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Subjunctive triggers
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Future Subjunctive
Futuro de subjuntivo
The future subjunctive (futuro de subjuntivo) is an old verb form that has disappeared from everyday Spanish. It is built like the -ra imperfect subjunctive, but ends in -re: 'hablare', 'comiere', 'fuere', 'tuviere'; the nosotros form carries a written accent ('habláremos'). It presents a future event as merely possible, and only in subordinate clauses (after 'si', in relative and time clauses): 'Si alguien contraviniere esta norma, será sancionado' (Should anyone break this rule, they will be penalized). It never expresses an unreal condition, which needs the imperfect subjunctive ('Si tuviera tiempo, te ayudaría', not 'tuviere'). Today you meet it in legal and administrative texts, in proverbs such as 'Adonde fueres, haz lo que vieres' (When in Rome, do as the Romans do) and in fixed phrases such as 'sea como fuere' (be that as it may). Modern Spanish uses the present indicative after 'si' ('si alguien contraviene') and the present subjunctive elsewhere ('quien halle'). At C1 you mainly need to recognize it, not use it in conversation.
Key rule
The future subjunctive (hablare, comiere, fuere, hubiere + participle) is built like the -ra imperfect subjunctive but ends in -re; it survives mainly in legal texts, proverbs and fixed phrases, and modern Spanish replaces it with the present indicative after 'si' and with the present subjunctive in other clauses.
Examples
- Sea lo que fuere, no cambiaré de opinión.Sea lo que será, no cambiaré de opinión.
The fixed concessive phrase repeats 'ser' and needs the subjunctive in both verbs: traditional 'sea lo que fuere', or everyday 'sea lo que sea'. The future indicative 'será' can't go in this slot.
- Adonde fueres, haz lo que vieres.Adonde fueres, haz lo que vieras.
The proverb uses the future subjunctive twice: 'fueres' (from 'ir') and 'vieres' (from 'ver'). 'Vieras' is the -ra imperfect subjunctive, a different tense that doesn't fit a piece of advice about the future. The modern version is 'Adonde vayas, haz lo que veas'.
- Si alguien contraviniere esta norma, será sancionado.Si alguien contravendría esta norma, será sancionado.
In a legal condition with 'si', the verb is future subjunctive ('contraviniere') or, in modern drafting, present indicative ('contraviene'). The conditional ('contravendría') is never used after conditional 'si'.
Common mistakes
Using a -re form where the -ra imperfect subjunctive is needed
Si tuviere más tiempo, estudiaría Derecho.Si tuviera más tiempo, estudiaría Derecho.The two forms share a stem but are different tenses. An unreal condition with a conditional in the main clause needs the imperfect subjunctive ('tuviera' or 'tuviese'). The future subjunctive only presented a possible future condition, and today it survives mainly in legal texts and fixed phrases.
Using the future subjunctive in everyday speech
Oye, si mañana lloviere, no vamos al parque, ¿vale?Oye, si mañana llueve, no vamos al parque, ¿vale?In a casual chat about tomorrow's plans, 'lloviere' is badly out of place: no one uses the future subjunctive in conversation, and it sounds archaic and pompous. Modern Spanish uses the present indicative after conditional 'si'.
Overcompound (Sobrecompuesto) Tenses
Tiempos sobrecompuestos
Overcompound tenses (tiempos sobrecompuestos) put an extra 'habido' between 'haber' and the past participle: 'ha habido terminado', 'hubo habido llegado', 'había habido salido'. They stress that one action was already complete before another, like the French passé surcomposé ('quand il a eu fini'). They are not standard Spanish. You may meet them in old texts and, rarely, in some regional speech, but you should use the normal compound tenses: 'Cuando llegaste, ya había terminado'. Don't confuse them with 'ha habido' + noun, the present perfect of 'hay', which is completely standard: 'Ha habido muchos cambios' (There have been many changes). Like 'hay', it stays singular even with a plural noun: 'ha habido muchos cambios', not 'han habido'.
Key rule
Overcompound tenses insert an extra 'habido' (ha habido terminado, hubo habido llegado) to stress prior completion; they are rare and non-standard, so recognize them but use the normal compound tenses (ha terminado, hubo llegado, había salido). 'Ha habido' + noun is the standard perfect of existential 'haber' ('Ha habido problemas') and stays singular.
Examples
- En cuanto hubo terminado la reunión, todos se marcharon.En cuanto hubo habido terminado la reunión, todos se marcharon.
'Hubo habido terminado' is an old overcompound form with an extra 'habido'. Standard literary Spanish uses the preterite anterior 'hubo terminado' after 'en cuanto'; everyday Spanish simply says 'En cuanto terminó la reunión...'.
- Cuando llegó la policía, el ladrón ya había huido.Cuando llegó la policía, el ladrón ya había habido huido.
The pluperfect 'había huido' already says the escape came before the police arrived. The overcompound 'había habido huido' adds nothing and isn't standard Spanish.
- Cuando vuelvas, ya habremos cenado.Cuando vuelvas, ya habremos habido cenado.
The future perfect 'habremos cenado' already places dinner before your return. A second 'habido' turns it into a non-standard overcompound form.
Common mistakes
Doubling the auxiliary by transfer from French or colloquial German
Ya lo he habido olvidado todo.Ya lo he olvidado todo.French ('quand j'ai eu fini') and colloquial German ('ich habe es vergessen gehabt') can add a second auxiliary. Standard Spanish never does: one form of 'haber' + the participle is the whole compound tense.
Using an overcompound form in formal writing
El proyecto se ha habido completado dentro del plazo.El proyecto se ha completado dentro del plazo.Overcompound forms are non-standard and have no place in formal writing. The present perfect 'se ha completado' already says that the project is finished.
Causative and Permissive Verb Nuances (dejar, permitir, hacer, mandar, obligar a)
Matices de verbos causativos y permisivos (dejar, permitir, hacer, mandar, obligar a)
Five verbs say how much control one person has over another person's action. 'Dejar' is the everyday 'let': 'Mis padres me dejan salir'. 'Permitir' means the same but is more formal, so it suits rules and official language: 'No se permite fumar'. Unlike 'dejar', it easily takes a plain noun: 'El reglamento no permite el acceso'. 'Hacer' means 'make' or 'cause': 'La película me hizo llorar'. 'Mandar' means 'order': 'El jefe mandó cerrar la tienda'. 'Obligar a' means 'force': 'Me obligaron a firmar'. All five can take an infinitive or 'que' + subjunctive ('No deja que salga'), but only 'obligar' needs 'a' before them ('obligar a firmar', 'obligar a que firme'); 'dejar', 'permitir' and 'hacer' take the infinitive directly ('me deja salir', not 'me deja a salir'). The pronoun for the person who is let, made, ordered or forced to act goes with the conjugated verb: 'La hizo llorar', not 'Hizo llorarla'. A noun for that person takes 'a': 'Hizo repetir el ejercicio a los alumnos'. And 'I'm not allowed to' is 'No me dejan' or 'No se me permite', never 'No estoy permitido'.
Key rule
Use 'dejar' (everyday) or 'permitir' (formal) for permission, 'hacer' for causing, 'mandar' for ordering and 'obligar a' for forcing; each takes an infinitive or 'que' + subjunctive, only 'obligar' needs 'a' before them ('obligar a firmar'), and the pronoun for the person affected goes with the conjugated verb ('La hizo llorar').
Examples
- Mi madre no me deja salir de noche.Mi madre no me deja a salir de noche.
'Dejar' takes a bare infinitive: 'me deja salir'. The 'a' is borrowed from verbs like 'obligar a' or 'ayudar a', which do need it. Formal 'permitir' works like 'dejar': 'no me permite salir'.
- El reglamento no permite el uso de teléfonos móviles.El reglamento no deja el uso de teléfonos móviles.
'Permitir' takes a plain noun object ('el uso', 'el acceso') and is the natural verb for rules. 'Dejar' in the sense of 'let' needs an infinitive or a clause ('no deja usar el móvil'). With a noun it usually means 'leave' or 'give up', so 'no deja el uso' makes no sense here.
- La película me hizo llorar.La película me dejó llorar. (intended: The film made me cry.)
'Hacer' + infinitive expresses cause: the film made me cry. 'Me dejó llorar' means the film allowed me to cry, which is not what the speaker means.
Common mistakes
Copying English 'I'm not allowed to' with 'estar permitido'
No estoy permitido fumar aquí.No me dejan fumar aquí.In Spanish the person can't be the subject of 'permitido'. The person is the object of 'dejar' or 'permitir': 'No me dejan fumar aquí', or more formally 'No se me permite fumar aquí'.
Attaching the pronoun for the person affected to the infinitive
Ese humorista siempre hace reírnos.Ese humorista siempre nos hace reír.'Nos' refers to the people made to laugh, the object of 'hacer', so it goes before the conjugated 'hace': 'nos hace reír'. The same applies with 'dejar': 'nos deja entrar'.
Advanced Modal Periphrases (venir a, deber de, haber de, tener que ver con)
Perífrasis modales avanzadas (venir a, deber de, haber de, tener que ver con)
Beyond 'tener que' and 'poder', these structures add nuance. 'Deber' + infinitive expresses obligation or advice: 'Debes descansar' (You should rest). 'Deber de' + infinitive expresses a guess: 'Deben de ser las diez' (It must be about ten); 'deber' is plural here because the hour is plural ('son las diez'). For a guess about the past, put 'deber' in the past: 'Debió de salir tarde' (He must have left late). Plain 'deber' is also accepted for guesses, but careful Spanish avoids 'deber de' for obligation. 'Haber de' + infinitive is a formal, literary way to say what must or is bound to happen: 'Hemos de reconocerlo' (We must admit it). 'Haber' is conjugated as usual (he, has, ha, hemos, habéis, han; not 'habemos'), and it takes 'de', not 'que': 'Has de saber', not 'Has que saber'. Besides its literal meaning ('Viene a verme', He's coming to see me), 'venir a' + infinitive can mean 'roughly' or 'in effect': 'Viene a costar 20 euros' (It costs about 20 euros), 'Esto viene a confirmar mis dudas' (This essentially confirms my doubts). And the idiom 'tener que ver con' means 'to have to do with': 'Eso no tiene nada que ver con el tema'.
Key rule
Use 'deber' + infinitive for obligation and 'deber de' (or plain 'deber') for guesses; 'haber de' + infinitive for formal obligation or what is bound to happen; 'venir a' + infinitive for 'roughly' or 'in effect'; and the idiom 'tener que ver con' for 'to have to do with'.
Examples
- El viaje viene a durar unas tres horas.El viaje viene durando unas tres horas. (intended: The trip takes roughly three hours.)
'Venir a' + infinitive gives an approximate figure: 'viene a durar' = takes roughly. 'Venir' + gerund ('viene durando') means something has been happening for a while, which is not what the speaker means.
- Deben de ser las diez ya.Debe de ser las diez ya.
'Deber de' + infinitive expresses a guess (It must be ten by now). With the time, 'ser' is plural ('son las diez'), so 'deber' is plural too: 'deben de ser'. Plain 'Deben ser las diez' is also accepted for a guess.
- Debes estudiar más para el examen.Debes de estudiar más para el examen. (intended: You should study more for the exam.)
Obligation or advice takes 'deber' + infinitive without 'de'. 'Deber de' for obligation is common in speech, but careful Spanish rejects it and keeps 'deber de' for guesses ('Debe de estar estudiando').
Common mistakes
Using 'deber de' for obligation
Debes de hacer la tarea. (intended: You have to do your homework.)Debes hacer la tarea.Obligation is 'deber' + infinitive. 'Debes de hacer la tarea' is widespread in speech, but careful Spanish reads 'deber de' as a guess ('Debe de estar enfermo', He must be ill) and rejects it for obligation.
Splitting the fixed order 'no tener nada que ver'
Su dimisión no tiene que ver nada con el escándalo.Su dimisión no tiene nada que ver con el escándalo.Quantifiers such as 'nada', 'mucho' or 'algo' normally go before 'que ver' ('no tiene nada que ver', 'tiene mucho que ver', 'algo tendrá que ver'); that is the fixed order.
Lexical Aspect (Aktionsart)
Aspecto léxico (Aktionsart)
Lexical aspect (Aktionsart) is the kind of situation a verb phrase describes, whatever its tense. States hold without change ('saber', 'tener') and don't normally take 'estar' + gerund ('Sé la respuesta', not 'Estoy sabiendo la respuesta'). Activities go on with no built-in end ('caminar', 'nadar'). Accomplishments move toward an end point ('construir una casa', 'escribir una carta'). Achievements are instant changes ('llegar', 'encontrar'). Semelfactives are single instant acts ('toser', 'estornudar'). The type changes what the preterite and imperfect mean: in the preterite a state often marks its start or its result ('Supe la verdad' = I found out the truth, 'Conocí a María' = I met María, 'Pude abrirla' = I managed to open it), and 'Escribió una carta' means the letter was finished, while 'Escribía una carta' doesn't. It also decides the time phrase: 'durante dos horas' for activities ('Caminé durante dos horas'), 'en dos años' for reaching an end point ('Construyeron el puente en dos años').
Key rule
Lexical aspect is the type of situation a verb phrase describes (state, activity, accomplishment, achievement, semelfactive), and it shapes tense meanings: in the preterite, states often mark a beginning ('supe' = found out, 'conocí' = met) and accomplishments are finished ('escribió una carta'); 'durante' + time goes with activities, 'en' + time with phrases that have an end point.
Examples
- Caminé durante dos horas.Caminé en dos horas.
'Caminar' is an activity with no built-in end, so its length is given with 'durante' (or a bare 'dos horas'). 'En dos horas' measures the time needed to reach an end point, and plain 'caminar' has none. With a goal it works: 'Caminé hasta el pueblo en dos horas'.
- Pintó la valla en una tarde.Pintaba la valla en una tarde. (intended: He painted the fence in one afternoon.)
'Pintar la valla' is an accomplishment: 'en una tarde' measures the time taken to finish it, and a single finished event needs the preterite. The imperfect describes a habit (he used to paint the fence in one afternoon), which is not what the speaker means.
- Supe la verdad cuando leí la carta.Sabía la verdad cuando leí la carta. (intended: I found out the truth when I read the letter.)
'Saber' is a state. In the preterite, 'supe' marks the moment the knowing began: I found out. The imperfect 'sabía' means I already knew it when I read the letter.
Common mistakes
Using 'estar' + gerund with a pure state
Estoy sabiendo la respuesta.Sé la respuesta.A pure state such as 'saber' or 'poseer' doesn't take 'estar' + gerund: the simple present already presents the ongoing state. The progressive is fine when the verb describes behaviour or a process instead: 'Estás siendo muy amable' (you're being very kind), 'Estoy conociendo la ciudad' (I'm getting to know the city).
Using the imperfect of 'poder' for a single success
Después de tres intentos, podía abrir la puerta. (intended: After three attempts, he managed to open the door.)Después de tres intentos, pudo abrir la puerta.The preterite 'pudo' marks a single achieved result (managed to). The imperfect 'podía' only describes an ability or possibility and doesn't say the door was opened.
Advanced Infinitive Nominalization
Nominalización avanzada del infinitivo
When a verb works as a noun, Spanish uses the infinitive, never the -ing form (gerund): 'Fumar es malo' (Smoking is bad), 'El comer bien es importante'. After verbs like 'querer' or 'poder', though, the infinitive takes no article: 'Quiero dormir', not 'Quiero el dormir'. In literary and journalistic writing you also meet infinitives used as full nouns, with an article plus an adjective or a 'de' phrase: 'el buen comer' (good food and eating well), 'el incesante caer de la lluvia' (the ceaseless falling of the rain). These are always masculine singular. Some infinitives have become ordinary nouns with their own plural: 'el deber / los deberes' (duty, homework), 'el poder' (power), 'el saber' (knowledge), 'el amanecer / los amaneceres' (dawn). And 'al' + infinitive means 'when' or 'upon': 'Al abrir la puerta, vi a Ana'. If the infinitive has its own subject, it comes after it: 'Al llegar Marta, todos se callaron'.
Key rule
An infinitive can work as a masculine noun: as a subject, bare or with 'el' ('(El) comer bien es sano'); fully noun-like with adjectives and 'de' but always singular ('el incesante caer de la lluvia'); or as a lexicalized noun with its own plural ('el deber, los deberes'). After verbs like 'querer' it takes no article ('Quiero dormir'), the gerund never works as a noun, and 'al' + infinitive means 'when' or 'upon'.
Examples
- El buen comer es un arte.El bueno comer es un arte.
A nominal infinitive is a masculine singular noun, so an adjective in front of it takes the short form, as with any masculine noun: 'el buen vino', 'el buen comer'.
- El atardecer en la costa es precioso.La atardecer en la costa es preciosa.
Infinitives used as nouns are always masculine, even when a related noun is feminine ('la tarde'). Article and adjective agree in the masculine: 'el atardecer ... precioso'.
- El constante ir y venir de los turistas me cansa.El constante ir y venir de los turistas me cansan.
The subject is the nominal infinitive 'el ir y venir', which is singular. The verb agrees with it, not with the nearby plural 'los turistas'.
Common mistakes
Using the gerund as a subject
Comiendo bien es importante.Comer bien es importante.Spanish uses the infinitive, never the gerund, as a verbal noun. English 'Eating well is important' leads learners to the gerund. 'El comer bien es importante' is also correct, in a more formal style.
Adding 'el' to an infinitive that completes another verb
Quiero el dormir.Quiero dormir.After verbs like 'querer', 'poder' or 'necesitar', the infinitive is part of the verb chain and takes no article. 'El' goes with an infinitive only when it stands on its own as a noun phrase ('El dormir poco me agota').
Subjunctive in Independent Clauses
Subjuntivo en oraciones independientes
The subjunctive usually depends on a main verb ('Espero que te vaya bien'). In wishes and exclamations, however, it can be the main verb of the sentence. Four patterns cover most cases. Que + present subjunctive wishes someone well: '¡Que te vaya bien!' (All the best!), '¡Que aproveche!' (Enjoy your meal!). Ojalá + subjunctive expresses hope: the present for things that can still happen ('Ojalá venga', I hope he comes), the imperfect for things that are unlikely or impossible ('¡Ojalá pudiera!', If only I could!), and the pluperfect for regrets about the past ('Ojalá hubiera estudiado más', I wish I had studied more). Quién + imperfect subjunctive expresses longing: '¡Quién tuviera tu suerte!' (I wish I had your luck!); for the past, it takes the pluperfect ('¡Quién hubiera estado allí!', If only I had been there!). Finally, some fixed phrases use it on their own: '¡Viva el rey!' (Long live the king!), 'sea como sea' (be that as it may).
Key rule
In wishes and exclamations the subjunctive can be the main verb: que + present subjunctive ('¡Que te vaya bien!'), ojalá + subjunctive (present for wishes that can still come true, present perfect for what may already have happened, imperfect for unlikely or unreal wishes about now or the future, pluperfect for regrets about the past), quién + imperfect subjunctive for longing ('¡Quién pudiera!'; pluperfect for the past), and fixed formulas such as '¡Viva...!' and 'sea como sea'. These wish patterns never take the indicative or the conditional.
Examples
- ¡Que te vaya bien en el examen!¡Que te va bien en el examen!
This is a wish to the listener, short for 'Espero que te vaya bien'. A wish with que needs the present subjunctive 'vaya', not the indicative 'va'.
- ¡Ojalá pudiera quedarme más tiempo!¡Ojalá puedo quedarme más tiempo!
Ojalá always takes the subjunctive, never the indicative 'puedo'. The imperfect subjunctive 'pudiera' shows that staying longer is not possible.
- ¡Quién tuviera tu talento para la música!¡Quién tiene tu talento para la música! (intended: I wish I had your talent for music!)
Quién + imperfect subjunctive expresses the speaker's own longing: 'I wish I had your talent for music!' With the indicative 'tiene', the sentence would only ask who has your talent.
Common mistakes
Using the indicative after que in independent wishes
¡Que tienes suerte! (intended: Good luck!)¡Que tengas suerte!A wish introduced by que needs the subjunctive: 'tengas'. With the indicative, '¡Que tienes suerte!' is not a wish at all; it insists on a fact ('I'm telling you, you're lucky!').
Using the present subjunctive after ojalá for a wish that is contrary to fact
Ojalá tenga más tiempo. (intended: I wish I had more time, but I don't.)Ojalá tuviera más tiempo.When the wish goes against reality (you do not have the time), ojalá takes the imperfect subjunctive 'tuviera'. The present subjunctive 'tenga' means 'I hope I have more time', a wish that can still come true.
Redundant/Expletive 'No' in Subjunctive Clauses
El 'no' expletivo en cláusulas de subjuntivo
Sometimes Spanish puts a 'no' into a clause without making it negative. This is called the expletive (redundant) 'no'. The most common case is hasta que no after a negative main clause: 'No me voy hasta que no me pidas perdón' means the same as 'No me voy hasta que me pidas perdón' (I'm not leaving until you apologize). The fixed expressions no sea que and no vaya a ser que (in case) also contain a 'no' that belongs to the expression and does not negate the verb after it: 'Llévate el paraguas, no sea que llueva' (Take the umbrella in case it rains). A third case is comparisons such as 'Es mejor que sobre que no que falte' (Better too much than too little). The mood rules stay the same: future events after hasta que still take the subjunctive. After temer, evitar and impedir, however, a 'no' is a real negation in modern Spanish, so use it there only when you mean 'not'.
Key rule
A 'no' that does not negate the verb after it is standard in hasta que no after a negative main clause, in no sea que / no vaya a ser que (where it belongs to the expression), and in comparisons with que no que; it never changes the mood rules. After temer, evitar and impedir, a 'no' is a real negation in modern Spanish, so leave it out unless you mean 'not'.
Examples
- No me voy hasta que no me pidas perdón.
The second 'no' is expletive: the sentence means the same as 'No me voy hasta que me pidas perdón' (I'm not leaving until you apologize). Both versions are correct; the one with 'no' is very common in speech, especially in Spain.
- No saldrás de casa hasta que no termines los deberes.No saldrás de casa hasta que no terminas los deberes.
The expletive 'no' does not change the mood rule: hasta que referring to a future event takes the subjunctive, 'termines', with or without the 'no'.
- No se durmió hasta que no llegó su hija.
For a past fact, hasta que (no) takes the indicative: 'llegó'. The 'no' does not negate: the sentence means 'She didn't fall asleep until her daughter arrived', exactly like 'No se durmió hasta que llegó su hija'.
Common mistakes
Using the indicative after hasta que no for a future event
No voy a cenar hasta que no llega mi hermano.No voy a cenar hasta que no llegue mi hermano.The expletive 'no' does not affect the mood. Hasta que referring to the future takes the subjunctive, 'llegue', just as in 'hasta que llegue mi hermano'.
Adding a 'no' after tener miedo de que or temer que when you fear that something will happen
Tengo miedo de que no se entere mi jefe. (intended: I'm afraid my boss will find out.)Tengo miedo de que se entere mi jefe.In modern Spanish, a 'no' after verbs of fear is a real negation. The sentence with 'no' says 'I'm afraid my boss WON'T find out.'
Subtle Mood Contrasts That Change Meaning
Contrastes sutiles de modo verbal que cambian el significado
A few Spanish verbs change their meaning with the mood of the verb after que. The indicative presents the clause as information: something you perceive, report or state. The subjunctive turns the same verb into a feeling, an order or a judgment. 'Siento que algo va mal' means 'I sense that something is wrong', but 'Siento que estés enfermo' means 'I'm sorry you're ill'. 'Dice que viene' means 'He says he's coming', but 'Dice que vengas' means 'He says you should come'. The key verbs are sentir, decir, insistir en, comprender/entender, admitir and advertir. So decide first what you mean, then choose the mood.
Key rule
Some verbs change meaning with the mood of the que clause: the indicative perceives, reports or asserts ('Dice que viene', 'Siento que algo va mal'), while the subjunctive expresses a feeling, an order or a judgment ('Dice que vengas', 'Siento que estés enfermo'). The key verbs are sentir, decir, insistir en, comprender/entender, admitir and advertir.
Examples
- Siento que algo no va bien entre nosotros.Siento que algo no vaya bien entre nosotros. (intended: I sense that something is wrong between us.)
With the indicative 'va', sentir means 'to sense, to feel': the speaker perceives a problem. With the subjunctive 'vaya', it would mean 'I'm sorry that something is wrong between us.'
- Siento que estés pasando por un mal momento.Siento que estás pasando por un mal momento. (intended: I'm sorry you're going through a hard time.)
To express sympathy, sentir ('to be sorry') takes the subjunctive: 'estés'. With the indicative 'estás', the sentence would mean 'I sense that you're going through a hard time.'
- Dice que viene mañana.Dice que venga mañana. (intended: He says he's coming tomorrow.)
To report what someone said, decir takes the indicative: 'viene'. 'Dice que venga mañana' is correct Spanish, but it is an instruction: he says that someone should come tomorrow.
Common mistakes
Using sentir + indicative when expressing regret
Siento que no puedes venir a mi fiesta. (intended: I'm sorry you can't come to my party.)Siento que no puedas venir a mi fiesta.When sentir means 'to be sorry', it takes the subjunctive: 'puedas'. With the indicative 'puedes', the sentence would mean 'I sense that you can't come to my party.'
Using decir + subjunctive when reporting information
María dice que venga mañana. (intended: María says she's coming tomorrow.)María dice que viene mañana.When decir reports information, it takes the indicative: 'viene'. The subjunctive 'venga' turns the sentence into an instruction: María says that someone should come tomorrow.
Subordinate Subjunctive Used as Main Clause
Subjuntivo subordinado usado como oración principal
In everyday Spanish, a clause that starts with que can stand alone as a complete sentence: the main verb (dile, te digo, dice) is simply left out. With the subjunctive, it passes on an order or repeats one: 'Que pase' (Tell him to come in, said to the person who announced a visitor), 'Que te calles' (I said be quiet!). The same que also works with the indicative, to insist on a fact or relay a message: 'Que sí, que viene' (Yes, I'm telling you, he's coming), 'Que dice tu madre que bajes' (Your mom says to come down), where the relayed order itself keeps the subjunctive. So use the subjunctive for orders and wishes, and the indicative for facts.
Key rule
A que clause can stand alone without its main verb: with the subjunctive it passes on, repeats or formalizes an order or wish ('Que pase', 'Que te calles', 'Que conste en acta'), and with the indicative it insists on a fact or relays information ('Que sí, que viene'). Never put an affirmative imperative after this que ('Que te calles', not 'Que cállate').
Examples
- Que pase el siguiente.Que pasa el siguiente. (intended: Next person, come in.)
An order introduced by que needs the subjunctive: 'pase'. With the indicative 'pasa', the sentence would only report that the next person is going in. 'Pase el siguiente', without que, is also correct: it is the formal imperative.
- Que te calles de una vez.Que cállate de una vez.
After que, use the present subjunctive with the pronoun in front, 'te calles', never the imperative form 'cállate'. 'Cállate de una vez' on its own is also correct; the que version sounds like an order repeated with growing impatience.
- Que sí, que viene María a cenar.Que sí, que venga María a cenar. (intended: Yes, I'm telling you, María IS coming to dinner.)
Insisting on a fact keeps the indicative: 'viene'. With the subjunctive, 'que venga María' becomes a decision or instruction: 'Yes, let María come to dinner.'
Common mistakes
Omitting que before the subjunctive
Te calles de una vez.Que te calles de una vez.An affirmative tú subjunctive such as 'te calles' cannot stand alone as an order (only negative commands use it without que: 'No te calles'). Either keep que ('Que te calles') or use the imperative ('Cállate'). Forms like 'Pase' are different: they are the usted imperative.
Using the imperative form after que
Que vete a tu cuarto.Que te vayas a tu cuarto.After que, the order is expressed with the present subjunctive, with the pronoun in front: 'te vayas'. The imperative 'vete' is only possible without que.
Future Subjunctive Recognition (Legal, Literary, Proverbial)
Reconocimiento del futuro de subjuntivo (legal, literario, proverbial)
The future subjunctive is an old verb form that has almost disappeared from modern Spanish. You will still meet it in three places: legal texts ('el que incurriere en este delito', whoever commits this offense), proverbs and set phrases ('Donde fueres, haz lo que vieres', also 'Adonde fueres...', When in Rome, do as the Romans do; 'sea lo que fuere', be that as it may), and classical literature. It is easy to spot: it looks like the -ra imperfect subjunctive with -re instead of -ra (tuviera → tuviere, fueran → fueren, hiciera → hiciere). You only need to recognize it. To understand it, replace it with the present subjunctive ('el que incurra', 'donde vayas') or, after si, with the present indicative ('si fuere necesario' means 'si es necesario'). Never use the present subjunctive after si (wrong: 'si sea necesario').
Key rule
The future subjunctive looks like the -ra imperfect subjunctive with -re instead of -ra (tuviera → tuviere, tuvieran → tuvieren, fuera → fuere) and survives mainly in legal language, set phrases and classical texts. Recognize it and modernize it with the present subjunctive, or with the present indicative after si.
Examples
- Donde fueres, haz lo que vieres.
This proverb preserves two future subjunctives: 'fueres' (from ir) and 'vieres' (from ver). It means 'When in Rome, do as the Romans do.' Modern Spanish would say 'Donde vayas, haz lo que veas', with the present subjunctive.
- Si así lo hiciere, que Dios se lo premie.
A traditional oath formula ('If he does so, may God reward him'). 'Hiciere' is the future subjunctive of hacer. The modern equivalent after si is the present indicative: 'Si así lo hace...'.
- El que incurriere en este delito será castigado con la pena de prisión de uno a tres años.
'Incurriere' is the future subjunctive of incurrir, typical of older legal codes ('Whoever commits this offense...'). The modern equivalent is the present subjunctive: 'El que incurra' or 'Quien incurra'.
Common mistakes
Using the -re form where the -ra imperfect subjunctive is needed
Mi jefe me pidió que lo hiciere antes del lunes.Mi jefe me pidió que lo hiciera antes del lunes.The two forms share the stem (hicier-) but not the meaning. After a past trigger such as 'me pidió que', modern Spanish uses the imperfect subjunctive in -ra or -se ('hiciera', 'hiciese'). The -re form is an archaic future subjunctive.
Using the future subjunctive in everyday conversation
Cuando tuviere tiempo, iré al cine contigo.Cuando tenga tiempo, iré al cine contigo.Outside legal language and a few set phrases, the future subjunctive sounds archaic. In a time clause about the future, modern Spanish uses the present subjunctive: 'cuando tenga'.
Fronting for Focus and Contrast
Anteposición focal y contrastiva
To stress new or contrasting information, Spanish can move it to the front of the sentence or build a cleft around it. In focus fronting, the verb comes straight after the stressed phrase (normally only 'no' or an object pronoun can come between), the subject follows the verb, and a fronted direct object is not repeated with lo or la: 'Un café pedí yo, no una cerveza.' A fronted indirect object normally keeps le or les: 'A mis hijos les doy todo.' A fronted negative word replaces 'no': 'Nada me dijo.' Clefts use ser + focus + relative, with quien or el que / la que for people and donde for places: 'Fue María quien lo resolvió.' Ser agrees with a focused pronoun ('Fui yo quien lo rompió', not 'Fue yo'). A preposition on the focus is repeated before quien or el que / la que ('Es con tu jefe con quien tienes que hablar'), but a place with en takes plain donde and a time takes plain cuando ('Fue en Barcelona donde nos conocimos'). Pseudo-clefts start with lo que (not qué) for things or quien for people, and ser agrees with a plural focus: 'Lo que necesito es tiempo', 'Lo que más me gusta son sus plazas.' Don't confuse focus with topic fronting ('El libro lo compré ayer'), where the fronted object is a known, definite phrase and is repeated with lo or la.
Key rule
To stress new or contrasting information, front it with the verb right after it and any subject after the verb ('Un café pedí yo'), or use a cleft ('Fue María quien…') or a pseudo-cleft ('Lo que necesito es…'). A fronted focus object takes no lo/la; a fronted definite topic does ('El libro lo compré ayer').
Examples
- Un café pedí yo, no una cerveza.Un café yo pedí, no una cerveza.
'Un café' is fronted as a correction, so the verb comes straight after it and the subject 'yo' follows the verb. Putting 'yo' between the fronted focus and the verb is ungrammatical. No 'lo' is added, because a fronted focus object is not repeated with lo or la.
- Pocas películas he visto este año.Pocas películas las he visto este año.
A fronted quantifier phrase like 'pocas películas' is a focus, not a known topic, so it is not repeated with 'las'. A known topic, such as a definite phrase, does take a resumptive pronoun: 'Esas películas las he visto'.
- Lo que más me gusta de esta ciudad son sus plazas.Lo que más me gusta de esta ciudad es sus plazas.
In a pseudo-cleft, 'ser' normally agrees with a plural noun in focus position: 'son sus plazas'. With a singular focus it stays singular: 'Lo que más me gusta es el clima'.
Common mistakes
Adding lo/la to a fronted quantifier or focus
Algo lo sabrá tu hermano.Algo sabrá tu hermano.Fronted quantifiers and indefinites ('algo', 'poco', 'mucho', 'un café') normally act as a focus, so as direct objects they are not repeated with lo, la, los or las. A fronted definite topic is: 'El libro lo compré ayer'.
Leaving the subject before the verb after a fronted focus
Eso mismo yo pienso.Eso mismo pienso yo.After a fronted focus, the verb comes next and the subject moves after it. Compare the normal order 'Yo pienso eso mismo' with the focused 'Eso mismo pienso yo'.
Left Dislocation with Resumptive Pronoun
Dislocación a la izquierda con pronombre reasuntivo
Left dislocation puts a known topic at the start of the sentence and repeats it inside the clause with an object pronoun: 'Esa película la he visto tres veces', 'A tu hermana la vi ayer.' The pronoun matches the topic's gender, number and role: lo, la, los, las for a definite direct object; le, les for an indirect object ('A María le enviaron el paquete'). Before lo, la, los or las, le and les become se: 'El regalo, se lo di a mi madre.' The pronoun goes before a conjugated verb, in compound tenses before haber ('Ese tema ya lo he discutido'), but it is attached to the end of an affirmative command: 'Esa puerta, ciérrala.' A person keeps the personal 'a'. A new, indefinite phrase such as 'un libro' is not dislocated: say 'Ayer leí un libro.' In writing, a comma often follows the topic: 'El libro, ya lo leí.' Right dislocation does the reverse: the pronoun comes first and the noun is added at the end to make the reference clear: 'Ya lo leí, el libro.' Both are very common in speech.
Key rule
Put a known topic first (often followed by a comma) and repeat it inside the clause with an object pronoun that matches its gender, number and role: lo/la/los/las for a definite direct object, le/les for an indirect object, se before lo/la/los/las ('El regalo, se lo di a mi madre'). In right dislocation the pronoun comes first and the noun follows as a clarification: 'Ya lo leí, el libro.'
Examples
- El libro, ya lo leí la semana pasada.El libro, ya leí la semana pasada.
Left dislocation requires the resumptive pronoun 'lo' inside the clause. Without it, 'leí' has no direct object and 'el libro' is not linked to the verb, so the sentence is ungrammatical.
- A María, le enviaron el paquete ayer.A María, enviaron el paquete ayer.
The dislocated indirect object 'a María' must be repeated inside the clause with the indirect object pronoun 'le'.
- Ya lo leí, el libro.Ya leí, el libro.
Right dislocation: 'lo' comes first in the clause, and 'el libro', set off by the comma, is added at the end to make clear what 'lo' refers to. Once the object is split off like this, the clause needs its own pronoun. Without the comma, 'Ya leí el libro' is ordinary word order and correct.
Common mistakes
Omitting the resumptive clitic in left dislocation
El informe, terminé ayer.El informe, lo terminé ayer.A dislocated definite direct object (a known topic) must be repeated inside the clause with 'lo', 'la', 'los' or 'las'. Without 'lo', 'terminé' has no object and the sentence is ungrammatical.
Dislocating a new indefinite phrase (un/una + noun)
Un libro, lo leí ayer.Ayer leí un libro.A plain indefinite like 'un libro' presents something new, so it cannot be a topic resumed by 'lo'. Use normal word order, or, if the book is already known, a definite phrase: 'Ese libro, lo leí ayer'.
Advanced Embedded and Subordinate Structures
Estructuras subordinadas complejas y encajadas
At C1 you build sentences with several clauses inside each other. What keeps them correct: every verb takes its mood and tense from the word that governs its own clause, not from the start of the sentence. In 'El hecho de que haya venido demuestra que le importa', 'el hecho de que' usually takes the subjunctive, but 'demuestra que' takes the indicative. Keep the 'de' in 'el hecho de que', but don't add one after verbs like 'decir' or 'mencionar' ('mencionó que', not 'mencionó de que'). After a past trigger, a subjunctive is normally past, and a reported present usually becomes imperfect: 'Me pidió que le explicara por qué creía eso.' Prepositions go before relatives ('la persona con la que hablé'), and an indirect question keeps the written accent on the question word but has no ¿ or ? of its own: 'No sé dónde vive.' The marks appear only when the main sentence is a question: '¿Sabes dónde vive?'
Key rule
In a sentence with several clauses, give each verb the mood and tense required by the word that governs its own clause ('dudo que' + subjunctive, 'demuestra que' + indicative), normally use a past subjunctive after a past trigger, put prepositions before relatives ('con la que'), and write indirect question words with their written accent, adding ¿ and ? only when the main sentence is itself a question ('¿Sabes dónde vive?').
Examples
- El hecho de que haya dimitido demuestra que reconoce su error.El hecho de que haya dimitido demuestra que reconozca su error.
'Demuestra que' presents a conclusion as true, so its clause takes the indicative 'reconoce'. The subjunctive 'haya dimitido' belongs to a different layer: the clause after 'el hecho de que', which usually takes the subjunctive when it opens the sentence.
- No creo que sea cierto que vayan a cerrar la fábrica.No creo que es cierto que vayan a cerrar la fábrica.
'No creo que' requires the subjunctive: 'sea cierto', not 'es cierto'. The lower clause 'que vayan a cerrar' depends on 'sea cierto', which is itself under the doubt, so it is normally in the subjunctive too.
- La persona con la que hablé me confirmó que el proyecto seguía adelante.La persona con la que hablé me confirmó que el proyecto siguiera adelante.
'Confirmar que' reports something as a fact, so its clause takes the indicative: 'seguía adelante'. In the relative clause, 'con la que' (or 'con quien') keeps the preposition that 'hablar con' needs in front of the relative.
Common mistakes
Dropping 'de' in 'el hecho de que' (queísmo)
El hecho que tenga razón no cambia nada.El hecho de que tenga razón no cambia nada.'Hecho' is a noun, and nouns like 'hecho', 'idea' or 'posibilidad' take their que-clause with 'de': 'el hecho de que', 'la idea de que'. The subjunctive 'tenga' is the usual choice when this clause is the subject at the start of the sentence.
Using the indicative in the clause governed by a doubt verb
Dudo que creen que debemos hacerlo.Dudo que crean que debemos hacerlo.'Dudo que' requires the subjunctive in the clause it governs: 'crean'. The clause below that depends on 'creer', so the indicative 'debemos' is normal there, although 'debamos' is also possible because it sits inside the doubt.
Ellipsis and Gapping
Elipsis y vaciado
Ellipsis means leaving out words the listener can recover from context. Gapping drops the second use of the same verb, and a comma marks the gap: 'Juan compró pan y María, leche.' Sluicing keeps only the question word, with its preposition in front: 'Habló con alguien, pero no sé con quién', 'Pasó algo, pero no sé qué' (not 'no sé lo que'). After querer, poder or deber, the infinitive can be left out when the context makes it clear: 'Quiero, pero no puedo.' When a noun is left out, keep the article and use full forms: 'el azul' (not 'el uno azul'), 'uno rojo'. Unlike English, Spanish cannot leave an auxiliary or a linking word hanging, and it has no 'do' for short answers: say 'Yo sí' (not 'Yo he'), 'Sí, voy' (not 'Sí, voy a') and 'Sí, fui' (not 'Sí, lo hice'). To add another negative, use 'tampoco' (not 'también no'), and keep the preposition of the phrase that remains: 'A mí no me gusta, pero a mi hermano sí.'
Key rule
Leave out only what the listener can recover, and keep what remains grammatical: drop the verb of a second clause only when it is the same verb as in the first, marking the gap with a comma in writing ('Juan compró pan y María, leche'), put prepositions before a remaining question word ('con quién'), use sí/no/también/tampoco instead of a stranded auxiliary ('yo sí', not 'yo he'), and when a noun is dropped, keep the article and use full forms ('el azul', 'uno rojo', 'ninguno').
Examples
- Juan compró pan y María, leche.
Gapping: the repeated verb 'compró' is left out of the second clause, and the comma marks the gap. The full version, 'y María compró leche', is also correct, just heavier.
- Juan compró pan y María fue al cine.Juan compró pan y María, al cine.
Gapping only works when the missing verb is the same as the one in the first clause ('y María, leche'). Here María did not buy anything; she went somewhere, so the second verb 'fue' must stay.
- —¿Vas a venir a la fiesta? —Sí, voy.—¿Vas a venir a la fiesta? —Sí, voy a.
'Ir a' cannot end in 'a' the way English 'I'm going to' can. Answer 'Sí, voy', or complete the phrase with an infinitive: 'Sí, voy a ir'.
Common mistakes
Translating English 'the one' as 'el uno'
Me gusta más el uno azul.Me gusta más el azul.In nominal ellipsis, Spanish drops the noun and keeps the article: 'el azul', 'la de María', 'los que compré'. 'Uno' works as 'a ... one' ('Tengo uno rojo'), but English 'the ... one' is just the article plus the adjective.
Gapping a verb that is not the same as in the first clause
Laura se quedó en casa y su novio, al gimnasio.Laura se quedó en casa y su novio fue al gimnasio.Gapping requires the same verb in both clauses. 'Se quedó' cannot be understood before 'al gimnasio', so the second verb must be stated.
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Precision Reformulation Connectors
Conectores de reformulación de precisión
Reformulators let you restate, spell out or correct what you have just said, and each one has its own job. 'Es decir' (that is) is the neutral default, and 'esto es' (not 'eso es') does the same job in formal writing: 'La decisión es irrevocable, esto es, no se puede cambiar.' 'A saber' (namely) lists the items of something you have just announced: 'tres competencias, a saber: ...'. 'En otras palabras' (in other words) restates an idea more plainly. 'Mejor dicho' (or rather) corrects or sharpens what you just said: 'Llegaré el viernes, o mejor dicho, el sábado.' 'O sea' (I mean, so) is the usual choice in everyday speech and writing. It is always two words, and 'o sea que' draws a conclusion: 'No contesta, o sea que no está en casa.'
Key rule
Choose the reformulator by function and register: 'es decir' (neutral) and 'esto es' (formal) restate the same idea, and 'o sea' does so in everyday speech and writing; 'a saber' lists the items just announced; 'en otras palabras' restates more plainly; '(o) mejor dicho' corrects what you just said.
Examples
- La decisión es irrevocable, esto es, no se puede cambiar.La decisión es irrevocable, a saber, no se puede cambiar.
'Esto es' introduces an equivalent restatement: 'irrevocable' means that it cannot be changed. 'A saber' introduces the items or details of something already announced, usually a list, so it cannot introduce a paraphrase.
- Se evaluarán tres competencias, a saber: comprensión lectora, expresión escrita y expresión oral.Se evaluarán tres competencias, en otras palabras: comprensión lectora, expresión escrita y expresión oral.
'A saber' spells out the items announced by 'tres competencias'. 'En otras palabras' restates a whole idea in plainer terms, so it cannot introduce the items of a list.
- El proyecto ha fracasado. En otras palabras, hemos perdido la inversión.El proyecto ha fracasado. A saber, hemos perdido la inversión.
'En otras palabras' restates the failure in plainer terms: the investment is lost. 'A saber' spells out the items of something announced before, and nothing has been announced here.
Common mistakes
Using 'eso es' as a calque of English 'that is'
El plazo vence el día 30, eso es, dentro de dos semanas.El plazo vence el día 30, esto es, dentro de dos semanas.The formal reformulator is 'esto es' (neutral: 'es decir'). 'Eso es' means 'that's right' or 'exactly', as in a reply ('Eso es, mañana a las diez.'), and does not introduce a restatement.
Using 'a saber' for a plain paraphrase
El acuerdo es bilateral, a saber, lo han firmado dos países.El acuerdo es bilateral, esto es, lo han firmado dos países.'A saber' spells out the items of something announced in general terms ('dos requisitos, a saber: ...'). Here the second part simply defines 'bilateral', so it needs an equivalence marker: 'esto es' or 'es decir'.
Evidentiality Markers
Marcadores de evidencialidad
Evidential markers tell your listener where your information comes from and how far you vouch for it. 'Al parecer' and 'según parece' (apparently) pass on something you have heard or read: 'Al parecer, la reunión se ha cancelado.' 'Por lo visto' (apparently, from what I hear) does the same and is very common in conversation. These three are set off by commas and are not followed by 'que'; with 'que', use 'parece que' (not 'se parece que'). 'Se ve que' (you can tell that) presents your own conclusion from visible signs and takes a plain 'que' (not 'se ve de que'): 'Se ve que ha llovido; el suelo está mojado.' 'Supuestamente' (supposedly, allegedly) reports a claim you do not vouch for; don't confuse it with 'por supuesto' (of course). After all of these markers the verb stays in the indicative.
Key rule
Mark where your information comes from: 'al parecer', 'según parece' and 'por lo visto' pass on reported information, 'se ve que' draws a conclusion from visible evidence, and 'supuestamente' distances you from a claim. The verb stays in the indicative, and 'al parecer', 'según parece' and 'por lo visto' take a comma, not 'que'.
Examples
- Según parece, las conversaciones de paz han fracasado.Según parece que las conversaciones de paz han fracasado.
'Según parece' is a parenthetical expression: it is set off by a comma and is not followed by 'que'. To introduce a 'que' clause, use 'parece que' instead.
- Por lo visto, han despedido a varios empleados esta semana.
'Por lo visto' presents news the speaker has heard from others or pieced together from indirect evidence. 'Al parecer' would also be correct here, with a slightly more neutral tone.
- Se ve que no le ha gustado la comida; apenas ha probado bocado.Se ve que no le haya gustado la comida; apenas ha probado bocado.
'Se ve que' introduces a deduction based on observable evidence (she barely ate). It presents that deduction as fact, so the verb stays in the indicative: 'ha gustado', not the subjunctive 'haya gustado'.
Common mistakes
Adding 'que' after 'al parecer'
Al parecer que van a cerrar la fábrica.Al parecer, van a cerrar la fábrica.'Al parecer' is a fixed adverbial phrase that does not take 'que'. The construction with 'que' belongs to 'parece que' (it seems that), which is a different structure.
Confusing 'supuestamente' with 'por supuesto'
El alcalde, por supuesto, aceptó sobornos, pero nadie lo ha demostrado. (intended: The mayor supposedly took bribes, but nobody has proven it.)El alcalde, supuestamente, aceptó sobornos, pero nadie lo ha demostrado.'Por supuesto' means 'of course' and presents the claim as obvious. 'Supuestamente' (supposedly, allegedly) distances the speaker from an unproven claim.
Additive and Restrictive Connectors
Conectores aditivos y restrictivos
These connectors raise, stretch or limit the force of what you say. 'Es más' (what's more) adds a stronger point in the same direction: 'El hotel era incómodo. Es más, era el peor de todo el viaje.' 'Incluso' (even) adds a surprising case: 'Incluso los niños lo entendieron.' 'Ni siquiera' (not even, never 'no incluso') is its negative partner. Before the verb it replaces 'no' ('Ni siquiera me saludó'); after the verb, the verb keeps its 'no' ('No me dio ni siquiera las gracias'). 'Al menos' and 'por lo menos' (at least) set a minimum or offer consolation; 'cuando menos' is their formal equivalent. Don't confuse 'al menos' with 'a menos que' (unless). 'Si acaso' (if anything; not 'si algo') offers the most you are willing to grant: 'No es difícil. Si acaso, un poco largo.'
Key rule
'Es más' adds a stronger point in the same direction; 'incluso' adds an unexpected case, and 'ni siquiera' says not even the minimum happened (before the verb it replaces 'no'; after the verb, the verb keeps its 'no': 'No me dio ni siquiera las gracias'); 'al menos' and 'por lo menos' (formal: 'cuando menos') set a minimum; 'si acaso' offers the most you will grant.
Examples
- Ni siquiera se molestó en responder.No ni siquiera se molestó en responder.
'Ni siquiera' already contains the negation. When it comes before the verb, no extra 'no' is used; 'no' is needed only when 'ni siquiera' follows the verb ('No se molestó ni siquiera en responder').
- El viaje no fue perfecto, pero al menos pudimos descansar.El viaje no fue perfecto, pero a menos pudimos descansar.
'Al menos' (at least) marks the consolation. 'A menos que' means 'unless', so 'a menos' cannot replace 'al menos'.
- No creo que llueva. Si acaso, caerá alguna gota suelta.No creo que llueva. Si algo, caerá alguna gota suelta.
'Si acaso' (if anything) introduces the most that might happen: a few drops. 'Si algo' is a word-for-word calque of English 'if anything' and is not used this way in Spanish.
Common mistakes
Using 'es más' to repeat the same idea
Este reloj es caro. Es más, cuesta bastante dinero.Este reloj es caro. Es más, cuesta el doble que el modelo anterior.'Es más' must go further than the previous claim. 'Cuesta bastante dinero' only says 'es caro' again in other words, which would be a reformulation ('es decir'), not an escalation. Costing twice as much as the previous model is a stronger point.
Confusing 'incluso' and 'ni siquiera' in affirmative vs. negative contexts
No incluso me saludó.Ni siquiera me saludó.'Not even' is 'ni siquiera' (or just 'ni'), never 'no incluso'. 'Ni siquiera' carries the negation itself, so before the verb it replaces 'no'. 'Incluso' (even) adds an unexpected case to something that does happen: 'Incluso me dio las gracias.'
Text-Structuring Connectors for Extended Discourse
Conectores de estructuración textual
In essays, reports and presentations, these connectors show how your text is organized. 'En primer lugar', 'en segundo lugar' and 'por último' number your points, with no article (not 'en el primer lugar'). 'Por un lado... por otro (lado)' presents two sides of an issue, and it needs both halves. 'Dicho esto' (that said) accepts what you have just said and turns to a qualification, so it cannot open a text: 'El proyecto tiene mérito. Dicho esto, hay aspectos que debemos revisar.' To close, 'en resumen' (in summary) condenses what came before, 'en definitiva' (all in all; never 'en definitivo') gives your final judgment, and 'a modo de conclusión' (by way of conclusion) formally opens the closing section. Careful: 'en breve' means 'soon', not 'in brief'.
Key rule
Signpost long texts: 'en primer lugar... en segundo lugar... por último' order points, 'por un lado... por otro (lado)' weighs two sides (always both halves), 'dicho esto' turns to a qualification, 'en resumen' sums up, 'en definitiva' gives the final judgment, and 'a modo de conclusión' formally opens the closing section.
Examples
- En primer lugar, debemos identificar el problema. En segundo lugar, debemos proponer alternativas.En el primer lugar, debemos identificar el problema. En segundo lugar, debemos proponer alternativas.
The ordering markers take no article: 'en primer lugar', 'en segundo lugar'. 'En el primer lugar' copies English 'in the first place' and in Spanish refers to a position or ranking ('Está en el primer lugar de la lista').
- Por un lado, la reforma mejoraría la eficiencia; por otro lado, generaría desempleo.En una mano, la reforma mejoraría la eficiencia; por otro lado, generaría desempleo.
Spanish says 'por un lado... por otro (lado)' or 'por una parte... por otra (parte)' for 'on the one hand... on the other'. 'En una mano' is a word-for-word copy of English and only refers to a physical hand.
- En definitiva, la experiencia fue positiva a pesar de las dificultades.En definitivo, la experiencia fue positiva a pesar de las dificultades.
'En definitiva' provides an evaluative conclusion (the experience was positive despite difficulties). It is a fixed expression with the feminine form; 'en definitivo' is not used.
Common mistakes
Using 'en breve' to mean 'in short'
En breve, el proyecto ha sido un éxito.En definitiva, el proyecto ha sido un éxito.'En breve' means 'shortly' or 'soon' ('Empezamos en breve'). To sum up or conclude, use 'en resumen' or 'en definitiva'.
Starting a new topic after 'a modo de conclusión'
A modo de conclusión, pasemos al siguiente punto del orden del día.Pasemos ahora al siguiente punto del orden del día.'A modo de conclusión' signals the end of a line of discourse. It should not introduce a new topic.
Literary Register & Style
Registro y estilo literario
Literary Spanish bends everyday language for effect, and at C1 you need to recognize its main devices. Hyperbaton moves whole phrases out of their normal order: 'Del monte en la ladera' instead of 'en la ladera del monte'. Each piece that moves is a complete unit, so small units stay together: an article stays with its noun ('había una casa', never 'una había casa') and a preposition with its complement. A rhetorical question asserts instead of asking: '¿Quién no ha sentido el peso de la soledad?' means that everyone has. A metaphor states an identity rather than a comparison ('Nuestras vidas son los ríos'), and personification gives human actions to things ('las calles reían'). Free indirect style lets a character's thoughts slip into third-person, past-tense narration without quotation marks: 'María miró por la ventana. Sí, mañana se iría.' Repeating 'y' (polysyndeton) or leaving it out (asyndeton) changes the rhythm of a sentence.
Key rule
Literary Spanish moves phrases out of their normal order for emphasis (hyperbaton), uses questions that assert rather than ask, builds arguments on metaphor, and blends a character's thoughts into third-person past narration (free indirect style). In hyperbaton, each piece that moves is a complete unit, and small units such as article + noun stay together.
Examples
- Del monte en la ladera, por mi mano plantado tengo un huerto.
Hyperbaton in Fray Luis de León. The normal order would be 'Tengo un huerto plantado por mi mano en la ladera del monte.' The poet fronts the place phrase, flips its two halves ('del monte en la ladera' for 'en la ladera del monte') and puts the participle 'plantado' before 'tengo', so the line opens on the setting and ends on 'huerto'. Each piece that moves ('del monte', 'por mi mano', 'plantado') is a complete unit, which is why the line is still grammatical.
- Volverán las oscuras golondrinas en tu balcón sus nidos a colgar.
Bécquer's famous hyperbaton. In everyday order: 'Las oscuras golondrinas volverán a colgar sus nidos en tu balcón.' The poet splits the periphrasis 'volver a + infinitive' and places 'en tu balcón' and 'sus nidos' before the infinitive, so the line ends on 'colgar'. The adjective before the noun ('oscuras golondrinas') is another literary touch.
- ¿Qué se hicieron las damas, sus tocados y vestidos, sus olores?
Jorge Manrique's rhetorical question, a classic 'ubi sunt' (where are they now?). Old Spanish '¿qué se hicieron…?' means 'what became of…?', like modern '¿qué fue de…?'. No answer is expected: the question itself states that beauty and luxury vanish.
Common mistakes
Scattering the words of a small phrase instead of moving complete units
Del hermoso en el parque los niños jugaban.En el hermoso parque jugaban los niños.Hyperbaton moves complete units; it does not scatter the words of a small phrase. 'Del hermoso en el parque' tears the adjective away from its noun and invents a 'de' phrase, so the sentence is simply ungrammatical. Keep 'el hermoso parque' together and move it as a whole: fronting the phrase and putting the verb before the subject already gives a literary ring.
Slipping into first-person present inside free indirect style
Ana cerró el libro. Ya bastaba. No quiero saber cómo terminaba la historia.Ana cerró el libro. Ya bastaba. No quería saber cómo terminaba la historia.In free indirect style the character's thoughts take the narrator's third person and past tense ('quería'), while keeping her own tone and words ('Ya bastaba'). A sudden 'quiero' without quotation marks clashes with 'terminaba' and reads as a mistake, not as style.
Journalistic Register & Style
Registro y estilo periodístico
News Spanish has its own conventions. Headlines are compressed: they often drop articles and use the present for events that have already happened ('Gobierno aprueba nueva ley de vivienda'), while the body of the article uses articles as usual. Reports say where information comes from ('según fuentes policiales', 'a juicio de los expertos'), call suspects 'presuntos' until a court convicts them, and mark unconfirmed information with the conditional, not the subjunctive: 'El ministro estaría dispuesto a dimitir' (the minister is reportedly willing to resign). They also favor passives and participle clauses, and the participle agrees with its noun ('Fueron evacuadas cien personas', 'Finalizada la reunión, …'). With impersonal 'se' and personal 'a', the verb stays singular: 'Se ha detenido a tres personas'. Other hallmarks are nouns instead of verbs ('la detención del sospechoso') and set formulas such as 'cabe destacar que', with no 'de' before 'que'.
Key rule
News Spanish compresses headlines (few articles, present tense for past events), attributes claims to their sources ('según…', 'a juicio de…'), calls suspects 'presuntos', marks unconfirmed information with the conditional ('estaría', 'habría confesado'), and favors passives, nominalizations and participle clauses, with full agreement ('fueron evacuadas', 'finalizada la cumbre'). With impersonal 'se' and personal 'a', the verb stays singular ('se ha detenido a tres personas').
Examples
- Gobierno aprueba reforma fiscal en sesión extraordinaria
A typical headline: no articles, no final period, and the present tense ('aprueba') for a decision already taken. In the body of the article the same fact needs articles and a past tense: 'El Gobierno aprobó ayer una reforma fiscal en una sesión extraordinaria.'
- Según fuentes cercanas al caso, el detenido habría confesado su participación.
Two signals of caution: the attribution 'según fuentes cercanas al caso' and the conditional of rumor 'habría confesado' (has reportedly confessed). 'El detenido confesó su participación' is also correct Spanish, but it presents the confession as a confirmed fact.
- La detención del presunto autor de los hechos se produjo en las primeras horas de la mañana.
Typical crime reporting: a noun instead of a verb ('la detención' rather than 'la policía detuvo'), the legal caution of 'presunto autor de los hechos' (alleged perpetrator) and the set phrase 'en las primeras horas de la mañana' (early in the morning).
Common mistakes
Using the conditional of rumor in conversation
Oye, Marta estaría embarazada. (intended: Apparently, Marta is pregnant.)Oye, al parecer Marta está embarazada.The conditional of rumor is a convention of written news. In conversation, 'Marta estaría embarazada' sounds like a guess about the past ('Marta was probably pregnant') or an unfinished 'would' sentence. To pass on hearsay, use 'al parecer', 'dicen que' or 'parece que'.
Dropping articles in body text as if it were a headline
Presidente anunció ayer nuevas medidas en rueda de prensa.El presidente anunció ayer nuevas medidas en rueda de prensa.Article omission belongs to headlines. In the body of an article, a singular noun like 'presidente' needs its article, as in any ordinary Spanish sentence.
Irony, Sarcasm & Understatement
Ironía, sarcasmo y atenuación
Spanish speakers often mean more than they say, or the opposite. Litotes praises or criticizes by denying the opposite: 'No está nada mal' (it's not bad at all) means 'it's really good', and 'No es poco lo que pides' (note 'lo que', not plain 'que') means you are asking a lot. Formal insinuation works the same way: 'No deja de ser curioso que…' (it is rather curious that…) hints at something suspicious and takes the subjunctive ('que nadie viera nada'). Irony says the opposite: after a mishap, 'Pues sí que estamos bien' (well, we're doing great) means things are going badly. Before a noun, 'menudo/a' and 'vaya' work as exclamations ('¡Menudo día!' = what a day!); 'menudo' agrees with the noun ('¡Menuda cara tiene!'), and a diminutive can make them sarcastic ('¡Vaya regalito!', said about a problem). Switching to 'usted' with a friend signals mock annoyance, but every verb must then take the usted form. Tone and context tell you which meaning is intended.
Key rule
Understatement denies the opposite ('no está nada mal' = really good; 'no es poco lo que pides' = you are asking a lot; 'no deja de ser curioso que' + subjunctive hints at something suspicious), and irony says the opposite ('pues sí que estamos bien'). Exclamative 'menudo/a' (agreeing with its noun) and 'vaya' intensify, often with a sarcastic diminutive; mock-formal 'usted' must be used consistently; context and tone decide the real meaning.
Examples
- El examen no me ha salido nada mal: creo que voy a sacar muy buena nota.
Litotes: 'no me ha salido nada mal' (it didn't go badly at all) is a modest way of saying the exam went very well, as the second half confirms. The plain version would be 'El examen me ha salido muy bien.'
- ¡Menudo numerito montaste ayer en la reunión!¡Menuda numerito montaste ayer en la reunión!
Exclamative 'menudo' (what a…!) agrees with its noun: 'numerito' is masculine, so 'menudo'. 'Montar un numerito' means 'to make a scene', and the whole exclamation is a sarcastic reproach.
- Pues sí que estamos bien... Se nos ha inundado el sótano.
'Pues sí que estamos bien' (well, we're doing great) is a stock ironic phrase: said about a mishap like this, it means that things are going badly. The literal compliment followed by the bad news creates a dry, sardonic tone. The plain statement would be 'Estamos muy mal.'
Common mistakes
Mixing 'tú' and 'usted' in mock formality
Vaya, ¿y usted desde cuándo te levantas tan temprano?Vaya, ¿y usted desde cuándo se levanta tan temprano?Addressing a friend as 'usted' is a playful or annoyed way to create distance, but every verb and pronoun must then follow 'usted': 'se levanta', not 'te levantas'.
Using the indicative after formal insinuation formulas
Resulta llamativo que nadie vio nada.Resulta llamativo que nadie viera nada.'Resulta llamativo que…' and 'no deja de ser curioso que…' express a value judgment about a fact, so the verb after 'que' goes in the subjunctive, even though the fact itself is true.
Paronyms & Near-Homonyms
Parónimos y cuasihomónimos
Paronyms (parónimos) are words that look or sound almost the same but mean different things, and even native speakers mix them up. Classic pairs: 'actitud' (attitude) / 'aptitud' (aptitude), 'prever' (to foresee) / 'proveer' (to provide), 'infligir' (to inflict) / 'infringir' (to break a rule), 'prescribir' (to prescribe) / 'proscribir' (to ban). 'Prever' is 'pre-' + 'ver' and conjugates like 'ver' (prevé, previsto); the blend '*preveer' does not exist. The wrong choice is not just a slip of spelling: 'Esta esponja absuelve el agua' says that the sponge acquits the water. Learn each word inside a typical phrase: 'infligir una derrota', 'infringir una norma'.
Key rule
Paronyms look or sound almost alike but mean different things, so the wrong choice changes the meaning: 'actitud' (attitude) / 'aptitud' (ability), 'infligir' (inflict) / 'infringir' (break a rule), 'prescribir' (prescribe) / 'proscribir' (ban), 'prever' (foresee; never '*preveer') / 'proveer' (provide). Learn each word inside its typical collocation.
Examples
- Su actitud ante el problema fue admirable.Su aptitud ante el problema fue admirable.
'Actitud' is attitude or stance: how you face something. 'Aptitud' is aptitude or ability: what you are able to do ('aptitud para las matemáticas'). Facing a problem is a matter of attitude.
- Esta esponja absorbe mucha agua.Esta esponja absuelve mucha agua.
'Absorber' means to absorb or soak up. 'Absolver' means to acquit or absolve ('El tribunal absolvió al acusado'). Sponges absorb; courts and priests absolve.
- Nadie podía prever las consecuencias de la crisis.Nadie podía proveer las consecuencias de la crisis.
'Prever' (pre- + ver) means to foresee. 'Proveer' means to provide or supply ('proveer de alimentos a la población'). You foresee consequences; you provide resources.
Common mistakes
Confusing 'prever' with 'preveer' (a nonexistent form)
Es imposible preveer el futuro.Es imposible prever el futuro.'Prever' is 'pre-' + 'ver' (to see beforehand) and conjugates like 'ver': preveo, prevés, prevé, previó, previsto. '*Preveer' is a blend with 'proveer' (to provide). It is one of the most frequent errors, even among educated native speakers.
Confusing 'adoptar' (adopt) and 'adaptar' (adapt)
Mis vecinos han adaptado a un niño de tres años.Mis vecinos han adoptado a un niño de tres años.'Adoptar' means to adopt (a child, a measure, an attitude). 'Adaptar' means to adapt or adjust ('adaptar una novela al cine'). One vowel changes the whole meaning.
Neologisms & Anglicisms
Neologismos y anglicismos
Spanish keeps borrowing words, above all from English. Some anglicisms are fully adapted to Spanish spelling and grammar ('tuit', 'clic', 'estrés'), and adapted verbs are regular -ar verbs with the usual spelling changes: 'tuitear' gives 'tuiteé' (I tweeted), and 'clicar' gives 'cliqué' (I clicked). Others keep their English form ('marketing', 'streaming', 'startup'), and many have a Spanish equivalent ('enlace' for 'link', 'ciberacoso' for 'cyberbullying'). At C1 the skill is choosing by register: raw anglicisms are fine in casual speech, while formal writing prefers adapted forms or Spanish equivalents. Also watch out for calques, English meanings or phrases copied into Spanish: 'realizar' does not mean 'to notice' (use 'darse cuenta de'), 'to make sense' is 'tener sentido', not 'hacer sentido', and 'to take place' is 'tener lugar', not 'tomar lugar'.
Key rule
Use the adapted spelling when one exists ('tuit', 'clic', 'estrés'), raw anglicisms freely in casual speech, and Spanish equivalents ('enlace', 'emisión en directo', 'empresa emergente') in formal writing, though well-established terms such as 'marketing' remain normal there. Avoid calques such as 'realizar' for 'darse cuenta' (to notice) or 'hacer sentido' for 'tener sentido'.
Examples
- Ayer tuiteé sobre la conferencia y el hilo se hizo viral.Ayer tweeteé sobre la conferencia y el hilo se hizo viral.
The adapted verb is 'tuitear', a regular -ar verb spelled the Spanish way (yo tuiteé, like 'paseé'). Gluing a Spanish ending onto the English spelling 'tweet' produces a hybrid that is not a word. 'Hilo' is the usual Spanish term for a thread.
- Te envío el enlace por correo electrónico.
In formal or semi-formal writing, 'enlace' and 'correo electrónico' are the standard choices. Among friends, 'Te mando el link por email' (or 'por correo') is just as natural. Neither version is wrong; the choice depends on register.
- La empresa hará una emisión en directo esta tarde.
'Emisión en directo' (or 'retransmisión en directo') is the Spanish equivalent of 'streaming' in official or formal texts. Informally, 'hará un directo' or 'hará streaming' are common and fine.
Common mistakes
Misspelling the conjugated forms of adapted verbs
Ayer clicé en un enlace sospechoso.Ayer cliqué en un enlace sospechoso.Adapted verbs follow the ordinary Spanish spelling rules. 'Clicar' changes c to qu before e, just like 'buscar' becomes 'busqué': 'cliqué', 'cliquemos'.
Using 'soportar' for English 'support'
Mis padres siempre me han soportado en mis estudios. (intended: My parents have always supported me in my studies.)Mis padres siempre me han apoyado en mis estudios.'Soportar' means 'to put up with, tolerate' (or to bear a weight), so the sentence says your parents have always put up with you. To support someone is 'apoyar'.
Register-Based Synonym Selection
Selección de sinónimos según el registro
Many Spanish synonyms differ mainly in register. 'To die' can be 'palmarla' (slang), 'morirse' (everyday, especially for natural deaths), 'morir' (neutral, and the usual verb for accidents and violence), 'fallecer' (formal and respectful) or 'perecer' (formal, for victims of disasters). A home can be 'casa' (neutral), 'hogar' (home as family and warmth), 'domicilio' (legal address) or 'vivienda' (housing, in official language). Money is 'dinero' (neutral), 'pasta' (slang in Spain), 'plata' (everyday in much of Latin America) or 'fondos' (finance). Eating and speaking have scales too: 'zamparse' (colloquial), 'comer' (neutral), 'ingerir' (medical); 'soltar' (colloquial), 'decir' (neutral), 'declarar' (formal). The wrong choice usually keeps the basic meaning but sounds out of place: 'Mi pez ha fallecido' is comically pompous, and 'pasta' in a statement to a judge is far too casual.
Key rule
Choose the synonym that fits the register as well as the meaning: 'morirse' (everyday), 'morir' (neutral), 'fallecer' (formal, respectful), 'perecer' (disasters), 'palmarla' (slang); 'casa' (neutral), 'hogar' (warmth), 'domicilio' (legal), 'vivienda' (official). A word from the wrong register sounds comic, pompous or careless.
Examples
- Lamentamos comunicarle que el paciente falleció a las tres de la madrugada.Lamentamos comunicarle que el paciente se murió a las tres de la madrugada.
'Lamentamos comunicarle' sets a formal, respectful frame, as when a hospital informs the family. There 'fallecer' is the expected verb; everyday 'se murió' clashes with the formal tone. 'Fallecer' is also the standard verb in obituaries and official announcements.
- Indique su domicilio actual en el formulario.Indique su casa actual en el formulario.
On an official form you give your 'domicilio', your legal or registered address. 'Casa' is the building you live in, so 'indique su casa' does not ask for an address at all.
- Tío, no tengo pasta para salir esta noche.Tío, no dispongo de fondos para salir esta noche.
Among friends in Spain ('tío' is a casual form of address), 'pasta' is the natural word for money. 'No dispongo de fondos' belongs in a letter from the bank and sounds absurdly stiff here. In Latin America the casual word would be 'plata' (or 'lana' in Mexico).
Common mistakes
Using formal synonyms in casual conversation
Oye, ¿has ingerido algo hoy?Oye, ¿has comido algo hoy?'Ingerir' is medical and technical vocabulary. Asking a friend whether they have eaten with it sounds clinical and bizarre. 'Comer' is the neutral choice that fits everywhere.
Using colloquial synonyms in formal writing
Informe policial: «El detenido soltó que no sabía nada del asunto».Informe policial: «El detenido declaró que no sabía nada del asunto».'Soltar' (to blurt out) is colloquial. Police reports and legal texts use 'declarar' or 'manifestar'; a colloquial verb undermines the credibility of an official document.
Advanced Relative Pronouns (el/la cual, lo cual, en cuyo caso)
Pronombres relativos avanzados: el/la cual, lo cual, en cuyo caso
'El cual', 'la cual', 'los cuales' and 'las cuales' are formal relative pronouns meaning 'which' or 'who'. Unlike 'que', they show gender and number, so they make clear which noun you mean: 'La hermana de mi amigo, la cual vive en Madrid, vendrá' (the sister lives in Madrid, not the friend). They appear after prepositions ('la empresa para la cual trabajo') or in clauses set off by commas. Without a preposition and without commas they are wrong: 'el libro que compré', not 'el libro el cual compré'. After most prepositions a relative needs its article, so you say 'para la cual' or 'para la que', never 'la empresa para que trabajo'; bare 'que' follows only a few short prepositions such as 'en' or 'con' ('la casa en que vivo'). The neuter 'lo cual' comes after a comma and points back to a whole idea: 'Llegó tarde, lo cual molestó a todos' (He arrived late, which bothered everyone). It never means 'what' on its own: 'Lo que dijo es verdad', not 'Lo cual dijo es verdad'. The fixed phrase 'en cuyo caso' means 'in which case'.
Key rule
Use 'el/la/los/las cual(es)' after a preposition or in a clause set off by commas, never in a comma-less clause without a preposition; because they agree with their noun, they remove ambiguity. After most prepositions a relative needs its article ('para la cual' or 'para la que', not 'para que'); use neuter 'lo cual' after a comma to refer back to a whole clause, and the fixed phrase 'en cuyo caso' for 'in which case'.
Examples
- La hermana de mi amigo, la cual vive en Madrid, vendrá a la boda.La hermana de mi amigo, el cual vive en Madrid, vendrá a la boda. (intended: My friend's sister, who lives in Madrid, will come to the wedding.)
'La cual' (feminine singular) can only refer to 'la hermana'. 'El cual' points to 'mi amigo', so it says that the friend lives in Madrid. Plain 'que' would be grammatical but ambiguous.
- Los documentos según los cuales se tomó la decisión han sido publicados.Los documentos según que se tomó la decisión han sido publicados.
After 'según', the standard relative is the 'cual' form, here 'los cuales' to agree with 'los documentos'. 'Según que' is a conjunction ('depending on whether') and cannot work as a relative pronoun.
- Llegó tarde, lo cual molestó a todos los presentes.Llegó tarde, el cual molestó a todos los presentes.
What bothered everyone is the whole event, the fact that he arrived late, so the neuter 'lo cual' is needed. 'El cual' would need a masculine singular noun to refer to, and there is none.
Common mistakes
Using bare 'que' after 'según' and similar prepositions
El criterio según que actuaron fue incorrecto.El criterio según el cual actuaron fue incorrecto.Bare 'que' follows only a few short prepositions such as 'en' or 'con' ('la forma en que...'). After 'según' the standard relative is the 'cual' form, here 'el cual' to agree with 'el criterio'. After prepositions such as 'mediante', 'durante' or 'tras', use 'el cual' or 'el que'.
Using 'el cual' instead of 'lo cual' when referring to a whole clause
No respondió a mis mensajes, el cual me preocupó.No respondió a mis mensajes, lo cual me preocupó.The worry is caused by the whole situation (not answering), not by a noun, so the neuter 'lo cual' is needed. 'El cual' could only refer to a masculine singular noun, and 'mis mensajes' is plural.
Advanced Clitic Climbing and Placement
Subida de clíticos y colocación avanzada de pronombres átonos
When a conjugated verb is followed by an infinitive or gerund, an object pronoun (clitic) can attach to the end of the infinitive or gerund or 'climb' to the front of the whole verb group, with no change in meaning: 'Quiero hacerlo' = 'Lo quiero hacer'; 'Estoy explicándotelo' = 'Te lo estoy explicando'. Climbing works with modal and aspectual verbs such as 'querer', 'poder', 'tener que', 'ir a', 'acabar de' and 'estar' + gerund. Two pronouns that belong to the same infinitive or gerund move as a pair and keep their order, even up a chain of three verbs ('Se lo voy a tener que devolver'; never 'Lo se voy a decir' or 'Te quiero decirlo'), and attached pronouns often need a written accent (tilde) to keep the stress in place ('explicándotelo'). Climbing is blocked out of a clause introduced by 'que' ('Dijo que quería comprarlo', never 'Lo dijo que quería comprar'), with verbs like 'negar', 'afirmar' or 'lamentar' ('Negó haberlo visto') and with 'hay que' ('Hay que hacerlo'). The pronoun never stands on its own between the two verbs ('Quiero lo hacer' is wrong) and never appears in both places ('Lo quiero hacerlo' is wrong). With 'hacer' and verbs of perception such as 'oír' and 'ver', the pronoun for the person goes before the conjugated verb ('La oí cantar', I heard her sing), and an object of the infinitive normally goes there too ('Lo hice traducir', I had it translated). In older literature you will also meet pronouns attached to conjugated verbs, such as 'díjole' (= le dijo) and 'sentose' (= se sentó). Recognize them when reading, but don't use them in modern Spanish, apart from set phrases such as 'érase una vez' and 'véase'.
Key rule
An object pronoun either attaches to the infinitive or gerund or climbs in front of the conjugated verb ('Quiero hacerlo' / 'Lo quiero hacer'), never between them and never in both places. Climbing works with modal, aspectual and causative verbs, but not out of a 'que' clause, with verbs like 'negar' or 'lamentar', or with 'hay que'; outside affirmative commands ('dímelo'), a pronoun attached to a conjugated verb ('díjole') is archaic.
Examples
- Lo quiero hacer. / Quiero hacerlo.Quiero lo hacer.
Both climbing ('lo quiero hacer') and staying ('quiero hacerlo') are grammatical. Placing the clitic between the two verbs ('quiero lo hacer') is ungrammatical in modern Spanish.
- Te lo estoy explicando. / Estoy explicándotelo.Estoy te lo explicando.
With 'estar + gerund', clitics either precede 'estoy' or attach to the gerund. They cannot float between the auxiliary and the gerund.
- Se lo voy a decir. / Voy a decírselo.Voy a se lo decir.
In the 'ir a + infinitive' periphrasis, clitics climb to before 'voy' or attach to the infinitive. Inserting them between 'a' and the infinitive is ungrammatical.
Common mistakes
Placing the clitic between the conjugated verb and the infinitive/gerund
Quiero te ayudar.Te quiero ayudar. / Quiero ayudarte.In modern Spanish, the pronoun either goes before the conjugated verb or attaches to the end of the infinitive or gerund. It cannot stand on its own between the verbs.
Climbing with verbs that do not allow it
Lo lamento haber dicho.Lamento haberlo dicho.'Lamentar' does not allow climbing, so the pronoun must stay attached to the infinitive. In front of 'lamento', 'lo' reads as the object of 'lamentar' ('Lo lamento' = I'm sorry about it), so the sentence falls apart.
Prepositions in Abstract and Figurative Relations
Locuciones prepositivas abstractas: en función de, de cara a, en relación con
Formal Spanish uses fixed multiword prepositions (locuciones prepositivas) to express abstract relations: 'en función de' (depending on), 'de cara a' (with a view to), 'en relación con' or 'con relación a' (regarding), 'a raíz de' (as a result of), 'en aras de' (for the sake of), 'en virtud de' (by virtue of), 'en torno a' (about) and 'sobre la base de' or 'con base en' (on the basis of). Their form is frozen: add no article ('en función de', not 'en la función de'), keep the exact preposition ('en aras de', not 'en aras a') and write 'en torno a' as two words ('entorno' is a noun meaning 'surroundings'). In the sense 'with a view to', 'de cara a' looks ahead to something still to come; for a past cause, use 'a raíz de'. Two popular forms are criticized in careful writing: 'en base a' (the RAE recommends 'sobre la base de' or 'con base en') and 'a nivel de' used to mean 'regarding' (say 'en cuanto a los costes', not 'a nivel de costes').
Key rule
Use fixed prepositional phrases for abstract relations in formal writing and keep their exact form, with no added article and the right preposition: 'en función de' (depending on), 'de cara a' (with a view to), 'en relación con' / 'con relación a' (regarding), 'a raíz de' (as a result of), 'en aras de' (for the sake of). In careful writing, prefer 'sobre la base de' or 'con base en' to 'en base a', and use 'a nivel' only for real levels.
Examples
- El horario se ajustará en función de las necesidades del equipo.El horario se ajustará en la función de las necesidades del equipo.
'En función de' is a fixed prepositional phrase meaning 'depending on'. Adding the article 'la' breaks the expression.
- De cara a la reunión del viernes, conviene preparar un informe.De cara de la reunión del viernes, conviene preparar un informe.
'De cara a' (with a view to, ahead of) always ends in 'a'. Swapping in 'de' by analogy with phrases like 'en función de' breaks the fixed phrase.
- En relación con su consulta, le adjuntamos la documentación solicitada.En relación de su consulta, le adjuntamos la documentación solicitada.
'En relación con' (regarding) ends in 'con', not 'de'. The other recommended form is 'con relación a'; the mixed 'en relación a' is common but less recommended.
Common mistakes
Using 'en base a' in formal writing
En base a los resultados, podemos concluir que...Con base en los resultados, podemos concluir que... / Sobre la base de los resultados, podemos concluir que...The RAE advises against 'en base a' and recommends 'sobre la base de', 'con base en' or 'basándose en'. In academic or institutional writing, use one of these.
Overusing 'a nivel de' as a vague connector
A nivel de costes, este proyecto es inviable.En cuanto a los costes, este proyecto es inviable. / En lo que respecta a los costes...'A nivel' should refer to real levels or tiers ('a nivel europeo', 'a nivel del mar'). Using 'a nivel de' to mean 'regarding' or 'in terms of' is vague, and the RAE advises against it.
Advanced Punctuation Rules
Puntuación avanzada: punto y coma, raya, dos puntos y convenciones
Spanish punctuation follows the same logic as English but differs in key details. (1) Put a comma before 'pero', 'aunque' (meaning 'but'), 'mas' and 'sino (que)' when they introduce a clause: 'Es caro, pero merece la pena.' (2) Don't put a comma between a verb and its 'que' clause: 'Creo que tienes razón' (not 'Creo, que tienes razón'). (3) The dash (raya, —) opens each turn of dialogue and introduces the narrator's comment ('—Ya voy —dijo Juan.'). In running text, a pair of dashes encloses an aside, and the closing dash is never dropped: 'El director —nombrado en marzo— dimitió.' (4) A semicolon joins closely related clauses, especially when one of them already contains a comma, such as the comma that marks an omitted verb ('Unos estaban a favor; otros, en contra'). It also separates list items that already contain commas ('Madrid, España; Lima, Perú'). (5) Quotations prefer angular marks (« »), follow a colon after the verb of speaking, and take the period after the closing mark: 'Dijo: «No habrá recortes».' (6) Ellipsis is exactly three dots.
Key rule
Put a comma before 'pero', 'aunque' (but), 'mas' and 'sino (que)' when they introduce a clause, but not between a verb and its 'que' clause. Close every aside in running text with a second dash, use semicolons between related clauses and between list items that contain commas, put the final period after the closing quotation mark (« » preferred), and write ellipsis with exactly three dots.
Examples
- Unos estaban a favor; otros, en contra.Unos estaban a favor, otros, en contra.
The second clause already contains a comma, the one that marks the omitted verb ('otros [estaban] en contra'). A semicolon between the two clauses shows where the first one ends; another comma there would blur the structure.
- El proyecto es ambicioso, pero el equipo cree que es viable.El proyecto es ambicioso pero el equipo cree que es viable.
When 'pero' introduces a clause, Spanish puts a comma before it. English often leaves this comma out.
- Creo que tienes razón.Creo, que tienes razón.
'Que tienes razón' is the direct object of 'creo', and a comma may not separate a verb from its object. Only an inserted aside would bring commas here ('Creo, sinceramente, que tienes razón').
Common mistakes
Omitting the comma before 'pero'
El examen fue difícil pero casi todos los alumnos aprobaron.El examen fue difícil, pero casi todos los alumnos aprobaron.A comma goes before 'pero', 'mas' and 'aunque' (meaning 'but') when they introduce a clause. English often omits the comma before 'but', but Spanish spelling rules require it here.
Placing a comma before 'que' in noun clauses
Espero, que vengas mañana.Espero que vengas mañana.The 'que' clause is the object of 'espero', and a comma may not separate a verb from its object (only an inserted aside would bring commas here). Speakers of German, which requires a comma before 'dass', make this error especially often.
Spanish Capitalization Rules and Titles
Reglas de mayúsculas: títulos, gentilicios, meses y tratamientos
Spanish capitalizes far fewer words than English. Days, months and seasons are lowercase ('el lunes 15 de marzo'), and so are languages and nationalities ('Mi vecina es colombiana y habla francés'), religions and their followers ('el islam', 'los católicos'), and personal titles, forms of address and posts, with or without a name ('el doctor López', 'el señor Gómez', 'el papa Francisco', 'el presidente del Gobierno'), although their abbreviations take a capital ('Dr. López', 'Sr. Gómez'). Academic fields are lowercase too ('le apasiona la filosofía'), except as names of subjects, degrees or faculties ('Estudia Filosofía', 'la Facultad de Derecho'). Titles of books, films and songs capitalize only the first word and any proper names: 'Cien años de soledad', not 'Cien Años de Soledad'. In place names, a generic word such as 'río' or 'sierra' stays lowercase ('el río Amazonas') unless it is part of the name itself ('Sierra Nevada'). In the names of historical events, a nationality adjective stays lowercase ('la Revolución francesa'), and so does a generic word such as 'batalla' when 'de' and a name follow it ('la batalla de Lepanto'), but 'Guerra' is capitalized in 'la Primera Guerra Mundial' and 'la Segunda Guerra Mundial'.
Key rule
Spanish writes days, months, seasons, languages, nationalities, religions, and personal titles, forms of address and posts ('el doctor López', 'el señor Gómez', 'el presidente') in lowercase, although abbreviations such as 'Dr.' and 'Sr.' take a capital. Titles of books, films and songs capitalize only the first word and any proper names, a generic geographic word stays lowercase unless it is part of the name itself ('el río Amazonas', but 'Sierra Nevada'), and in the names of historical events a nationality adjective stays lowercase ('la Revolución francesa'), as does a word like 'batalla' before 'de' and a name ('la batalla de Lepanto', but 'la Segunda Guerra Mundial').
Examples
- Me encanta Cien años de soledad de Gabriel García Márquez.Me encanta Cien Años de Soledad de Gabriel García Márquez.
Spanish book titles capitalize only the first word and proper nouns, so 'años' and 'soledad' stay lowercase.
- La reunión será el lunes 15 de marzo.La reunión será el Lunes 15 de Marzo.
Days of the week and months are lowercase in Spanish, so 'lunes' and 'marzo' take no capital in an ordinary date like this one.
- Mi vecina es colombiana y habla español y francés.Mi vecina es Colombiana y habla Español y Francés.
Nationalities and languages are lowercase in Spanish: 'colombiana' is an adjective, and 'español' and 'francés' are common nouns, not proper names.
Common mistakes
Capitalizing months and days of the week
Nos vemos el Martes 5 de Enero.Nos vemos el martes 5 de enero.Unlike English, Spanish does not capitalize days of the week or months. This is one of the most common errors caused by English interference.
Capitalizing every significant word in a book title
Estoy leyendo El Amor en los Tiempos del Cólera.Estoy leyendo El amor en los tiempos del cólera.Spanish titles follow 'sentence-style' capitalization: only the first word and proper nouns. The English convention of capitalizing all major words does not apply.
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