer' has an irregular conditional stem, querr-, so the polite form is 'querría', not 'querería'. 'Poder' works the same way: 'podría', not 'podería'.
Using the conditional after 'le agradecería que'
Le agradecería que me enviaría los documentos.
Le agradecería que me enviara los documentos.
English 'I would appreciate it if you would send' tempts learners to repeat the conditional. In Spanish, the verb after 'que' goes in the subjunctive, normally the imperfect subjunctive: 'enviara'.

B2Register

Academic Register Features

Características del registro académico

Academic Spanish sounds impersonal, precise and cautious. It turns verbs into nouns (nominalization: 'el análisis de los datos' rather than 'analizamos los datos'), keeps the writer in the background with impersonal or passive 'se' ('se ha observado que' rather than 'he observado que'), links ideas with formal connectors ('no obstante', 'por consiguiente', 'asimismo') and hedges its claims ('los datos parecen indicar que...', 'cabría pensar que...'). Watch the grammar in these structures: 'se' + verb before a 'que' clause stays singular ('se ha observado que...'); in the passive with 'se', the verb agrees with a plural noun ('se analizaron los datos'), while impersonal 'se' before personal 'a' stays singular ('se entrevistó a los participantes'); a participle after 'ser' agrees with its subject ('los datos fueron recopilados'); and 'cabe señalar que' takes no 'de'.

Key rule

Academic Spanish favors nominalization ('el análisis de los datos'), impersonal and passive 'se' ('se ha observado que'), formal connectors (no obstante, por consiguiente) and hedging (parece indicar, cabría pensar). Mind the agreement: 'se' before a 'que' clause stays singular, while passive 'se' and 'ser' + participle agree with a plural subject ('se analizaron los datos', 'los datos fueron recopilados').

Examples

La realización del proyecto requirió la colaboración de múltiples departamentos.
Nominalization ('la realización', 'la colaboración') packs the actions into nouns and gives the dense, impersonal style of academic writing. 'Realizamos el proyecto y colaboraron muchos departamentos' is correct, but it reads like conversation.
Se ha observado que los niveles de contaminación han aumentado.
Se han observado que los niveles de contaminación han aumentado.
The impersonal 'se ha observado que' keeps the researcher in the background and presents the observation as objective. When 'se' introduces a 'que' clause, the verb stays singular: 'se ha observado', not 'se han observado'.
No obstante, los resultados no son concluyentes.
'No obstante' (nevertheless) is a formal connector typical of academic prose, like 'sin embargo', and is followed by a comma. 'Pero los resultados no son concluyentes' is also correct, but 'no obstante' gives the more measured tone expected in a paper.

Common mistakes

Using first-person singular in academic writing
Yo creo que los resultados son interesantes.
Cabe destacar el interés de estos resultados.
'Yo creo que...' is conversational and personal, which is out of place in a research paper. Use impersonal formulas such as 'cabe destacar' or 'se observa', or the first-person plural common in academic writing ('observamos').
Using conversational fillers in academic texts
Bueno, los datos son claros, pero hay problemas.
Los datos son claros; no obstante, se identificaron ciertas limitaciones.
Fillers such as 'bueno' belong to conversation and are out of place in academic prose. The contrast is better marked with a formal connector such as 'no obstante' or 'sin embargo', and vague words like 'problemas' are replaced by precise ones ('limitaciones').

B2Register

Business Spanish Register

Registro del español de negocios

Business Spanish relies on fixed formulas and on usted. A formal letter or email opens with 'Estimado/a' + title and surname followed by a colon ('Estimada Sra. García:'), states its purpose with 'Me dirijo a usted con el fin de...' (I am writing to you in order to...), and closes with 'Atentamente' or 'Le saluda atentamente'. Keep usted throughout: 'Le envío el documento que me pidió', not 'que me pediste'. In meetings, proposals take the subjunctive ('Propongo que revisemos el plan'), and written requests use 'Le agradecería que' + imperfect subjunctive ('Le agradecería que me enviara el contrato'). The adjective 'adjunto' (attached) agrees with its noun ('Le envío adjuntas las facturas'); with the verb 'adjuntar', say 'Le adjunto las facturas'.

Key rule

In business Spanish, use usted consistently and the fixed formulas: 'Estimado/a' + colon to open, 'Atentamente' or 'Le saluda atentamente' to close, the subjunctive for proposals ('Propongo que revisemos...') and 'Le agradecería que' + imperfect subjunctive for requests.

Examples

Estimada Sra. García: Me dirijo a usted con el fin de solicitar información sobre sus servicios.
Estimada Sra. García: Me dirijo a ti con el fin de solicitar información sobre sus servicios.
'Estimada' + title and surname, followed by a colon, is the standard opening of a business letter, and 'me dirijo a usted con el fin de' states its purpose. The formula uses usted; 'a ti' is the tú form, so it clashes with the formal greeting and with the usted possessive in 'sus servicios'.
Le saluda atentamente, María López.
'Le saluda atentamente' followed by the signature is the classic closing of a formal business letter; 'Atentamente' alone is also standard. 'Un saludo' is correct and common in emails, but too casual to end a formal letter.
Propongo que consideremos otras alternativas antes de tomar una decisión.
Propongo que consideramos otras alternativas antes de tomar una decisión.
'Propongo que + present subjunctive' is the standard way to make a proposal in a meeting. 'Proponer que' introduces what should happen, so it takes the subjunctive 'consideremos', not the indicative 'consideramos'.

Common mistakes

Opening a formal business letter with an informal greeting and tú
Hola, señor Rodríguez: ¿Qué tal? Te escribo para...
Estimado Sr. Rodríguez: Me dirijo a usted con el fin de...
A formal business letter opens with 'Estimado/a' + title and surname and continues in usted. 'Hola' and '¿Qué tal?' are too casual there, and tú ('te escribo') clashes with 'señor Rodríguez'.
Closing a business letter too casually
Bueno, eso es todo. ¡Un abrazo!
Sin otro particular, le saluda atentamente.
Fillers like 'bueno' and affectionate closings like 'un abrazo' belong to letters between friends. A formal letter ends with 'Atentamente', 'Le saluda atentamente' or 'Reciba un cordial saludo', often introduced by 'Sin otro particular' (With nothing further to add).

B2Register

Regional Variation Awareness

Conciencia de la variación regional

Spanish has several regional standards, and all of them are correct. Each one is consistent, so don't mix them. Voseo: in Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and much of Central America, 'vos' replaces 'tú', with its own verb forms ('vos tenés', 'vos sos', 'vení') but the same object pronoun 'te' ('Vos sabés que te quiero'). Plural 'you': Spain uses 'vosotros' among friends and 'ustedes' for formal address, while Latin America uses 'ustedes' for both. Leísmo: central and northern Spain often use 'le' instead of 'lo' for a man ('A Juan le vi'), which is accepted; for a woman you talk about or for a thing, standard Spanish keeps 'la' and 'lo' ('A Marta la vi', 'El libro lo compré'). Vocabulary: 'coche' in Spain, 'carro' in Mexico and Colombia, 'auto' in Argentina and Chile. Pronunciation: most of Spain distinguishes z and ce/ci from s (distinción), while Latin America pronounces them all like s (seseo). The spelling stays the same everywhere.

Key rule

Recognize each regional standard and keep it consistent: voseo (vos tenés, vos sos, vení), 'ustedes' for all plural 'you' in Latin America versus informal 'vosotros' and formal 'ustedes' in Spain, regional vocabulary (coche/carro/auto), and pronunciation such as seseo and distinción. Mixed forms like 'vos eres' or 'ustedes tenéis' are errors.

Examples

Vos sabés que te quiero mucho.
Vos sabés que vos quiero mucho.
In voseo areas such as Argentina and Uruguay, 'vos' takes its own verb forms ('sabés'), but the object pronoun stays 'te', as with tú. 'Vos quiero' is wrong in every variety.
Ustedes tienen que estudiar más.
Ustedes tenéis que estudiar más.
In Latin America, 'ustedes' is the plural 'you' for friends and strangers alike; Spain uses 'vosotros tenéis' among friends. Either way, 'ustedes' always takes third-person plural verbs ('tienen'), so 'ustedes tenéis' mixes the two systems.
A Marta la vi ayer en la calle.
A Marta le vi ayer en la calle.
In central and northern Spain, 'le' often replaces 'lo' for a man ('A Juan le vi ayer'), and the RAE accepts this regional leísmo, as well as 'le' for someone you address as usted. It is not standard for a woman you talk about: for Marta, the direct object pronoun is 'la'.

Common mistakes

Combining 'vos' with tú verb forms
Vos tienes que venir.
Vos tenés que venir.
Voseo changes the pronoun and the verb together: 'vos tenés', 'vos sos', 'vos podés'. With tuteo, say 'tú tienes'. Pairing 'vos' with a tú verb form mixes the two systems.
Combining 'ustedes' with vosotros verb forms
¿Ustedes queréis ir al cine?
¿Ustedes quieren ir al cine?
'Ustedes' always takes third-person plural verbs: 'ustedes quieren'. The -éis ending belongs to vosotros, which is used for the informal plural only in Spain. In Latin America, 'ustedes' covers all plural 'you'.

B2Vocabulary usage

Advanced False Friends

Falsos amigos avanzados

False friends (falsos amigos) are Spanish words that look like English words but mean something else. At B2 the dangerous ones are words you use often and confidently: 'actualmente' means 'currently' (for 'actually', say 'en realidad'), 'sensible' means 'sensitive' (for a sensible person or decision, say 'sensato'), 'constipado' means 'having a cold' in Spain (for 'constipated', say 'estreñido', which is understood everywhere), 'suceso' means 'event' (for 'success', say 'éxito') and 'soportar' means 'to put up with' (to support a person or an idea is 'apoyar'). Other traps: 'realizar' means 'to carry out' (to realize, in the sense of noticing, is 'darse cuenta de'), 'asistir a' means 'to attend' ('atender' means 'to serve' or 'to pay attention to'), 'pretender' means 'to intend' or 'to claim' (to pretend is 'fingir') and 'embarazada' means 'pregnant' (embarrassed is 'avergonzado/a').

Key rule

Spanish words that look like English ones often mean something else: 'actualmente' = currently (for 'actually', use 'en realidad'), 'sensible' = sensitive (for a sensible person or decision, use 'sensato'), 'constipado' = having a cold in Spain (for 'constipated', use 'estreñido'), 'suceso' = event (for 'success', use 'éxito'), 'soportar' = to put up with (to support a person or an idea is 'apoyar').

Examples

Actualmente trabajo en una empresa de tecnología.
Corrientemente trabajo en una empresa de tecnología. (intended: I currently work at a tech company.)
'Actualmente' is the Spanish word for 'currently' or 'at present'. 'Corrientemente' means 'usually' or 'commonly', so it is a false friend of 'currently'. Note too that 'actualmente' never means 'actually': for that, use 'en realidad' or 'de hecho'.
Mi hermana es muy sensata; nunca toma decisiones precipitadas.
Mi hermana es muy sensible; nunca toma decisiones precipitadas. (intended: My sister is very sensible; she never makes rash decisions.)
'Sensible' means 'sensitive' (easily moved or hurt), so the wrong sentence describes a sensitive person. For English 'sensible', use 'sensato' or 'prudente'.
Llevo tres días estreñido; voy a ir al médico.
'Estreñido' is the word for 'constipated' everywhere. Avoid 'constipado' here: in Spain it means 'having a cold' ('Estoy constipado; tengo tos'), so 'Llevo tres días constipado' would say you have had a cold for three days. Only in parts of Latin America can 'constipado' also mean 'constipated'.

Common mistakes

Using 'actualmente' to mean 'actually'
Actualmente, no estoy de acuerdo contigo. (intended: Actually, I don't agree with you.)
En realidad, no estoy de acuerdo contigo.
'Actualmente' means 'currently', so the sentence says 'At present, I don't agree with you'. The meaning 'actually' is expressed by 'en realidad' or 'de hecho'.
Using 'sensible' to mean 'sensible/reasonable'
Es una decisión muy sensible. (intended: It's a very sensible decision.)
Es una decisión muy sensata.
'Sensible' means 'sensitive', so 'una decisión muy sensible' suggests a delicate decision. 'Sensato' or 'prudente' means 'sensible, reasonable'.

B2Vocabulary usage

Advanced Collocations

Colocaciones avanzadas

A collocation is a combination of words that native speakers habitually put together, typically a noun and the verb it goes with. Spanish often chooses a different verb from English: you 'take' a decision (tomar una decisión), you 'lend' attention (prestar atención) and you 'run' a risk (correr un riesgo). Translating word for word produces errors such as 'hacer una decisión' or 'pagar atención'. Learn each combination as one chunk: llevar a cabo un proyecto (carry out a project), poner en marcha un plan (launch a plan).

Key rule

A noun chooses its verb, and Spanish often chooses a different one from English: tomar una decisión, prestar atención, correr un riesgo, llevar a cabo. Learn each combination as a chunk: the verb conjugates normally, but you cannot freely replace it or the preposition (not 'hacer una decisión', not 'realizar a cabo').

Examples

Hay que prestar atención en clase.
Hay que pagar atención en clase.
'Pay attention' is 'prestar atención' (literally 'lend attention'). 'Pagar atención' copies English word for word and is wrong in Spanish.
Tenemos que tomar una decisión pronto.
Tenemos que hacer una decisión pronto.
A decision is 'taken' in Spanish: 'tomar una decisión'. 'Hacer una decisión' is a word-for-word copy of English 'make a decision'.
La crisis dio lugar a grandes cambios.
La crisis hizo lugar a grandes cambios. (intended: The crisis gave rise to big changes.)
'Dar lugar a' means 'to give rise to'. With 'hacer' the chunk breaks: 'hacer lugar a' means 'to make room for', so this sentence says the crisis made room for big changes, not that it caused them.

Common mistakes

Translating 'make a decision' literally
Vamos a hacer una decisión.
Vamos a tomar una decisión.
Spanish uses 'tomar' (to take) with 'decisión', not 'hacer' (to make). This is one of the most frequent collocation errors of English speakers.
Translating 'pay attention' literally
Tienes que pagar atención.
Tienes que prestar atención.
Attention is 'lent' in Spanish: 'prestar atención'. 'Pagar' is for paying money or a price, so 'pagar atención' is a word-for-word copy of English and is wrong in Spanish.

B2Vocabulary usage

Nominalization Patterns

Patrones de nominalización

Nominalization means turning a verb or an adjective into a noun. From verbs, Spanish uses -ción/-sión (comunicar > la comunicación, decidir > la decisión), -miento (conocer > el conocimiento), -ncia (tolerar > la tolerancia) and -aje (aprender > el aprendizaje). Many verbs take none of these: they use the feminine past participle (llegar > la llegada, salir > la salida) or just add -o, -a or -e to the stem (cambiar > el cambio, not 'cambiamiento'; comprar > la compra). From adjectives, it uses -dad, -eza, -ez or -ura (feliz > la felicidad, triste > la tristeza, rápido > la rapidez, alto > la altura). Each suffix fixes the gender of the noun, and the suffixes are not interchangeable, so learn each noun with its article. For 'the ... thing', use lo + adjective: Lo importante es participar. Some infinitives also work as masculine nouns (el saber, 'knowledge'), and verb + noun compounds make nouns too: they are written as one word, are normally masculine (el paraguas, el sacacorchos) and, if they end in -s, stay the same in the plural (los paraguas).

Key rule

Verbs become nouns with -ción/-sión or -ncia (feminine), with -miento or -aje (masculine), as a feminine participle (la llegada) or with just -o, -a or -e on the stem (el cambio, la compra); adjectives take -dad, -eza, -ez or -ura (feminine). Lo + masculine singular adjective means 'the ... thing'. No rule predicts which form a word takes, so learn each noun with its article.

Examples

La comunicación entre los departamentos es esencial.
El comunicamiento entre los departamentos es esencial.
'Comunicar' forms its noun with -ción: la comunicación (feminine). There is no noun 'comunicamiento'.
El conocimiento es poder.
La conocición es poder.
'Conocer' forms its noun with -miento: el conocimiento (masculine). There is no noun 'conocición'.
La tolerancia es una virtud importante.
El toleramiento es una virtud importante.
'Tolerar' forms its noun with -ncia (-ancia after an -ar verb): la tolerancia (feminine). Not every verb takes -miento.

Common mistakes

Using the wrong nominalization suffix
La decidición fue difícil.
La decisión fue difícil.
'Decidir' gives 'decisión': the -d- of the stem disappears and the suffix is -sión. Verbs ending in -dir or -der often work like this (dividir > división, comprender > comprensión).
Assigning wrong gender to nominalized forms
El comunicación fue clara.
La comunicación fue clara.
Nouns ending in -ción/-sión are always feminine, so they take 'la' and feminine adjectives.

B2Vocabulary usage

Proverbs and Idiomatic Expressions

Refranes y expresiones idiomáticas

A proverb (refrán) is a complete traditional sentence that gives advice or states a general truth: 'Más vale tarde que nunca' (better late than never), 'No hay mal que por bien no venga' (every cloud has a silver lining). An idiom (expresión idiomática) is a fixed phrase that you build into your own sentence, conjugating its verb: 'estar en las nubes' (to be daydreaming), 'tomar el pelo a alguien' (to pull someone's leg). Most cannot be translated word for word, and their wording is fixed: apart from conjugating an idiom's verb and choosing the right pronoun, do not swap words, add or drop articles, or change the grammar inside them.

Key rule

Proverbs are quoted word for word, with their articles and verb forms. In an idiom you conjugate the verb and adapt the pronouns but keep every other word, and you learn the Spanish idiom instead of translating the English one.

Examples

Perdí el trabajo, pero encontré uno mejor. No hay mal que por bien no venga.
Perdí el trabajo, pero encontré uno mejor. No hay mal que por bien no viene.
The proverb keeps the subjunctive 'venga': it describes a misfortune that does not exist ('there is no bad thing that...'), and Spanish uses the subjunctive after such a denied antecedent. 'Viene' breaks both the grammar and the fixed wording.
Mejor no digas nada. En boca cerrada no entran moscas.
Mejor no digas nada. En la boca cerrada no entran moscas.
The proverb keeps an old pattern with no article: 'en boca cerrada', not 'en la boca cerrada'. Adding the article, as ordinary prose would, breaks the fixed wording.
María siempre está en las nubes durante las reuniones.
María siempre está en nubes durante las reuniones.
'Estar en las nubes' (to have one's head in the clouds, to be daydreaming) needs the article 'las'.

Common mistakes

Modifying the fixed wording of a proverb
No hay cosa mala que por bien no venga.
No hay mal que por bien no venga.
Proverbs are quoted word for word. 'Mal' is a noun here (a misfortune, a bad thing), and replacing it with 'cosa mala' turns the proverb into an unfamiliar paraphrase.
Adding or removing articles from fixed expressions
En la boca cerrada no entran las moscas.
En boca cerrada no entran moscas.
The proverb is quoted without articles: 'en boca cerrada' keeps an old article-less pattern. Adding 'la', or 'las' before 'moscas', breaks the fixed form.

B2Orthography

C/S/Z Spelling Distinctions

Distinción ortográfica entre C, S y Z

One sound, two letters: it is written Z before A, O, U (zapato, zona, azúcar) and C before E, I (cena, cine). So a Z turns into C when an E or I follows: vez > veces, feliz > felices, empezar > empecé. In -cer and -cir verbs it also works the other way round: before A or O the C becomes Z (vencer > venzo), and most verbs with a vowel before -cer or -cir keep the C and add a Z before it (conocer > conozco). S is a separate letter with its own words (casa, mesa, decisión). In most of Spain, Z and C before E/I sound like English 'th' in 'think' (distinción). In Latin America, the Canary Islands and parts of Andalusia they sound exactly like S (seseo). The spelling is the same everywhere. For -ción or -sión, a related word helps: one ending in -dor or -to usually points to -ción (educador > educación), and one ending in -sor or -sivo to -sión (televisor > televisión).

Key rule

The sound in zapato and cine is written Z before A, O, U and C before E, I, so the letter changes with the ending (vez > veces, empezar > empecé, vencer > venzo), but most verbs with a vowel before -cer or -cir keep the C and add a Z before it (conocer > conozco). S is a separate letter with its own words, even where it sounds the same.

Examples

Comí pescado dos veces esta semana.
Comí pescado dos vezes esta semana.
'Vez' becomes 'veces' in the plural. Before E, the Z changes to C: veces, not 'vezes'.
Empecé a estudiar español el año pasado.
Empezé a estudiar español el año pasado.
'Empezar' changes Z to C before E in the yo form of the preterite: empecé, not 'empezé'.
Los niños son muy felices.
Los niños son muy felizes.
'Feliz' becomes 'felices' in the plural. Before E, Z becomes C.

Common mistakes

Writing 'ze' or 'zi' instead of 'ce' or 'ci'
Fui al zine a ver una película.
Fui al cine a ver una película.
Before E and I this sound is written with C: cine, cena, hacer. 'Ze' and 'zi' appear only in a handful of loanwords and names (zigzag, zen, Nueva Zelanda).
Keeping Z when a word changes to have E or I
Los lápizes están en la mesa. Lo hize ayer.
Los lápices están en la mesa. Lo hice ayer.
When an E or I follows, Z becomes C: lápiz > lápices. 'Hacer' is written with C, so the yo preterite is 'hice'. The él form 'hizo' has Z only because O follows.

B2Orthography

Compound Word Spelling

Ortografía de las palabras compuestas

Spanish writes compounds in three ways. Verb + noun compounds are one word (sacacorchos, paraguas, abrelatas, rascacielos), and those ending in -s stay the same in the plural (los paraguas). Compounds that begin with socio- or psico- are one word too (sociopolítico). Two adjectives joined for the occasion take a hyphen, and only the second one agrees with the noun: una clase teórico-práctica, las relaciones franco-alemanas. A noun followed by a noun that describes it stays as two words (hora punta, hombre rana, ciudad dormitorio), and so do most set noun + adjective phrases (mesa redonda). However, some long-established compounds are written as one word and have to be learned one by one (Nochebuena, mediodía, pelirrojo). A compound written as one word has a single stress, so the normal accent rules apply to the whole word and the first part loses its written accent (tilde): décimo + séptimo > decimoséptimo. Adverbs in -mente are the exception: they keep the adjective's tilde (fácilmente).

Key rule

Verb + noun compounds are one word (sacacorchos, abrelatas). Two adjectives joined for the occasion take a hyphen, keep their tildes, and only the second agrees (clase teórico-práctica). A noun described by a second noun stays two words (hora punta). A one-word compound follows the accent rules as a single word (decimoséptimo), except adverbs in -mente, which keep the adjective's tilde (fácilmente).

Examples

Necesito un sacacorchos para abrir el vino.
Necesito un saca corchos para abrir el vino.
Verb + noun compounds are written as a single word: sacacorchos, not 'saca corchos'.
No olvides el paraguas, que va a llover.
No olvides el para aguas, que va a llover.
'Paraguas' (from parar + aguas) is a single compound word, not two separate words. The two a's merge into one.
El girasol sigue la luz del sol.
El gira sol sigue la luz del sol.
'Girasol' (from girar + sol) is a verb + noun compound, written as one word.

Common mistakes

Separating verb + noun compounds into two words
Compré un abre latas nuevo.
Compré un abrelatas nuevo.
Verb + noun compounds are always written as a single word: abrelatas, sacacorchos, paraguas, girasol, rascacielos.
Hyphenating a compound with a combining form like socio-
Un análisis socio-político de la crisis.
Un análisis sociopolítico de la crisis.
'Socio-' is a combining form, not a full adjective, so it is joined directly to the next word: sociopolítico, socioeconómico, sociocultural. The hyphen is for two full adjectives joined for the occasion (teórico-práctico) and for a relation between two nationalities (franco-alemán).

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B2 Spanish Grammar — 62 Topics & Common Mistakes

Imperfect Subjunctive (-ra form)

Imperfect Subjunctive (-se form)

Pluperfect Subjunctive

Historical Present (Presente histórico)

Sequence of Tenses in Indicative

Sequence of Tenses in Subjunctive

Conditional Perfect

Future and Conditional for Probability

Aspectual Periphrases with Gerund

Causative Hacer

Perception Verbs + Infinitive/Gerund

Spanish Gerund Restrictions

Pseudo-Copulative Verbs (ponerse, quedarse, volverse, hacerse, llegar a ser)

Perfective vs Imperfective Aspect Across Tenses

Infinitive vs Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses

Pronominal Verbs: Meaning Changes with Se

Subjunctive After Temporal Conjunctions (Future Reference)

Aunque + Indicative vs. Subjunctive

Concessive Conjunctions + Subjunctive

Conditional Conjunctions Requiring Subjunctive

Si + Imperfect/Pluperfect Subjunctive for Hypothetical Conditions

Mixed Conditional Sentences with Si

Como si + Imperfect/Pluperfect Subjunctive

Subjunctive in Relative Clauses with Indefinite Antecedent

Belief Verbs and Polarity: Indicative vs. Subjunctive

Después de que and Temporal Conjunctions: Indicative vs. Subjunctive

Fixed Subjunctive Phrases and Idiomatic Expressions

Imperfect Subjunctive for Courtesy and Softening

Ambiguous-Gender Nouns

Epicene Nouns: Fixed Grammatical Gender

Complex Subject-Verb Agreement

Relative Pronoun Cuyo/a/os/as

Leísmo, Laísmo, and Loísmo

Ethical Dative (Dativo ético)

Aspectual Se (Completion/Totality)

Middle Voice Se (Subject Affected, No Agent)

Redundant/Doubled Object Pronouns

Formal Prepositions: Tras and Mediante

Queísmo and Dequeísmo

Verbal Preposition Regime

Advanced Por/Para Nuances

Preposition + Infinitive as Complement

Hypothetical Conditional (Si + Imperfect Subjunctive)

Counterfactual Past Conditional (Si + Pluperfect Subjunctive)

Como si Constructions (As if)

Concessive Clauses (Aunque, Por más que, A pesar de que, Si bien)

Result/Consecutive Clauses (Tan...que, Tanto...que, Tal...que)

Alternatives to the Passive Voice

Advanced Contrast Connectors

Advanced Temporal Connectors

Advanced Consequence Connectors

Advanced Conditional Connectors

Subjunctive & Conditional for Politeness

Academic Register Features

Business Spanish Register

Regional Variation Awareness

Advanced False Friends

Advanced Collocations

Nominalization Patterns

Proverbs and Idiomatic Expressions

C/S/Z Spelling Distinctions

Compound Word Spelling