Lenguia | B1 Spanish Grammar: 70 Topics & Examples

The present subjunctive is the present tense of the subjunctive mood. It is used after 'que' when the main clause expresses a wish, hope, doubt, feeling or advice, and after impersonal judgments such as 'es importante que' (it's important that). Affirmative belief or certainty takes the indicative instead: 'Creo que vive aquí' (I think he lives here), but 'No creo que viva aquí' (I don't think he lives here). For regular verbs, 'swap the vowel': -ar verbs take endings with -e (hablar → hable, hables), and -er and -ir verbs take endings with -a (comer → coma, vivir → viva). Verbs in -car, -gar and -zar change their spelling before e: buscar → busque, llegar → llegue, cruzar → cruce. Examples: 'Quiero que hables con ella' (I want you to talk to her), 'Espero que comas bien' (I hope you eat well). With wishes and feelings, if the subject stays the same, use the infinitive instead: 'Quiero hablar' (I want to speak).

Key rule

Regular present subjunctive: yo form minus -o, then the 'opposite' vowel (-ar → hable; -er/-ir → coma, viva); verbs in -car, -gar and -zar change their spelling before e (busque, llegue, cruce). Use it after 'que' when the main clause expresses a wish, emotion, doubt, advice or judgment ('Quiero que hables', 'Es importante que comas'), but not after affirmative belief or certainty ('Creo que eres inteligente', 'Es verdad que vive aquí').

Examples

Quiero que hables con ella.
Quiero que hablas con ella.
After 'quiero que' (wish + different subject), the subjunctive is required: hables, not hablas.
Es importante que estudies cada día.
Es importante que estudias cada día.
Impersonal expressions of importance or necessity, like 'es importante que', trigger the subjunctive: estudies, not the indicative estudias.
Espero que comas bien.
Espero que comes bien.
Esperar que (to hope that) triggers the subjunctive: comas, not comes.

Common mistakes

Using indicative instead of subjunctive after trigger expressions
Quiero que hablas español
Quiero que hables español
After 'quiero que' the subjunctive is mandatory because there are two different subjects and a wish is expressed.
Not swapping the vowel correctly
Es necesario que comemos más
Es necesario que comamos más
Comemos is the present indicative. In the subjunctive, -er and -ir verbs switch to -a: comamos.

B1Verb tenses

Present Subjunctive - Irregular Verbs

Presente de subjuntivo - Verbos irregulares

Most irregular present subjunctives come from the yo form of the present: drop the -o and add the subjunctive endings (tengo → tenga, hago → haga, digo → diga, conozco → conozca). Six verbs don't follow this rule and must be memorized: ser → sea, ir → vaya, haber → haya, saber → sepa, estar → esté, dar → dé. Stem-changing verbs change in the same forms as in the present indicative, so nosotros and vosotros keep the vowel of the infinitive: piense but pensemos, vuelva but volvamos. Stem-changing -ir verbs are different: they also change in nosotros and vosotros, e → i and o → u (sintamos, pidamos, durmamos). Examples: 'Espero que tengas suerte' (I hope you're lucky), 'Es importante que seas puntual' (It's important for you to be on time).

Key rule

Build most irregular subjunctives from the yo form (tengo → tenga, conozco → conozca) and memorize the six exceptions: sea, vaya, haya, sepa, esté, dé. Stem-changing verbs change in the same persons as in the present indicative (piense, but pensemos), and -ir stem-changers also change in nosotros/vosotros (durmamos, sintamos, pidamos).

Examples

Es importante que seas puntual.
Es importante que eres puntual.
Ser in subjunctive is completely irregular: sea, seas, sea, seamos, seáis, sean. Use seas, not the indicative eres.
Espero que haya suficiente comida.
Espero que hay suficiente comida.
Impersonal hay (there is/are) becomes haya in the subjunctive. Haya is also the auxiliary form (haya comido).
No creo que vayan a la fiesta.
No creo que van a la fiesta.
No creo que triggers the subjunctive, and ir is one of the six verbs to memorize: vaya, vayas, vaya, vayamos, vayáis, vayan. Van is the indicative.

Common mistakes

Using indicative forms of ser instead of subjunctive
Quiero que eres más amable
Quiero que seas más amable
Ser has a fully irregular subjunctive stem: sea, seas, sea, seamos, seáis, sean.
Forgetting the nosotros stem change for -ir verbs
Es importante que duermamos ocho horas
Es importante que durmamos ocho horas
Dormir nosotros subjunctive uses o→u: durmamos. The diphthong ue only appears in the boot forms.

B1Verb tenses

Conditional Tense - Regular Verbs

Condicional simple - Verbos regulares

The conditional expresses what someone 'would' do: 'Yo viajaría más' (I would travel more). For regular verbs, keep the whole infinitive and add the same endings for all three verb groups: -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían. So hablar → hablaría, comer → comería, vivir → viviría, always with a written accent (tilde) on the í. A few common verbs, such as tener, poder and hacer, use an irregular stem instead (tendría, podría, haría). Use it for hypothetical situations, polite requests ('¿Me ayudarías?', Would you help me?), wishes ('Me gustaría...', I would like...) and advice ('Yo que tú, estudiaría más', If I were you, I would study more). But English 'would' for repeated past habits is the imperfect: 'De niño, jugaba en el parque' (As a child, I would play in the park).

Key rule

Regular conditional = whole infinitive + -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían, the same for -ar, -er and -ir verbs and always with a tilde: hablaría, comería, viviría. It expresses 'would' in hypotheses, polite requests and advice, but English 'would' for past habits is the imperfect.

Examples

Yo hablaría con ella, pero no tengo tiempo.
Yo hablía con ella, pero no tengo tiempo.
The conditional keeps the whole infinitive: hablar + -ía = hablaría. Adding -ía to the stem habl- gives hablía, which doesn't exist.
¿Comerías una pizza entera?
¿Comías una pizza entera? (intended: Would you eat a whole pizza?)
Conditional of comer: comer + -ías = comerías. Without the -er-, comías is the imperfect (you used to eat).
Ella viviría en París si pudiera.
Ella vivería en París si pudiera.
Keep the full infinitive: vivir + -ía = viviría, not vivería.

Common mistakes

Confusing conditional with imperfect endings
Me gustaba vivir en Italia (intended: I would like to live in Italy)
Me gustaría vivir en Italia
The imperfect uses -aba (for -ar) and the conditional uses -ía added to the infinitive. Gustaría = would like; gustaba = used to like.
Removing the infinitive ending before adding conditional
¿Vivías en otro país? (intended: Would you live in another country?)
¿Vivirías en otro país?
The conditional keeps the whole infinitive: vivir + -ías = vivirías. Without the -ir-, 'vivías' is the imperfect, so the question asks about the past ('Did you use to live in another country?').

B1Verb tenses

Conditional Tense - Irregular Verbs

Condicional simple - Verbos irregulares

Twelve common verbs use a shortened or changed stem in the conditional, exactly the same irregular stem they use in the future: decir → dir- (diría), hacer → har- (haría), poder → podr- (podría), tener → tendr- (tendría). The endings stay regular: -ía, -ías, -ía, -íamos, -íais, -ían. So if you know the irregular future (haré, podré, tendré), you already know the conditional (haría, podría, tendría). Example: '¿Podrías ayudarme?' (Could you help me?).

Key rule

The same 12 verbs with irregular future stems use those stems in the conditional too, with regular -ía endings: diría, haría, podría, pondría, querría, sabría, saldría, tendría, vendría, habría, cabría, valdría.

Examples

Yo diría que es una buena idea.
Yo deciría que es una buena idea.
Decir conditional: irregular stem dir- + -ía = diría, not deciría.
¿Qué haría usted en mi lugar?
¿Qué hacería usted en mi lugar?
Hacer conditional: irregular stem har- + -ía = haría, not hacería.
¿Podrías ayudarme?
¿Poderías ayudarme?
Poder conditional: irregular stem podr- + -ías = podrías.

Common mistakes

Using the full infinitive instead of the irregular stem
Yo hacería la tarea
Yo haría la tarea
Hacer uses the irregular stem har-, not the full infinitive hacer-. The conditional is haría.
Inventing irregular stems that don't exist
Yo ponría la mesa
Yo pondría la mesa
Poner replaces the -e- of the infinitive with -d-: pondr- + -ía = pondría. Just dropping the vowel (ponr-) gives a form that does not exist.

B1Verb tenses

Pluperfect Tense

Pretérito pluscuamperfecto

The pluperfect is the 'past of the past': it says what had already happened before another past moment. Form it with the imperfect of haber (había, habías, había, habíamos, habíais, habían) plus a past participle: hablado, comido, vivido, or an irregular one such as hecho, visto or escrito. Example: 'Cuando llegué, ya habían comido' (When I arrived, they had already eaten). The participle never changes: 'Ella había salido', 'Ellos habían salido'. 'No' and object pronouns go before haber: 'No lo había visto' (I hadn't seen it).

Key rule

Pluperfect = había, habías, había, habíamos, habíais, habían + past participle, for an action completed before another past moment: 'Cuando llegué, ya habían comido'. Use the imperfect había (not hube), and keep the participle unchanged.

Examples

Cuando llegué, ya habían comido.
Cuando llegué, ya hubieron comido.
The pluperfect uses the imperfect of haber: habían comido. Hubieron comido is the rare literary pretérito anterior, not the pluperfect.
Ella ya había salido cuando la llamé.
Ella ya había salida cuando la llamé.
With haber, the participle never agrees: había salido (not salida), regardless of subject.
Antes de aquel viaje, nunca habíamos visitado España.
Antes de aquel viaje, nunca hemos visitado España.
The reference point (antes de aquel viaje) is in the past, so use the pluperfect habíamos visitado, not the present perfect hemos visitado.

Common mistakes

Using preterite of haber instead of imperfect
Cuando llegó mi hermano, yo ya hube comido
Cuando llegó mi hermano, yo ya había comido
The pluperfect is always built with the imperfect of haber (había). Hube + participle is the pretérito anterior, a rare literary tense, not another form of the pluperfect.
Making the participle agree with the subject
Ella había salida de casa
Ella había salido de casa
When used with haber, the participle is invariable. It never agrees in gender or number.

B1Verb tenses

Future Perfect Tense

Futuro perfecto

The future perfect is the future of haber (habré, habrás, habrá, habremos, habréis, habrán) plus a past participle, which never changes: 'Ellas habrán llegado'. It has two uses. First, an action that will be finished before a future moment: 'Para las cinco, habré terminado' (By five, I will have finished). When that moment is given by 'cuando', use the present subjunctive after it: 'Cuando llegues, ya habremos comido' (When you arrive, we will already have eaten). Second, a guess about something that has probably already happened: 'Habrá llegado ya' (He must have arrived by now). This second use is very common in everyday Spanish.

Key rule

Future perfect = habré, habrás, habrá, habremos, habréis, habrán + past participle. Use it for an action finished before a future moment ('Para las diez habré terminado') and for a guess about what has probably already happened ('Habrá salido').

Examples

Para las diez, habré terminado.
Para las diez, tendré terminado.
The future perfect is built with haber: habré terminado. Tener + participle is a different construction that needs a direct object ('Lo tendré terminado'), so 'tendré terminado' on its own is wrong.
Cuando llegues, ya habremos comido.
Cuando llegas, ya habremos comido.
When 'cuando' refers to the future, it takes the present subjunctive (llegues), not the indicative llegas. The main clause uses the future perfect: ya habremos comido.
Ella habrá salido temprano hoy.
Ella habrá salida temprano hoy.
Speculation about the past: habrá + salido (invariable participle), even with a female subject. She must have left early.

Common mistakes

Using tener instead of haber
Para las diez tendré llegado a casa
Para las diez habré llegado a casa
The future perfect is always formed with haber (habré), not tener. 'Tener + participle' is a different construction that needs a direct object (tendré hecho el trabajo), so it can't be used with llegar.
Making the participle agree with the subject
Ellas habrán terminadas
Ellas habrán terminado
With haber, the participle never changes form, regardless of the subject's gender or number.

B1Verb tenses

Past Progressive

Pasado progresivo (estaba + gerundio)

The past progressive is the imperfect of estar (estaba, estabas, estaba, estábamos, estabais, estaban) plus a gerund: -ando for -ar verbs and -iendo for -er and -ir verbs (estudiando, comiendo). Some gerunds change: when the stem ends in a vowel, -iendo becomes -yendo (leer → leyendo), and stem-changing -ir verbs change e → i or o → u (pedir → pidiendo, dormir → durmiendo). It describes an action that was in progress at a moment in the past, like English 'was/were doing': 'Estaba estudiando cuando llamaste' (I was studying when you called). The event that interrupts it goes in the preterite (llamaste). The simple imperfect can often say the same thing ('Estudiaba cuando llamaste'); the progressive stresses that the action was under way at that moment. For past habits, use the simple imperfect: 'De niño, jugaba al fútbol todos los días', not 'estaba jugando'. Object pronouns go before estaba or attach to the gerund, which then takes a written accent (tilde): 'Lo estaba leyendo' = 'Estaba leyéndolo'.

Key rule

Estaba, estabas, estaba… + gerund (-ando / -iendo) shows an action under way at a past moment, often interrupted by an event in the preterite: 'Estaba durmiendo cuando sonó el teléfono.'

Examples

Estaba estudiando cuando llamaste.
Estuve estudiando cuando llamaste.
The action in progress when something else happened takes the imperfect estaba. The preterite estuve presents the studying as a finished block of time, which does not fit a background that gets interrupted.
Los niños estaban jugando en el parque.
Los niños estaban jugaban en el parque.
Only estar is conjugated (estaban). The main verb goes in the gerund: jugando, not jugaban.
¿Qué estabas haciendo a las tres?
¿Qué eras haciendo a las tres?
The progressive is always built with estar, not ser: estabas haciendo. Translating English 'were' as eras does not work here.

Common mistakes

Using preterite of estar instead of imperfect
Estuve cocinando cuando llegaste
Estaba cocinando cuando llegaste
For an action in progress when something else happened, use the imperfect estaba. Estuve + gerund presents a completed stretch of time (Estuve cocinando toda la tarde) and does not work as an interrupted background.
Using a conjugated verb instead of gerund
Estaba comía en ese momento
Estaba comiendo en ese momento
In the progressive, only estar is conjugated. The main verb goes in the gerund (-ando / -iendo): comiendo.

B1Verb tenses

Gerund vs. Infinitive Usage

Gerundio vs. infinitivo

Spanish often uses the infinitive (hablar, comer) where English uses '-ing'. Use the infinitive as a subject ('Estudiar es importante' = Studying is important), after a preposition ('antes de comer' = before eating, 'sin decir nada' = without saying anything), after al ('Al llegar, llamé a mi madre' = When I arrived, I called my mother) and after verbs like querer, poder or gustar ('Me gusta leer' = I like reading). The gerund (-ando / -iendo) is for actions in progress ('Estoy comiendo'), for how or while something is done ('Llegó corriendo' = He arrived running), after seguir ('Sigue lloviendo' = It's still raining) and after llevar or pasar + a stretch of time ('Pasé la tarde leyendo' = I spent the afternoon reading). Spanish doesn't normally use the gerund as an adjective: 'una historia interesante', not 'una historia interesando'.

Key rule

Use the infinitive when the verb works like a noun: as a subject, after a preposition or al, and after verbs like querer or gustar. Use the gerund for actions in progress (estar + gerund) and to say how or while something is done (Llegó corriendo).

Examples

Estudiar es importante.
Estudiando es importante.
As a sentence subject, use the infinitive (estudiar), not the gerund (estudiando).
Antes de comer, lávate las manos.
Antes de comiendo, lávate las manos.
After a preposition such as 'antes de', use the infinitive (comer), not the gerund (comiendo).
Sin decir nada, se fue.
Sin diciendo nada, se fue.
After the preposition 'sin', use the infinitive: decir, not the gerund diciendo.

Common mistakes

Using gerund as subject (English interference)
Nadando es buen ejercicio
Nadar es buen ejercicio
When an activity is the subject of a sentence, Spanish uses the infinitive (Nadar es...). English uses the -ing form here, but the Spanish gerund cannot work as a noun.
Using gerund after prepositions
Después de comiendo, salimos
Después de comer, salimos
After a preposition (de, sin, para, por, antes de, después de), Spanish always uses the infinitive, never the gerund (apart from the old literary 'en llegando').

B1Verb tenses

Passive 'Se' Construction

Pasiva refleja con 'se'

Passive se (pasiva refleja) says what is done without saying who does it: se + a third-person verb. The verb agrees with the thing that receives the action: 'Se vende una casa' (A house is for sale), 'Se venden casas' (Houses are for sale), 'Se habla español' (Spanish is spoken). Singular noun, singular verb; plural noun, plural verb. When there is no such noun, the verb stays singular (impersonal se): 'Aquí se come bien' (You eat well here). Specific people introduced with personal a also keep the verb singular, because a noun with personal a cannot be the subject: 'Se busca a los responsables' (The people responsible are being sought), not 'Se buscan a los responsables'.

Key rule

Passive se = se + a third-person verb that agrees with the noun receiving the action: 'Se vende piso', 'Se venden pisos'. With no such noun, or with personal a + a person, the verb stays singular: 'Aquí se come bien', 'Se busca a los responsables'.

Examples

Se habla español aquí.
Se hablan español aquí.
Español is singular, so the verb is singular: se habla.
Se venden pisos en esta calle.
Se vende pisos en esta calle.
Pisos is plural, so the verb must be plural: se venden.
Se necesitan profesores de inglés.
Se necesita profesores de inglés.
Profesores is plural, so the verb agrees: se necesitan.

Common mistakes

Not making the verb agree with the noun
Se vende coches usados
Se venden coches usados
In passive se, the verb agrees with the noun that receives the action. Coches is plural, so: se venden.
Using plural verb with impersonal se
Aquí se comen muy bien. (intended: You eat very well here.)
Aquí se come muy bien.
With impersonal se there is no noun for the verb to agree with, so the verb is always singular: se come. Se comen would need a plural subject, such as 'Aquí se comen muchas verduras' (A lot of vegetables are eaten here).

B1Verb tenses

Imperative - Nosotros (Let's)

Imperativo - Nosotros

To say 'let's do something', use the nosotros form of the present subjunctive: '¡Hablemos!' (Let's talk!), '¡Comamos!' (Let's eat!), '¡Escribamos!' (Let's write!). For 'let's go', the everyday form is '¡Vamos!' (vayamos also exists but sounds more formal), and 'let's leave' (irse) is '¡Vámonos!'. Pronouns attach to the end of affirmative forms, and the stressed syllable then takes a written accent (tilde): '¡Hagámoslo!' (Let's do it!). Before nos and se, the final -s drops: sentemos + nos = '¡Sentémonos!' (Let's sit down!), digamos + se + lo = '¡Digámoselo!' (Let's tell him!). For 'let's not', put no before the subjunctive form, with any pronoun in front of the verb: '¡No hablemos!', 'No nos preocupemos'. For ir, the negative is 'No vayamos' (not 'No vamos').

Key rule

For 'let's', use the nosotros present subjunctive (hablemos, comamos); for ir, normally ¡Vamos! In affirmative forms, pronouns attach and the final -s drops before nos and se (sentémonos, digámoselo); in the negative, use no + pronoun + subjunctive (no nos sentemos).

Examples

¡Hablemos de otra cosa!
¡Hablamos de otra cosa! (intended: Let's talk about something else!)
For 'let's', -ar verbs take the subjunctive ending -emos: hablemos. Hablamos is the indicative ('we talk').
¡Comamos en ese restaurante!
¡Comemos en ese restaurante! (intended: Let's eat at that restaurant!)
For 'let's', -er verbs take the subjunctive ending -amos: comamos. Comemos is the indicative ('we eat').
¡Vamos al cine!
For ir, ¡Vamos! is the everyday way to say 'let's go'. ¡Vayamos al cine! is also correct, but vayamos sounds more formal or deliberate.

Common mistakes

Using indicative instead of subjunctive for let's
¡Comemos juntos! (intended: Let's eat together!)
¡Comamos juntos!
For 'let's', use the subjunctive comamos. Comemos is the indicative, a statement ('we eat').
Keeping the -s in vámonos
¡Vámosnos a la playa!
¡Vámonos a la playa!
'Let's go / let's leave' with irse is vámonos: vamos + nos, with the final -s dropped before nos.

B1Verb tenses

Imperative - Vosotros

Imperativo - Vosotros

In Spain, vosotros commands tell a group of people you address informally (friends, children, classmates) what to do. Take the infinitive and change the final -r to -d, even in irregular verbs: hablar → ¡Hablad!, comer → ¡Comed!, venir → ¡Venid! Don't add a written accent (tilde): comed, vivid. When the reflexive pronoun os is attached, the -d drops (sentad + os = ¡Sentaos!), and in -ir verbs the i then takes a tilde (divertid + os = ¡Divertíos!). The one exception is irse: ¡Idos! (the RAE now also accepts iros). Negative commands use the present subjunctive: ¡No habléis!, ¡No os preocupéis! Using the infinitive as a command (¡Sentaros!, ¡Callar!) is common in casual speech in Spain but is not standard. In Latin America, the ustedes form (¡Hablen!) is used for every group.

Key rule

Affirmative: change the infinitive's final -r to -d (hablad, comed, vivid); with os the -d drops (sentaos, divertíos), except in idos. Negative: no + present subjunctive (no habléis, no os sentéis).

Examples

¡Hablad más despacio, por favor!
¡Habláis más despacio, por favor! (intended: Speak more slowly, please!)
Affirmative vosotros command: hablar → hablad. Habláis is the present indicative ('you speak').
¡Comed toda la verdura!
¡Coméis toda la verdura! (intended: Eat all the vegetables!)
Comer → comed. Coméis is a statement ('you eat'), not a command.
¡Vivid la vida al máximo!
¡Vivíd la vida al máximo!
Vivir → vivid, with no written accent: like hablad and comed, it is stressed on the last syllable and ends in -d.

Common mistakes

Using the present indicative instead of imperative
¡Coméis la sopa! (intended: Eat the soup!)
¡Comed la sopa!
The affirmative command changes the -r to -d: comed. Coméis is the present indicative, a statement ('you eat').
Keeping the -d with reflexive -os
¡Ponedos el abrigo!
¡Poneos el abrigo!
When os is attached, the -d drops: poned + os = poneos.

B1Verb tenses

Present Perfect Subjunctive

Pretérito perfecto de subjuntivo

The present perfect subjunctive is haya, hayas, haya, hayamos, hayáis, hayan + a past participle (llegado, comido, hecho). The participle never changes: 'que ella haya llegado'. Use it after a subjunctive trigger in the present (espero que, me alegro de que, dudo que, es posible que) or after ojalá, for an action that has already happened: 'Espero que hayas llegado bien' (I hope you have arrived safely). For an action still to come, use the present subjunctive: 'Espero que llegues bien' (I hope you arrive safely). It is the subjunctive partner of the present perfect: has llegado → hayas llegado.

Key rule

Haya, hayas, haya, hayamos, hayáis, hayan + past participle: use it after a subjunctive trigger in the present (espero que, me alegro de que, dudo que) for an action that has already happened: 'Espero que hayas llegado bien.'

Examples

Espero que hayas llegado bien.
Espero que has llegado bien.
After 'espero que', haber goes in the subjunctive: hayas llegado, not the indicative has llegado.
Me alegro de que hayáis venido.
Me alegro de que habéis venido.
Emotion (alegrarse de que) triggers subjunctive: hayáis venido.
Dudo que hayan terminado a tiempo.
Dudo que han terminado a tiempo.
Doubt (dudar que) triggers subjunctive: hayan terminado.

Common mistakes

Using indicative present perfect instead of subjunctive
Espero que has terminado
Espero que hayas terminado
After subjunctive triggers like 'espero que', haber must be in the subjunctive: haya/hayas/haya, not he/has/ha.
Using present subjunctive when action is completed
Me alegro de que vengas. (intended: I'm glad you have come.)
Me alegro de que hayas venido.
Vengas refers to a present or future arrival ('I'm glad you're coming'). If the person has already come, use the present perfect subjunctive: hayas venido.

B1Verb usage

Haber Idioms & Expressions

Expresiones idiomáticas con haber

Besides 'hay' (there is/are), 'haber' appears in several fixed expressions. 'Hay que + infinitive' means 'you have to' or 'one must' in general. It never has a subject and never changes for person: 'Hay que estudiar' (You have to study). Only the tense changes: 'había que' or 'hubo que' in the past ('Anoche hubo que llamar a los bomberos', Last night we had to call the firefighters) and 'habrá que' in the future. 'Haber de + infinitive' is a more formal 'must' or 'be supposed to', and it is conjugated for the person: 'He de confesar que...' (I must confess that...). Watch the small word: impersonal 'hay' takes 'que', but the personal forms take 'de' ('he de', not 'he que'). Two fixed phrases complete the set: 'No hay de qué' (You're welcome) and 'No hay más remedio que + infinitive' (There's no choice but to...).

Key rule

'Hay que + infinitive' states a general obligation: it has no subject and never changes for person, only for tense (había que, hubo que, habrá que). Conjugated 'haber de + infinitive' (he de, has de, ha de...) is a more formal 'must'; 'no hay de qué' means 'you're welcome', and 'no hay más remedio que' means 'there's no choice but to'.

Examples

Hay que practicar todos los días.
Ha que practicar todos los días.
The impersonal form of 'haber' is 'hay', so the expression is 'hay que'. 'Ha' is the form used in compound tenses (ha llegado) and in 'ha de'.
No hay de qué, fue un placer.
Eres bienvenido, fue un placer. (intended: You're welcome, it was a pleasure.)
'No hay de qué' is a polite reply to 'gracias', like 'de nada'. 'Eres bienvenido' copies English 'you're welcome' word for word, but in Spanish it only means 'you are welcome here', so it cannot answer a thank-you.
Has de saber que esto es importante.
Has que saber que esto es importante.
Conjugated 'haber de + infinitive' takes 'de', not 'que'. 'Has de saber que...' is a set phrase meaning 'You should know that...'.

Common mistakes

Using 'hay que' to say 'I have to'
Yo hay que estudiar.
Tengo que estudiar.
'Hay que' is impersonal and does not change for person. For personal obligation, use 'tener que' instead.
Confusing 'hay que' and 'ha de'
Hay de llegar temprano.
Ha de llegar temprano. / Hay que llegar temprano.
The impersonal form takes 'que' (hay que). The conjugated form takes 'de' (he de, has de, ha de, hemos de, habéis de, han de). 'Hay de' mixes the two.

B1Verb usage

Llevar + Gerund / Time for Duration

Llevar + gerundio / tiempo para expresar duración

'Llevar + time + gerund' says how long you have been doing something that is still going on: 'Llevo dos años estudiando español' (I've been studying Spanish for two years). Spanish uses the present 'llevo' where English says 'have been', and the length of time takes no 'por' and no 'hace': 'Llevo dos años', not 'Llevo por dos años'. For something you haven't done, use 'sin + infinitive': 'Llevo tres días sin dormir' (I haven't slept for three days). With a place or a state, no gerund is needed: 'Lleva cinco años en esta empresa' (He has been at this company for five years). To look back from a moment in the past, put 'llevar' in the imperfect: 'Llevaba una hora esperando' (I had been waiting for an hour).

Key rule

Use 'llevar + time + gerund' for 'have been doing (for a time)' and 'llevar + time + sin + infinitive' for 'haven't done (for a time)'. Use the present for time up to now and the imperfect (llevaba) for time up to a past moment.

Examples

Llevo dos años estudiando español.
Llevo dos años estudiar español.
After 'llevar + time', the action goes in the gerund (estudiando), not the infinitive. Note that Spanish uses the present 'llevo' where English says 'I have been'.
Llevo tres días sin dormir bien.
Llevo tres días no durmiendo bien.
To say what you haven't done, put 'sin + infinitive' after the time: 'llevo tres días sin dormir bien' (I haven't slept well for three days). 'No + gerund' is not used in this construction.
Llevaba una hora esperando cuando llegó el autobús.
Llevé una hora esperando cuando llegó el autobús.
The waiting was still going on when the bus arrived, so 'llevar' goes in the imperfect (llevaba). The preterite 'llevé' is not used in this construction.

Common mistakes

Translating 'have been doing for' word for word
Estoy trabajando aquí por tres años. (intended: I have been working here for three years.)
Llevo tres años trabajando aquí.
'Estoy trabajando aquí por tres años' sounds like a planned three-year stint, not time already spent. For time up to now, Spanish uses 'llevar + time + gerund' (or 'Trabajo aquí desde hace tres años').
Using preterite instead of imperfect for past duration
Llevé una hora esperando.
Llevaba una hora esperando.
'Llevar + time + gerund' measures time up to a reference point, so in the past it goes in the imperfect (llevaba). The preterite 'llevé' is not used in this construction; for a closed period, say 'Estuve una hora esperando'.

B1Verb usage

Ir + Gerund for Gradual Action

Ir + gerundio para acción gradual

'Ir + gerund' describes something that develops gradually, little by little: 'Voy entendiendo' (I'm gradually starting to understand), 'Los precios van subiendo' (Prices are going up and up). Only 'ir' is conjugated, there is no 'a', and the gerund stays the same for every person. It works in any tense: 'Iba mejorando' (He was gradually getting better). A pronoun goes before 'ir' or is attached to the gerund, which then takes a written accent (tilde); it never goes between the two: 'Me voy acostumbrando' or 'Voy acostumbrándome'. Compare 'estar + gerund', which simply says an action is in progress: 'Estoy estudiando' (I'm studying). In a command, 'ir + gerund' means 'start doing it': 'Ve recogiendo tus cosas' (Start gathering your things).

Key rule

Use conjugated 'ir' + gerund, with no 'a', to present an action as a gradual process that advances over time (voy entendiendo, iba mejorando); 'estar + gerund' simply says an action is in progress.

Examples

Voy entendiendo mejor la gramática.
Voy a entendiendo mejor la gramática.
'Ir + gerund' has no 'a'. 'Voy a + infinitive' is the near future (Voy a entender); 'voy + gerund' expresses gradual progress (Voy entendiendo).
Los precios van subiendo cada año.
Los precios va subiendo cada año.
'Ir' agrees with the subject: 'los precios' is plural, so 'van'. The gerund 'subiendo' does not change for person or number.
La situación fue mejorando poco a poco.
La situación fue mejorado poco a poco.
'Ir' is followed by the gerund (mejorando), not the past participle (mejorado). The preterite 'fue mejorando' presents the gradual improvement as a completed process.

Common mistakes

Putting the pronoun between 'ir' and the gerund
Voy me acostumbrando al clima.
Me voy acostumbrando al clima.
A pronoun goes before 'ir' (Me voy acostumbrando) or is attached to the gerund with a written accent (Voy acostumbrándome), never between the two verbs.
Using infinitive instead of gerund after ir
Poco a poco voy aprender más vocabulario.
Poco a poco voy aprendiendo más vocabulario.
For gradual progress, 'ir' is followed by the gerund (voy aprendiendo). An infinitive after 'ir' needs 'a' and means the near future (voy a aprender).

B1Verb usage

Quedar vs Quedarse

Quedar y quedarse

'Quedar' and 'quedarse' are the same verb, but the reflexive pronoun (me, te, se...) changes the meaning. Without it, 'quedar' means 'to be left' ('Quedan tres entradas', There are three tickets left), 'to fit or suit' ('Ese vestido te queda bien', That dress suits you) and 'to arrange to meet' ('Quedamos a las ocho', We're meeting at eight; especially in Spain). In the first two meanings the thing is the subject and the person is an indirect object, as with 'gustar': 'Nos quedan dos euros' (We have two euros left), 'Estos zapatos me quedan grandes' (These shoes are too big for me). With the reflexive pronoun, 'quedarse' means 'to stay' ('Me quedé en casa', I stayed at home). 'Quedarse' + adjective describes the state someone ends up in, and the adjective agrees with the subject: 'Se quedó dormido' (He fell asleep), 'Ella se quedó sorprendida' (She was surprised).

Key rule

Without a reflexive pronoun, 'quedar' means to be left, to fit or suit (like 'gustar': te queda bien) or to arrange to meet; 'quedarse' means to stay, and 'quedarse + adjective' describes the state someone ends up in (se quedó dormido).

Examples

Quedamos a las ocho en la plaza.
Nos quedamos a las ocho en la plaza. (intended: We're meeting at eight in the square.)
'Quedar' without a pronoun means 'to arrange to meet'. 'Nos quedamos' means 'we stay' or 'we stayed', so the sentence no longer talks about meeting up.
¿Cuántas galletas quedan?
¿Cuántas galletas se quedan? (intended: How many cookies are left?)
'Quedar' meaning 'to be left' takes no 'se', and the things that are left are the subject: '¿Cuántas galletas quedan?'. With 'se', the verb becomes 'quedarse' (to stay), so '¿Cuántas galletas se quedan?' sounds as if you were asking how many cookies are staying somewhere. To add the person, use an indirect object: '¿Cuántas galletas nos quedan?' (How many cookies do we have left?).
Ese vestido te queda muy bien.
Ese vestido te quedas muy bien.
With the meaning 'to fit or suit', 'quedar' works like 'gustar': the clothing is the subject (ese vestido → queda) and the person is the indirect object pronoun (te).

Common mistakes

Using reflexive when arranging to meet
Nos quedamos a las cinco en el café. (intended: We're meeting at five at the café.)
Quedamos a las cinco en el café.
'Quedar' for arranging to meet does not use a reflexive pronoun. 'Nos quedamos' would mean 'we stayed.'
Omitting reflexive when meaning 'to stay'
Quedé en casa todo el día.
Me quedé en casa todo el día.
To say 'stay', standard Spanish uses 'quedarse', with the pronoun: 'Me quedé en casa'. Without it, 'quedé' sounds like 'I arranged to meet', which makes no sense here.

B1Verb usage

Volver a + Infinitive (To Do Again)

Volver a + infinitivo (hacer algo otra vez)

'Volver a + infinitive' means 'to do something again'. Conjugate 'volver' and keep the second verb in the infinitive: 'Volvió a llamar' (He called again), 'Vuelvo a intentarlo' (I'm trying again). In the present, 'volver' changes o to ue except in the nosotros and vosotros forms: vuelvo, vuelves, vuelve, volvemos, volvéis, vuelven. It works in every tense, and with 'no' it means 'not ... again': 'No volveré a hacerlo' (I won't do it again). The 'a' is never dropped or replaced by 'de' ('volver de' means 'to come back from'). A pronoun goes before 'volver' or is attached to the infinitive, never between 'a' and the infinitive: 'Lo vuelvo a intentar' or 'Vuelvo a intentarlo'.

Key rule

Use conjugated 'volver' + 'a' + infinitive to say that an action happens again (Volvió a llamar). Only 'volver' changes, and the 'a' is never dropped.

Examples

Volvió a llamar por teléfono.
Volvió llamar por teléfono.
The preposition 'a' is required between 'volver' and the infinitive. 'Volvió a llamar' means 'He called again.'
Hoy vuelve a hacer mucho calor.
Hoy vuelve a hace mucho calor.
Only 'volver' is conjugated; the verb after 'a' stays in the infinitive (hacer). 'Hoy vuelve a hacer mucho calor' means 'It's very hot again today'.
No volveré a hacerlo, te lo prometo.
No volveré a lo hacer, te lo prometo.
The pronoun is attached to the infinitive (volveré a hacerlo) or goes before 'volver' (No lo volveré a hacer), never between 'a' and the infinitive. 'No volver a + infinitive' is the usual way to promise 'never again'.

Common mistakes

Omitting the preposition 'a'
Vuelvo leer la pregunta.
Vuelvo a leer la pregunta.
The preposition 'a' is mandatory in 'volver a + infinitive'. Without it, the sentence is ungrammatical.
Using 'de' instead of 'a'
Volvió de leer el libro. (intended: She read the book again.)
Volvió a leer el libro.
'Volver de' means 'to come back from' a place or an activity. 'Volver a + infinitive' means 'to do something again'.

B1Verb usage

Verbs of Change (Ponerse, Hacerse, Volverse, Convertirse, Llegar a ser)

Verbos de cambio (ponerse, hacerse, volverse, convertirse en, llegar a ser)

English uses 'become', 'get', 'turn' or 'go' for many kinds of change. Spanish chooses the verb by the type of change. 'Ponerse' + adjective is for quick changes of mood, health or appearance: 'Se puso rojo' (He turned red). 'Hacerse' is for changes a person chooses or works towards, like a profession or a religion, and for some changes that come with time: 'Se hizo médico' (He became a doctor), 'Se hizo rico' (He got rich). 'Volverse' + adjective is for deep changes in character or mind: 'Se volvió loco' (He went mad). 'Convertirse en' + noun means 'to turn into': 'Se convirtió en mariposa' (It turned into a butterfly). 'Llegar a ser' is for reaching a position after a long process: 'Llegó a ser presidente' (He eventually became president).

Key rule

Choose the verb by the type of change: ponerse + adjective for quick changes of mood, health or appearance; hacerse for chosen or gradual changes (profession, religion, rico); volverse + adjective for deep changes in character; convertirse en + noun for turning into something else; llegar a ser for reaching a status after a long process.

Examples

Se puso nervioso antes del examen.
Se hizo nervioso antes del examen.
Nervousness is a quick change of mood, so use 'ponerse'. 'Hacerse' is for changes a person chooses or works towards, like a profession.
Se hizo médico después de muchos años de estudio.
Se puso médico después de muchos años de estudio.
A profession is a change you work towards, so use 'hacerse'. 'Ponerse' only goes with adjectives of mood, health or appearance, never with a profession.
Se volvió muy desconfiado con el tiempo.
Se puso muy desconfiado con el tiempo.
'Con el tiempo' shows a lasting change in someone's character, which calls for 'volverse'. 'Ponerse desconfiado' would describe a momentary reaction, which clashes with 'con el tiempo'.

Common mistakes

Using 'ponerse' for permanent changes
Se puso loco con los años.
Se volvió loco con los años.
'Con los años' describes a lasting change in someone's mind or character, which calls for 'volverse'. 'Ponerse' describes quick, usually passing states, such as 'se puso nervioso'.
Using 'hacerse' for emotional reactions
Se hizo rojo de vergüenza.
Se puso rojo de vergüenza.
Blushing is a temporary physical reaction, so it requires 'ponerse', not 'hacerse'.

B1Verb usage

Dejar vs Dejar de

Dejar y dejar de

'Dejar' changes meaning with what follows it. With an object, it means 'to leave' something somewhere: 'Dejé las llaves en la mesa' (I left the keys on the table). Followed directly by an infinitive, it means 'to let': 'Déjame pensar' (Let me think). 'Dejar de + infinitive' means 'to stop doing': 'Dejé de fumar' (I stopped smoking). So the small word 'de' decides between 'let' and 'stop'. As a negative command, 'No dejes de + infinitive' means 'be sure to': 'No dejes de visitarnos' (Be sure to visit us). Two more uses are very common: 'dejar caer' means 'to drop' ('Dejó caer el vaso', He dropped the glass), and in Spain 'dejarse' is the usual way to say you left something behind by mistake ('Me dejé el paraguas en el autobús'); plain 'Dejé el paraguas...' is also correct.

Key rule

'Dejar' + object = to leave something; 'dejar' + infinitive = to let; 'dejar de' + infinitive = to stop doing; 'no dejes de' + infinitive = be sure to. The 'de' turns 'let' into 'stop'.

Examples

Dejé las llaves en la mesa.
Salí las llaves en la mesa.
To leave an object somewhere is 'dejar'. 'Salir' means to go out or to leave a place, and it cannot take a direct object like 'las llaves'.
Dejé de fumar hace tres años.
Dejé fumar hace tres años. (intended: I stopped smoking three years ago.)
'Dejar de + infinitive' means 'to stop doing'. Without 'de', 'dejar + infinitive' means 'to let', so 'Dejé fumar' would mean 'I allowed smoking', not 'I stopped smoking'.
Déjame explicarte lo que pasó.
Déjame de explicarte lo que pasó.
'Dejar + infinitive' means 'to let': 'Déjame explicarte' (Let me explain to you). It takes no preposition; 'de' belongs only to 'dejar de', which means 'to stop'.

Common mistakes

Omitting 'de' when meaning 'to stop'
Dejé estudiar a las diez. (intended: I stopped studying at ten.)
Dejé de estudiar a las diez.
'Dejar de + infinitive' means 'to stop doing'. Without 'de', 'dejar + infinitive' means 'to let', so 'Dejé estudiar a las diez' would mean 'I allowed studying at ten', not 'I stopped studying at ten'.
Adding 'de' when meaning 'to allow'
No me dejan de salir.
No me dejan salir.
'Dejar + infinitive' (to let) takes no preposition: 'No me dejan salir' (They don't let me go out). With 'de', 'dejar de' means 'to stop', which makes no sense here.

B1Verb usage

Soler in the Imperfect (Past Habits)

Soler en imperfecto (hábitos del pasado)

'Soler + infinitive' describes habits. In the imperfect, it is the Spanish 'used to': 'Solía ir al parque los domingos' (I used to go to the park on Sundays). The forms are regular: solía, solías, solía, solíamos, solíais, solían, always followed directly by an infinitive. 'Soler' is a defective verb: it has no future or conditional, and its preterite (solí) is practically never used. For past states, such as 'I used to live in Madrid', Spanish normally uses the plain imperfect: 'Vivía en Madrid'.

Key rule

Use 'solía + infinitive' for repeated actions in the past (used to). 'Soler' has no future or conditional, its preterite is practically never used, and for past states Spanish prefers the plain imperfect (Vivía en Madrid).

Examples

Solía ir al parque todos los domingos.
Solí ir al parque todos los domingos.
A past habit needs the imperfect 'solía'. The preterite 'solí' is practically never used, because 'soler' describes habits, not single completed events.
Solíamos cenar juntos los viernes.
Soleríamos cenar juntos los viernes.
English 'would' can describe past habits (We would have dinner together on Fridays), but Spanish uses the imperfect: 'solíamos cenar' or 'cenábamos'. 'Soler' has no conditional form.
De joven, solía leer mucho.
De joven, solía a leer mucho.
'Soler' is followed directly by the infinitive, with no preposition: 'solía leer', not 'solía a leer'.

Common mistakes

Using soler in the preterite
Solí ir al cine los sábados.
Solía ir al cine los sábados.
The preterite of 'soler' is practically never used, because a habit is not a single completed event. Use the imperfect 'solía' for past habits.
Using 'soler' for a single past event
Ayer solía llegar tarde al trabajo.
Ayer llegué tarde al trabajo.
'Soler' only describes repeated habits. A single event on a specific day needs an ordinary past tense: 'Ayer llegué tarde'.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive After Emotion Verbs

Subjuntivo con verbos de emoción

When you react with a feeling to what someone or something else does, the second verb goes into the subjunctive. Common triggers are alegrarse de que, sentir que (to be sorry that), tener miedo de que, temer que, and verbs like gustar: me gusta que, me molesta que, me encanta que, me preocupa que, me sorprende que. For example, 'Me alegro de que estés bien' (I'm glad you're well). This is true even when the event is a known fact. If the same person feels the emotion and does the action, use the infinitive instead: 'Me alegro de estar aquí' (I'm glad to be here).

Key rule

After a verb or expression of feeling such as alegrarse de, gustar, molestar, sentir (to be sorry), temer or tener miedo de, use que + subjunctive when the second verb has a different subject, even if the event is a known fact; use the infinitive when the subject is the same.

Examples

Me alegro de que estés bien.
Me alegro de que estás bien.
'Alegrarse de que' expresses emotion and triggers the subjunctive: 'estés', not indicative 'estás'.
Siento que no puedas venir a la fiesta.
Siento que no puedes venir a la fiesta. (intended: I'm sorry you can't come to the party.)
Here 'sentir que' means 'to be sorry that', so it takes the subjunctive: 'puedas', not 'puedes'. With the indicative, 'Siento que no puedes venir' would mean 'I sense that you can't come'.
Me molesta que hablen tan alto.
Me molesta que hablan tan alto.
'Molestar que' expresses annoyance, an emotion, so the subjunctive 'hablen' is required.

Common mistakes

Using indicative instead of subjunctive after emotion verbs
Me alegro de que tienes un buen trabajo.
Me alegro de que tengas un buen trabajo.
Emotion verbs require the subjunctive in the subordinate clause. 'Tienes' must become 'tengas'.
Using subjunctive when the subject is the same
Me alegro de que yo esté aquí.
Me alegro de estar aquí.
When the subject is the same for both verbs, use the infinitive, not que + subjunctive.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive After Doubt and Denial

Subjuntivo con expresiones de duda y negación

When you doubt or deny that something is true, the second verb goes into the subjunctive. Common triggers are dudar que, no creer que, no pensar que, no estar seguro de que and negar que. For example, 'No creo que sea verdad' (I don't think it's true). When you say what you believe or are sure of, use the indicative: 'Creo que es verdad' (I think it's true). So the negation of the main verb makes the difference: creo que + indicative, no creo que + subjunctive.

Key rule

Doubt and denial (dudar que, no creer que, no pensar que, no estar seguro de que, negar que) take the subjunctive; affirmative belief or certainty (creer que, pensar que, estar seguro de que) takes the indicative.

Examples

Dudo que él sepa la respuesta.
Dudo que él sabe la respuesta.
'Dudar que' expresses doubt, requiring subjunctive: 'sepa', not indicative 'sabe'.
No creo que sea verdad.
No creo que es verdad.
'No creer que' triggers subjunctive because it negates belief: 'sea', not 'es'.
Creo que es verdad.
Creo que sea verdad.
Affirmative 'creer que' presents the idea as true (you assert it), so use the indicative 'es', not the subjunctive 'sea'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'no creer que'
No creo que tiene razón.
No creo que tenga razón.
The negation of 'creer' introduces doubt, which requires the subjunctive: 'tenga', not 'tiene'.
Using subjunctive after affirmative 'creer que'
Creo que sea importante.
Creo que es importante.
Affirmative 'creer que' presents the idea as true, so it takes the indicative: 'es', not 'sea'.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive After Desire and Request Verbs

Subjuntivo con verbos de deseo y petición

When you want, ask, advise or tell someone else to do something, the second verb goes into the subjunctive. Common triggers are querer que, esperar que, preferir que, necesitar que, pedir que, rogar que, exigir que, recomendar que, aconsejar que and sugerir que. For example, 'Quiero que vengas' (I want you to come) and 'Te pido que me ayudes' (I'm asking you to help me). If you want something for yourself (same subject), use the infinitive: 'Quiero venir' (I want to come). With decir, the mood changes the meaning: 'Dice que vengas' (He says you should come) passes on an instruction, but 'Dice que vienes' (He says you're coming) reports a fact.

Key rule

Use que + subjunctive after verbs of wanting, asking and advising (querer, pedir, recomendar…) when someone else is to do the action, and the infinitive when the subject is the same. Decir + subjunctive gives an instruction; decir + indicative reports information.

Examples

Quiero que vengas a mi fiesta.
Quiero que vienes a mi fiesta.
'Querer que' triggers subjunctive when subjects differ: 'vengas', not indicative 'vienes'.
Quiero ir a tu fiesta.
Quiero que yo vaya a tu fiesta.
The same person (yo) wants and goes, so use the infinitive 'ir', not que + subjunctive.
Te pido que me ayudes.
Te pido que me ayudas.
'Pedir que' is a request verb requiring subjunctive: 'ayudes', not 'ayudas'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'querer que'
Quiero que vienes conmigo.
Quiero que vengas conmigo.
'Querer que' always triggers the subjunctive when subjects differ: 'vengas', not 'vienes'.
Using que + subjunctive with the same subject
Quiero que yo salga temprano.
Quiero salir temprano.
Same subject for both verbs requires the infinitive, not que + subjunctive.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive After Impersonal Expressions

Subjuntivo con expresiones impersonales

Impersonal expressions (es + adjective or noun + que) take the subjunctive when they express necessity, possibility, probability or a judgment: es importante que, es necesario que, es mejor que, es posible que, es probable que, es una lástima que, es normal que, está bien que. For example, 'Es importante que estudies' (It's important that you study). Expressions of certainty take the indicative: 'Es verdad que tiene razón' (It's true that he's right). When they are negated, they take the subjunctive: 'No es verdad que tenga razón' (It isn't true that he's right). If you don't mean anyone in particular, use the infinitive without que: 'Es importante estudiar' (It's important to study).

Key rule

Impersonal expressions of necessity, possibility or judgment (es importante que, es posible que, es normal que) take the subjunctive; expressions of certainty (es verdad que, es evidente que) take the indicative, and switch to the subjunctive when negated.

Examples

Es importante que estudies todos los días.
Es importante que estudias todos los días.
'Es importante que' expresses a value judgment, requiring subjunctive 'estudies'.
Es posible que tengamos un examen mañana.
Es posible que tenemos un examen mañana.
'Es posible que' expresses possibility, triggering subjunctive 'tengamos'.
Es necesario que todos participen.
Es necesario que todos participan.
'Es necesario que' expresses necessity, requiring subjunctive 'participen'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'es importante que'
Es importante que comes bien.
Es importante que comas bien.
'Es importante que' is a judgment expression requiring the subjunctive: 'comas', not 'comes'.
Using subjunctive after 'es verdad que'
Es verdad que sea difícil.
Es verdad que es difícil.
'Es verdad que' states a fact and takes the indicative: 'es', not 'sea'.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Ojalá + Subjunctive

Ojalá + subjuntivo

Ojalá means 'I hope' or 'let's hope', and it is always followed by the subjunctive. Use the present subjunctive for hopes about the present or future: 'Ojalá llueva mañana' (I hope it rains tomorrow). Use the present perfect subjunctive (haya + past participle) for something that may already have happened: 'Ojalá haya llegado bien' (I hope he got there safely). You can add que without changing the meaning: 'Ojalá que todo salga bien' (I hope everything goes well).

Key rule

Ojalá (que) is always followed by the subjunctive: the present subjunctive for hopes about the present or future, and the present perfect subjunctive for something that may already have happened.

Examples

Ojalá llueva mañana.
Ojalá llueve mañana.
Ojalá always requires subjunctive: 'llueva', not indicative 'llueve'.
Ojalá que todo salga bien.
Ojalá que todo sale bien.
Even with optional 'que', ojalá requires subjunctive: 'salga', not 'sale'.
Ojalá aprueben todos el examen.
Ojalá aprueban todos el examen.
Ojalá + subjunctive 'aprueben', not indicative 'aprueban'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after ojalá
Ojalá tengo suerte.
Ojalá tenga suerte.
Ojalá always requires the subjunctive, no exceptions. Use 'tenga', not 'tengo'.
Using indicative perfect instead of subjunctive perfect
Ojalá ha ido bien.
Ojalá haya ido bien.
For a hope about something that has already happened, use the present perfect subjunctive: 'haya ido', not the indicative 'ha ido'.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive in Purpose Clauses

Subjuntivo en cláusulas de finalidad

To say what an action is for, use para. If the purpose has a different subject, use para que + subjunctive: 'Te lo digo para que lo sepas' (I'm telling you so that you know). If the subject is the same, use para + infinitive: 'Estudio para aprender' (I study in order to learn). Para que always takes the subjunctive, and so does the more formal a fin de que. After ir and venir, a que + subjunctive can also give the purpose: 'Vengo a que me ayudes' (I've come for you to help me). Don't confuse para que with porque (because), which gives a cause and takes the indicative: 'Lo hago porque quiero' (I do it because I want to).

Key rule

For a purpose with a different subject, use para que (or a fin de que) + subjunctive; when the subject is the same, use para + infinitive.

Examples

Te lo digo para que lo sepas.
Te lo digo para que lo sabes.
'Para que' introduces purpose with a different subject, requiring subjunctive 'sepas'.
Estudio para aprender.
Estudio para que aprenda. (intended: I study in order to learn.)
The same person (yo) studies and learns, so use para + infinitive 'aprender'. 'Para que aprenda' would mean that someone else learns.
Habla más alto para que todos te oigan.
Habla más alto para que todos te oyen.
Different subjects (tú/todos) require para que + subjunctive: 'oigan', not 'oyen'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'para que'
Te llamo para que sabes la noticia.
Te llamo para que sepas la noticia.
'Para que' always triggers the subjunctive: 'sepas', not indicative 'sabes'.
Using 'para que' with the same subject
Estudio para que yo aprenda.
Estudio para aprender.
When the subject is the same, use para + infinitive, not para que + subjunctive.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive After Temporal Conjunctions (Future)

Subjuntivo con conjunciones temporales (futuro)

After time words such as cuando, en cuanto (as soon as), tan pronto como (as soon as), hasta que (until) and después de que (after), use the subjunctive if the action hasn't happened yet: 'Cuando llegues, llámame' (When you arrive, call me). Use the indicative for habits and past events: 'Cuando llego a casa, ceno' (When I get home, I have dinner). Don't use the future after cuando in these sentences. Antes de que (before) is special: it always takes the subjunctive, even in the past.

Key rule

After cuando, en cuanto, tan pronto como, hasta que and después de que, use the subjunctive for actions still to come and the indicative for habits or past events; antes de que always takes the subjunctive.

Examples

Cuando llegues, llámame.
Cuando llegas, llámame.
Future event: use subjunctive 'llegues' after 'cuando', not present indicative 'llegas'.
Cuando llego a casa, siempre como.
Cuando llegue a casa, siempre como.
Habitual action: use indicative 'llego' after 'cuando', not subjunctive 'llegue'.
Esperaré hasta que termines.
Esperaré hasta que terminas.
Future event: 'hasta que' + subjunctive 'termines', not indicative 'terminas'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'cuando' for future events
Cuando tengo dinero, compraré un coche.
Cuando tenga dinero, compraré un coche.
Future event requires subjunctive after 'cuando': 'tenga', not present indicative 'tengo'.
Using subjunctive after 'cuando' for habitual actions
Cuando llegue a casa, siempre ceno.
Cuando llego a casa, siempre ceno.
Habitual action uses the indicative: 'llego', not subjunctive 'llegue'.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive in Relative Clauses (Unknown Antecedent)

Subjuntivo en cláusulas relativas (antecedente desconocido)

In a relative clause (que + verb describing a noun), use the subjunctive when no particular thing or person is meant because you are still looking for one, want or need one, or don't know if one exists: 'Busco un coche que gaste poco' (I'm looking for a car that uses little fuel, any car like that). Use the indicative when you describe a specific one that you know exists: 'Tengo un coche que gasta poco' (I have a car that uses little fuel). General statements of fact about a whole group normally take the indicative too: 'Los coches que gastan poco se venden bien' (Cars that use little fuel sell well).

Key rule

In a relative clause, use the subjunctive when no specific one is meant because it is something you are looking for, want, need or aren't sure exists; use the indicative for something specific that you know exists and, normally, in general statements of fact ('Los coches que gastan poco se venden bien').

Examples

Busco un libro que sea interesante.
Busco un libro que es interesante. (intended: I'm looking for any book that is interesting.)
You don't have a particular book in mind: any interesting book will do. So use the subjunctive 'sea'. The indicative 'es' would refer to one specific book that you already know about.
Tengo un libro que es interesante.
Tengo un libro que sea interesante.
The book exists (I have it), so use indicative 'es', not subjunctive 'sea'.
Queremos contratar a alguien que sepa francés.
Queremos contratar a alguien que sabe francés. (intended: We want to hire anyone who knows French.)
You don't have a particular person in mind: you want anyone who knows French. So use the subjunctive 'sepa', not the indicative 'sabe'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative for unknown antecedent
Busco a alguien que habla japonés. (intended: I'm looking for anyone who speaks Japanese.)
Busco a alguien que hable japonés.
You don't have a particular person in mind: anyone who speaks Japanese will do. So use the subjunctive 'hable'. The indicative 'habla' would refer to one particular person you know exists.
Using subjunctive for known antecedent
Tengo un amigo que hable alemán.
Tengo un amigo que habla alemán.
The friend exists and is known, so use indicative 'habla', not subjunctive 'hable'.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive After Negative Antecedent

Subjuntivo con antecedente negativo

When a relative clause describes something or someone that doesn't exist, use the subjunctive. This typically happens after nadie, nada and ningún/ninguna + noun: 'No hay nadie que sepa la respuesta' (There's no one who knows the answer), 'No tengo ningún amigo que viva cerca' (I don't have any friends who live nearby). If the person or thing does exist, use the indicative: 'Hay alguien que sabe la respuesta' (There's someone who knows the answer).

Key rule

Use the subjunctive in a relative clause after a negative antecedent (nadie, nada, ningún… + que), because it describes something that does not exist; use the indicative when the antecedent exists.

Examples

No hay nadie que sepa la respuesta.
No hay nadie que sabe la respuesta.
Negative antecedent (nadie) requires subjunctive: 'sepa', not indicative 'sabe'.
No conozco a nadie que hable chino.
No conozco a nadie que habla chino.
'A nadie' says that, as far as you know, no such person exists. So use the subjunctive 'hable', not the indicative 'habla'.
No existe ningún lugar que sea perfecto.
No existe ningún lugar que es perfecto.
Negated existence requires subjunctive: 'sea', not indicative 'es'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'no hay nadie que'
No hay nadie que sabe cocinar aquí.
No hay nadie que sepa cocinar aquí.
Negative antecedent (nadie) always triggers subjunctive: 'sepa', not indicative 'sabe'.
Using indicative after 'no existe ningún... que'
No existe ningún país que tiene todo.
No existe ningún país que tenga todo.
Negated existence requires subjunctive: 'tenga', not 'tiene'.

B1Subjunctive triggers

Subjunctive After 'Es + Adjective + Que' (Judgment)

Subjuntivo con 'es + adjetivo + que' (juicio de valor)

In the pattern es + adjective + que, the adjective decides the mood. Adjectives that give an opinion or evaluation take the subjunctive: es bueno que, es malo que, es lógico que, es extraño que, es injusto que, es increíble que, es absurdo que. For example, 'Es increíble que hables tres idiomas' (It's amazing that you speak three languages). Adjectives that state truth or certainty take the indicative: 'Es cierto que habla bien' (It's true that she speaks well). When one of these is negated, the subjunctive follows: 'No es cierto que hable bien' (It isn't true that she speaks well).

Key rule

After es + adjective + que, use the subjunctive when the adjective evaluates (es bueno, lógico, extraño, increíble que), even for known facts; use the indicative when it states truth or certainty (es cierto, evidente, obvio que), unless it is negated.

Examples

Es increíble que hables tres idiomas.
Es increíble que hablas tres idiomas.
'Es increíble que' expresses amazement (judgment), requiring subjunctive 'hables'.
Es lógico que estés cansado después de trabajar tanto.
Es lógico que estás cansado después de trabajar tanto.
'Es lógico que' is a judgment expression, requiring subjunctive 'estés'.
Es injusto que gane menos que sus compañeros.
Es injusto que gana menos que sus compañeros.
'Es injusto que' expresses a value judgment, requiring subjunctive 'gane'.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after evaluative adjectives
Es bueno que comes fruta todos los días.
Es bueno que comas fruta todos los días.
'Es bueno que' is a value judgment, requiring subjunctive 'comas', not indicative 'comes'.
Using subjunctive after factual adjectives
Es obvio que tenga mucho dinero.
Es obvio que tiene mucho dinero.
'Es obvio que' states a fact, requiring indicative 'tiene', not subjunctive 'tenga'.

B1Agreement

Lo + Adjective as Abstract Noun

Lo + adjetivo como sustantivo abstracto

Put the neuter article 'lo' before an adjective and it becomes an abstract idea: 'lo importante' (the important thing, what matters), 'lo bueno' (the good part), 'lo mejor' (the best thing). The adjective keeps its masculine singular form: 'Lo malo es que llueve', never 'lo mala'. The same 'lo' also means 'how' in the pattern 'lo + adjective + que'. There the adjective agrees with the noun it describes: 'No sabes lo difícil que es' (You don't know how difficult it is), 'No te imaginas lo bonitas que son las playas' (You can't imagine how beautiful the beaches are). An adverb in this slot never changes: 'lo bien que cocinas' (how well you cook), 'lo rápido que aprendió' (how fast he or she learned).

Key rule

'Lo' + masculine singular adjective names an abstract idea ('lo importante' = the important thing). In 'lo + adjective + que' it means 'how', and there the adjective agrees with its noun ('lo bonitas que son'), while an adverb stays unchanged ('lo bien que cocinas').

Examples

Lo importante es estudiar todos los días.
El importante es estudiar todos los días.
Use neuter 'lo' (not 'el') before an adjective to form an abstract noun: 'lo importante' = the important thing.
Lo bueno de esta ciudad es el clima.
El bueno de esta ciudad es el clima.
'Lo bueno' means 'the good thing'; 'el bueno' would mean 'the good one' (referring to a specific masculine noun).
Lo mejor de la fiesta fue la música.
La mejor de la fiesta fue la música.
'Lo mejor' means 'the best part'. Even though 'música' is feminine, the abstract idea takes neuter 'lo'; 'la mejor' would mean 'the best one' (a specific woman or feminine thing).

Common mistakes

Using 'el' instead of 'lo' for abstract concepts
El difícil es empezar.
Lo difícil es empezar.
When referring to an abstract concept ('the difficult thing/part'), use the neuter article 'lo', not the masculine 'el'.
Making the adjective agree with a feminine or plural referent in the basic construction
Lo buena de la vida es la familia.
Lo bueno de la vida es la familia.
In the basic 'lo + adjective' construction, the adjective is always masculine singular regardless of context.

B1Agreement

Mixed Gender Plural Agreement

Concordancia en plural de género mixto

When a group mixes masculine and feminine people or things, every word that agrees with the whole group goes into the masculine plural: adjectives, participles used like adjectives, and pronouns. 'Los niños y las niñas están contentos', 'La mesa y el sofá son nuevos', 'Ana y Carlos no vinieron; ellos estaban enfermos'. One masculine member is enough: 'Ana, Lucía y Carlos están sentados'. A participle after 'haber' never changes: 'Ana y Carlos han llegado'. Plural nouns for people work the same way: 'mis padres' (my parents), 'mis hermanos' (my brothers, or my brothers and sisters), 'mis abuelos' (my grandparents).

Key rule

When an adjective, participle or pronoun refers to a group that mixes masculine and feminine nouns, use the masculine plural, whatever the order or the number of each gender: 'Ana y Carlos están cansados', 'ellos', 'los'. A participle after 'haber' never changes: 'han llegado'.

Examples

Los niños y las niñas están contentos.
Los niños y las niñas están contentas.
A mixed-gender group requires the masculine plural 'contentos', not the feminine 'contentas'.
Mi hermano y mi hermana son muy simpáticos.
Mi hermano y mi hermana son muy simpáticas.
A mixed pair uses masculine plural: 'simpáticos' covers both the brother and the sister.
La mesa y el sofá son nuevos.
La mesa y el sofá son nuevas.
Even with objects, mixed genders default to masculine plural: mesa (f.) + sofá (m.) → nuevos.

Common mistakes

Agreeing with the nearest noun instead of the whole group
Los libros y las revistas son nuevas.
Los libros y las revistas son nuevos.
Agreement goes by the whole group, not by the last noun you said. Libros (masculine) + revistas (feminine) make a mixed group, so the adjective is masculine plural: 'nuevos'.
Using feminine forms for yourself plus a man when you are a woman
Pablo y yo estamos cansadas.
Pablo y yo estamos cansados.
A female speaker plus Pablo is a mixed group, so the adjective is masculine plural 'cansados' (and the pronoun is 'nosotros', not 'nosotras'). The feminine plural is only for a group of women.

B1Agreement

Adjective Position Changes Meaning

Cambio de significado según la posición del adjetivo

Most Spanish adjectives go after the noun, but a few common ones change meaning with their position. With 'grande', 'pobre' and 'viejo', the meaning before the noun is personal or figurative, and after it literal and descriptive. 'Grande' shortens to 'gran' before any singular noun: 'un gran hombre' is a great man, 'un hombre grande' a big man. 'El pobre niño' is the unfortunate boy, 'el niño pobre' the boy with no money. 'Un viejo amigo' is a friend you have had for years, 'un amigo viejo' an elderly friend. Other common ones simply have two meanings to learn, before / after the noun: nuevo (another / brand-new), único (only / unique), cierto (a certain / true), medio (half / average) and mismo (same / itself). 'Cierto' and 'medio' before the noun normally go without 'un/una': 'cierto día', 'media hora'.

Key rule

Some common adjectives change meaning with position; 'grande', 'pobre' and 'viejo' are figurative before the noun and literal after it: 'un gran hombre' = a great man, 'un hombre grande' = a big man ('grande' becomes 'gran' before any singular noun); 'el pobre niño' = the unfortunate boy, 'el niño pobre' = the boy with no money; 'un viejo amigo' = a long-time friend, 'un amigo viejo' = an elderly friend. Learn these too, with their meaning before / after the noun: nuevo (another / brand-new), único (only / unique), cierto (a certain / true), medio (half / average), mismo (same / itself).

Examples

Es un gran músico.
Es un músico grande. (intended: He's a great musician.)
Before the noun, 'grande' shortens to 'gran' and means 'great': 'un gran músico' is an excellent musician. 'Un músico grande' describes his size: a big musician.
El pobre hombre perdió su trabajo.
El hombre pobre perdió su trabajo. (intended: The unfortunate man lost his job.)
'Pobre' before the noun expresses pity: 'el pobre hombre' = the unfortunate man. After the noun it means 'without money': 'el hombre pobre' = the man who is poor.
Carlos es un viejo amigo de la universidad.
Carlos es un amigo viejo de la universidad. (intended: Carlos is an old friend from university.)
'Un viejo amigo' is a friend you have known for a long time, whatever his age. 'Un amigo viejo' is an elderly friend.

Common mistakes

Using 'pobre' after the noun when meaning 'unfortunate'
La mujer pobre tuvo un accidente. (intended: The unfortunate woman had an accident.)
La pobre mujer tuvo un accidente.
'Pobre' after the noun means 'without money'. To express pity (unfortunate, poor thing), put it before the noun: 'la pobre mujer'.
Using 'mismo' after the noun when meaning 'same'
Leemos el libro mismo. (intended: We're reading the same book.)
Leemos el mismo libro.
'El mismo libro' means 'the same book'. After the noun, 'mismo' means 'itself': 'el libro mismo' = the book itself.

B1Pronouns

Emphatic Prepositional Pronoun Construction

Construcción enfática con pronombre preposicional

You can add 'a mí', 'a ti', 'a él', 'a ella', 'a usted', 'a nosotros'... to an indirect object pronoun (me, te, le, nos, os, les). After 'a', 'yo' and 'tú' become 'mí' (with a written accent) and 'ti': 'a mí', never 'a yo'. 'A mí me gusta el café' stresses that I like it, often in contrast with someone else. It also makes 'le' clear, because 'le' can mean him, her or you (usted): 'A ella le gusta'. With a verb, the short pronoun always stays: 'A mí me gusta', never 'A mí gusta'. A short reply to a gustar-type verb has no verb, so the 'a' form stands alone: '—Me encanta el cine. —A mí también' (not 'Yo también').

Key rule

Add 'a mí', 'a ti', 'a él/ella/usted'... for emphasis, contrast or clarity, but keep the short pronoun with the verb too: 'A mí me gusta', never 'A mí gusta'. A short reply to a gustar-type verb has no verb and uses the 'a' form alone: 'A mí también', 'A mí tampoco' (not 'Yo también').

Examples

A mí me gusta el chocolate.
A mí gusta el chocolate.
The indirect object pronoun 'me' is required even when 'a mí' is present; you cannot drop it.
A ella le parece bien la idea.
A ella la parece bien la idea.
'A ella' makes clear that 'le' means 'her', not 'him' or 'you (usted)'. The pronoun itself stays the indirect object 'le', even for a woman; 'la' is wrong here.
A ti te interesa la ciencia, ¿verdad?
A ti interesa la ciencia, ¿verdad?
'Te' must remain even with emphatic 'a ti'. Both elements are needed together.

Common mistakes

Omitting the indirect object pronoun when using the prepositional phrase
A mí gusta la música.
A mí me gusta la música.
The indirect object pronoun 'me' is always required. 'A mí' adds emphasis but does not replace 'me'.
Using 'yo' instead of 'mí' after the preposition
A yo me parece bien.
A mí me parece bien.
After a preposition, 'yo' becomes 'mí' (with a written accent) and 'tú' becomes 'ti'. The other forms don't change: 'a él', 'a ella', 'a nosotros'.

B1Pronouns

Relative Pronouns: El cual & Quien

Pronombres relativos: el cual y quien

After a preposition, a Spanish relative clause usually needs more than 'que'. Use 'el cual', 'la cual', 'los cuales' or 'las cuales' for people and things; the article agrees with the noun it refers to: 'la casa en la cual vivo' (the house I live in). Use 'quien' (plural 'quienes') only for people; it changes for number, not gender: 'la persona con quien hablé', 'las amigas con quienes viajé'. In everyday Spanish, 'el que', 'la que'... work just like 'el cual': 'la casa en la que vivo'. Unlike English, the preposition always goes before the relative, never at the end. Without a preposition, use plain 'que' in a clause that tells you which one you mean: 'el libro que compré', not 'el libro el cual compré'.

Key rule

After a preposition, use 'el cual/la cual/los cuales/las cuales' (or 'el que', 'la que'...), with the article agreeing with the antecedent, or 'quien/quienes' for people only: 'la casa en la cual vivo', 'la persona con quien hablé'. The preposition always goes before the relative.

Examples

La casa en la cual vivo es pequeña.
La casa en cual vivo es pequeña.
'El cual' must include the article matching the antecedent: 'la casa' (feminine) → 'la cual'.
La persona con quien hablé era muy amable.
La persona que hablé con era muy amable.
Spanish never leaves the preposition at the end as English does ('the person I spoke with'). Put it before the relative: 'con quien' (or 'con la que', 'con la cual').
Los libros sobre los cuales escribí están agotados.
Los libros sobre quienes escribí están agotados.
'Quien' is only for people. For things, use 'el cual' (here 'los cuales', masculine plural like 'libros') or 'los que'.

Common mistakes

Using 'quien' for things instead of people
El problema sobre quien hablamos es grave.
El problema sobre el cual hablamos es grave.
'Quien' refers exclusively to people. For things, use 'el cual' or 'el que'.
Forgetting gender/number agreement with 'el cual'
Las ciudades en el cual viví son grandes.
Las ciudades en las cuales viví son grandes.
'El cual' must match the antecedent: 'ciudades' (fem. pl.) → 'las cuales'.

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B1Pronouns

Todo/a/os/as as Pronoun

Todo/a/os/as como pronombre

'Todo' can stand alone as a pronoun. Singular 'todo' means 'everything' and takes a singular verb: 'Todo es posible'. Plural 'todos' or 'todas' means 'everyone' or 'all of them' and takes a plural verb: 'Todos vinieron a la fiesta'. When it refers back to a noun, it agrees with that noun: '¿Las galletas? Me las comí todas.' Before a noun, 'todo' normally needs an article, a possessive or a demonstrative: 'todos los días', 'toda la noche', 'todos mis amigos'. 'Todo el mundo' also means 'everyone', but its verb is singular: 'Todo el mundo lo sabe'.

Key rule

Alone, neuter 'todo' means 'everything' (singular verb) and 'todos/todas' mean 'everyone, all of them' (plural verb); when it refers back to a noun, it agrees with it ('¿La pizza? Me la comí toda'). Before a noun, 'todo' normally needs an article, possessive or demonstrative ('todos los días', 'todos mis amigos'), and 'todo el mundo' takes a singular verb.

Examples

Todo es posible si trabajas duro.
Todos es posible si trabajas duro.
'Todo' (singular, neuter) means 'everything'. 'Todos' means 'everyone' or 'all of them' and takes a plural verb.
Todos vinieron a la fiesta.
Todo vinieron a la fiesta.
'Todos' (plural) means 'everyone' and takes a plural verb. 'Todo' would mean 'everything'.
La pizza estaba tan rica que me la comí toda.
La pizza estaba tan rica que me la comí todo.
'Toda' refers back to 'la pizza', so it agrees with it: feminine singular. Neuter 'todo' is only for 'everything' in general.

Common mistakes

Omitting the article when 'todo' is a determiner
Todas personas necesitan agua.
Todas las personas necesitan agua.
When 'todo/a/os/as' comes before a plain noun, the definite article normally goes between them: 'todas las personas'. English 'all people' has no article, but Spanish needs one here.
Confusing 'todo' (everything) with 'todos' (everyone)
Todos es interesante.
Todo es interesante.
Singular neuter 'todo' means 'everything' and takes a singular verb. 'Todos' (plural) means 'everyone, all of them' and takes a plural verb.

B1Pronouns

Impersonal Se

Se impersonal

Impersonal 'se' describes an action without saying who does it, usually people in general: 'Se vive bien aquí' (People live well here), 'En España se cena tarde' (In Spain people have dinner late), 'Aquí no se puede fumar' (You can't smoke here), 'Se dice que...' (People say that...). English uses 'people', a general 'you', 'one' or 'they'. The verb is always third person singular, because there is no subject: 'se vive', never 'se viven'. It stays singular even with people introduced by personal 'a': 'Se invitó a los vecinos' (The neighbors were invited). When the verb acts on a plural thing without 'a' ('Se venden coches'), that is passive 'se', a different pattern with a plural verb. Verbs that already have their own 'se', like 'levantarse', can't take impersonal 'se' ('Se levanta temprano' is about one specific person), so for people in general use 'la gente' or 'uno': 'En el campo la gente se levanta temprano'.

Key rule

Impersonal 'se' + a third person singular verb describes an action without saying who does it, usually people in general: 'Se vive bien aquí', 'No se puede fumar', 'Se invitó a los vecinos'. The verb stays singular because there is no subject; if a plural noun without 'a' is what the verb acts on, it is passive 'se' and the verb is plural.

Examples

Se dice que va a llover mañana.
Se dicen que va a llover mañana.
What follows is a 'que' clause, not a plural noun, so the verb is singular: 'se dice que' (people say that, it is said that).
Se vive bien en esta ciudad.
Se viven bien en esta ciudad.
'Vivir' has no object here, so nothing can make the verb plural: 'se vive' (people live).
¿Cómo se llega a la estación?
¿Cómo se llegan a la estación?
'How do you get to...?' with a general 'you' is impersonal 'se' + a singular verb: 'se llega'.

Common mistakes

Making the verb plural with impersonal 'se'
Se viven bien en este país.
Se vive bien en este país.
Impersonal 'se' always takes a singular verb. The verb does not agree with any element because there is no grammatical subject.
Confusing impersonal 'se' with passive 'se'
Se vende coches.
Se venden coches.
'Coches' is a thing without personal 'a', so it is the subject of passive 'se' and the verb agrees with it: 'se venden'. The singular verb is only for impersonal 'se', when no such noun is there.

B1Pronouns

Passive Se

Se pasivo

Passive 'se' (pasiva refleja) says that something is done without saying who does it. The verb agrees with the thing that is acted on, which usually comes after the verb: 'Se habla español' (Spanish is spoken), 'Se venden coches' (Cars for sale). One thing, singular verb; several things, plural verb. It is the everyday Spanish passive, very common in signs, ads and the news: 'Se alquilan habitaciones', 'Se esperan lluvias'. Impersonal 'se' is different: there is no such noun, or the people acted on are introduced by personal 'a', and the verb is always singular ('Se vive bien aquí', 'Se busca a los culpables').

Key rule

In passive 'se', the verb agrees in number with the noun that is acted on, which usually follows it: 'Se vende casa', 'Se venden coches'. If the object is a specific person with personal 'a', use impersonal 'se' with a singular verb: 'Se busca a los culpables'.

Examples

Se venden coches de segunda mano.
Se vende coches de segunda mano.
'Coches' is plural, so the verb must be plural: 'se venden', not 'se vende'.
Se habla español en muchos países.
Se hablan español en muchos países.
'Español' is singular, so the verb is singular: 'se habla', not 'se hablan'.
Se hablan cuatro idiomas en Suiza.
Se habla cuatro idiomas en Suiza.
'Cuatro idiomas' is plural, so the verb agrees: 'se hablan', not 'se habla'.

Common mistakes

Not making the verb agree with the plural subject
Se vende libros en esta tienda.
Se venden libros en esta tienda.
'Libros' is the grammatical subject (plural), so the verb must be plural: 'se venden'.
Making the verb plural with a singular subject
Se necesitan un electricista.
Se necesita un electricista.
'Un electricista' is singular, so the verb must be singular: 'se necesita'.

B1Prepositions

Advanced Por vs Para Distinctions

Por vs Para - Distinciones avanzadas

At B1 you go beyond 'por = cause, para = purpose'. Use 'por' for a price or exchange ('Lo compré por 20 euros'), the reason you thank someone ('Gracias por tu ayuda'), a cause ('Se canceló por la lluvia'), a rate ('tres veces por semana'), the person or cause you support ('Votó por el candidato') and a means of communication ('por teléfono'). Use 'para' for a purpose, a deadline ('para el lunes'), a personal opinion ('Para mí, es fácil') and a comparison with what you would expect ('Para ser niño, es muy maduro' = For a child, he's very mature).

Key rule

'Por' marks what lies behind an action: cause, the reason for thanks, price or exchange, rate, means, and the person you support or replace. 'Para' points ahead: purpose, deadline, personal opinion (para mí) and comparison with expectations (para ser...).

Examples

Lo compré por 20 euros.
Lo compré para 20 euros.
'Por' indicates the price paid in an exchange - I bought it for (in exchange for) 20 euros.
Gracias por tu ayuda.
Gracias para tu ayuda.
The thing you are thankful for takes 'por': 'gracias por tu ayuda'. 'Para' never introduces the reason for thanks.
Se canceló el partido por la lluvia.
Se canceló el partido para la lluvia.
'Por' expresses the cause - the game was canceled because of the rain.

Common mistakes

Using 'para' for price or exchange
Pagué 50 euros para esta camisa.
Pagué 50 euros por esta camisa.
'Por' is used for prices and exchanges - the amount given in exchange for the item.
Using 'para' for cause
La carretera está cerrada para la nieve.
La carretera está cerrada por la nieve.
'Por' expresses the cause or reason - the road is closed because of the snow.

B1Prepositions

Compound Prepositions

Preposiciones compuestas

Compound prepositions are prepositions of two or three words, and most end in 'de': 'debajo de' (under), 'encima de' (on top of), 'al lado de' (next to), 'delante de' (in front of), 'detrás de' (behind), 'dentro de' (inside), 'fuera de' (outside), 'cerca de' (near), 'lejos de' (far from), 'enfrente de' (opposite), 'alrededor de' (around) and 'a través de' (through). Before a noun, keep the 'de' and contract 'de + el' to 'del': 'El gato está debajo de la cama', 'Hay una tienda al lado del cine'. Before a pronoun, 'yo' and 'tú' become 'mí' and 'ti': 'Siéntate cerca de mí', not 'cerca de yo'. When nothing follows, most of them drop the 'de' and stand alone: 'Vivo cerca', 'Espera fuera'.

Key rule

Before a noun or pronoun, compound prepositions keep their final 'de' (debajo de la mesa, cerca de mí), and 'de + el' becomes 'del' (al lado del cine). Without a following noun they work alone as adverbs (Vivo cerca).

Examples

El gato está debajo de la cama.
El gato está debajo la cama.
'Debajo de' (under) always requires 'de' before the noun.
La farmacia está enfrente del hospital.
La farmacia está enfrente de el hospital.
'Enfrente de' (opposite) requires 'de', and 'de + el' contracts to 'del'.
Hay un jardín alrededor de la casa.
Hay un jardín alrededor la casa.
'Alrededor de' (around) requires 'de' to connect to the noun.

Common mistakes

Omitting 'de' in compound prepositions
Vive cerca mi casa.
Vive cerca de mi casa.
When a noun follows, 'cerca' needs 'de' to link to it: 'cerca de mi casa'.
Not contracting 'de + el' to 'del'
Está delante de el colegio.
Está delante del colegio.
'De' followed by the article 'el' always contracts to 'del'.

B1Prepositions

Al + Infinitive for 'Upon Doing'

Al + infinitivo - Uso temporal

Use 'al' (a + el) + infinitive to say 'when' or 'on/upon doing' something: 'Al llegar a casa, llamé a mi madre' (When I got home, I called my mother). The two actions happen at the same moment or one right after the other, so it can often replace 'cuando' + a conjugated verb. After 'al' always use the infinitive, never a gerund or a conjugated verb ('al llegar', not 'al llegando'); the main verb shows the tense and the person. Object pronouns attach to the end of the infinitive: 'Al verla, sonrió' (When he saw her, he smiled). A reflexive pronoun matches the person: 'al despertarme' (when I woke up), 'al despertarse' (when she woke up). If the 'al' action has its own subject, it goes after the infinitive: 'Al salir el sol, empezamos a caminar' (When the sun came up, we started walking).

Key rule

'Al' + infinitive means 'when/upon doing' and can replace 'cuando' + conjugated verb for two actions that coincide or follow each other at once. Always write 'al' (never 'a el') and use the infinitive (never a gerund or a conjugated verb).

Examples

Al llegar a casa, me quité los zapatos.
A llegar a casa, me quité los zapatos.
The construction needs 'al' (a + el) before the infinitive. Plain 'a' + infinitive does not mean 'when'.
Al verla, se puso muy contento.
Al viéndola, se puso muy contento.
Use the infinitive after 'al', not the gerund, with the pronoun attached: 'al verla', not 'al viéndola'.
Al abrir la puerta, encontré un paquete.
Al abriendo la puerta, encontré un paquete.
The infinitive follows 'al', never the gerund (-ando/-iendo form).

Common mistakes

Using the gerund instead of the infinitive
Al saliendo de clase, vi a mi amigo.
Al salir de clase, vi a mi amigo.
'Al' must be followed by an infinitive, never by a gerund (-ando/-iendo).
Using a conjugated verb after 'al'
Al llegó a casa, encendió la luz.
Al llegar a casa, encendió la luz.
In this 'when' construction, 'al' takes the infinitive ('al llegar'), not a conjugated form. The main verb ('encendió') already shows the tense and person.

B1Prepositions

De + Infinitive for Conditional Meaning

De + infinitivo - Significado condicional

'De' + infinitive can replace a condition with 'si' (if), and the main verb shows what kind of condition it is. With a future, it is a real possibility: 'De seguir así, llegaremos tarde' = 'Si seguimos así, llegaremos tarde' (If we carry on like this, we'll be late). With a conditional, it is hypothetical: 'De tener tiempo, te ayudaría' = 'Si tuviera tiempo, te ayudaría' (If I had time, I'd help you). For a past situation that didn't happen, use 'de haber' + past participle: 'De haberlo sabido, no habría venido' (If I had known, I wouldn't have come). The verb after 'de' is always an infinitive, never a gerund or a conjugated verb ('de tener', not 'de teniendo'). Object pronouns attach to its end ('haberlo'), and 'no' goes right after 'de': 'De no ser por ti...' (If it weren't for you...). It sounds a little more formal than 'si'.

Key rule

'De' + infinitive can replace 'si' + a conjugated verb in a condition, and the main verb shows which kind: 'De seguir así, llegaremos tarde' (= 'Si seguimos así'), 'De tener tiempo, te ayudaría' (= 'Si tuviera tiempo'), 'De haberlo sabido, no habría venido' (= 'Si lo hubiera sabido'). The verb after 'de' stays an infinitive, pronouns attach to it, and 'no' goes right after 'de'.

Examples

De haberlo sabido, no habría venido.
De lo hubiera sabido, no habría venido.
For a past condition that didn't happen ('If I had known'), use 'de' + 'haber' + past participle, with the pronoun attached: 'de haberlo sabido'. 'De' can't take a conjugated verb like 'hubiera'; to use 'hubiera', start the condition with 'si': 'Si lo hubiera sabido'.
De ser posible, me gustaría asistir.
De siendo posible, me gustaría asistir.
'De' is followed by an infinitive, not a gerund. 'De ser posible' means 'if possible'.
De tener más dinero, viajaría por todo el mundo.
De teniendo más dinero, viajaría por todo el mundo.
'De tener' (infinitive, not the gerund 'teniendo') means 'Si tuviera': a hypothetical condition, so the main verb is in the conditional ('viajaría').

Common mistakes

Using a gerund instead of an infinitive
De teniendo tiempo, te ayudaría.
De tener tiempo, te ayudaría.
Conditional 'de' is always followed by an infinitive, never a gerund.
Using a conjugated verb after 'de'
De tuve dinero, compraría una casa.
De tener dinero, compraría una casa.
'De' must be followed by an infinitive ('tener', or 'haber' + participle for the past), not a conjugated form.

B1Prepositions

Prepositions Required After Adjectives

Preposiciones regidas por adjetivos

Many Spanish adjectives are linked to what follows by a fixed preposition, often not the one English uses. Most take 'de': 'capaz de' (capable of), 'cansado de' (tired of), 'seguro de' (sure of), 'lleno de' (full of). Some take 'a': 'acostumbrado a' (used to), 'dispuesto a' (willing to), 'parecido a' (similar to). Some take 'en': 'interesado en' (interested in), 'bueno en' (good at). Learn each adjective together with its preposition, and keep the preposition before 'que': 'Estoy seguro de que viene'. Don't swap the preposition for the 'que' of comparisons: say 'diferente de la mía' and 'parecida a la tuya', not 'diferente que' or 'parecida que'. 'Fácil' and 'difícil' take 'de' before an infinitive only when the subject is the thing the action is done to: 'Este problema es difícil de entender'. After impersonal 'es', the infinitive follows directly: 'Es difícil entender este problema'.

Key rule

Many adjectives take a fixed preposition, often not the English one: most take 'de' (capaz de, cansado de, seguro de), some 'a' (acostumbrado a, dispuesto a, parecido a) and some 'en' (interesado en, bueno en), and the preposition stays before 'que' (seguro de que). 'Fácil' and 'difícil' take 'de' + infinitive only when the thing described is the subject ('Este libro es fácil de leer'); after impersonal 'es' the infinitive follows directly ('Es fácil leer este libro').

Examples

Es capaz de resolver cualquier problema.
Es capaz a resolver cualquier problema.
'Capaz' takes 'de' before an infinitive: 'capaz de' (capable of).
Estoy cansado de esperar.
Estoy cansado con esperar.
'Cansado' takes 'de': 'cansado de' (tired of).
Este problema es difícil de entender.
Este problema es difícil a entender.
When the subject is the thing being described ('este problema'), 'difícil' and 'fácil' take 'de' before the infinitive: 'difícil de entender'. Compare 'Es difícil entender este problema', with no 'de'.

Common mistakes

Using 'de' with adjectives that require 'a'
No estoy acostumbrado de comer tan tarde.
No estoy acostumbrado a comer tan tarde.
'Acostumbrado' requires 'a', not 'de'. Think of it as 'accustomed to'.
Using 'a' with adjectives that require 'de'
Es incapaz a decir la verdad.
Es incapaz de decir la verdad.
'Incapaz' requires 'de': 'incapaz de' (incapable of).

B1Prepositions

Por/Para with Ser and Estar

Por/Para con ser y estar

'Por' and 'para' form useful expressions with 'estar' and 'ser'. With 'estar' + infinitive: 'estar por' means something is still to be done ('La casa está por limpiar') or that you are tempted to do it ('Estoy por irme'); 'estar para' means 'about to' ('Está para llover'; in Latin America usually 'Está por llover'), and 'no estar para' means 'not to be in the mood for' ('No estoy para bromas'). With 'ser', 'por' gives a cause ('Fue por la lluvia') and 'para' a purpose or recipient ('El regalo es para ti').

Key rule

'Estar por' + infinitive = still to be done, tempted to, or (in Latin America) about to; 'estar para' + infinitive = about to (especially in Spain), and 'no estar para' = not in the mood for. 'Ser por' gives a cause; 'ser para' gives a purpose or recipient.

Examples

Está por llegar el autobús.
Es por llegar el autobús.
'Estar por' + infinitive, always with 'estar', says the bus hasn't arrived yet and is about to. In Latin America this is the everyday way to say 'about to'; in Spain 'Está a punto de llegar' is more common.
Está para llover, lleva el paraguas.
'Estar para' + infinitive means 'about to', especially in Spain: it's about to rain. In Latin America the usual form is 'Está por llover'. Both are correct.
Estoy por rendirme con este ejercicio.
Soy por rendirme con este ejercicio.
'Estar por' + infinitive means 'tempted to' or 'inclined to': I'm tempted to give up. The expression always uses 'estar', never 'ser'.

Common mistakes

Using 'por' in 'no estar para' (not in the mood for)
No estoy por fiestas esta noche.
No estoy para fiestas esta noche.
'No estar para' + noun or infinitive means 'not to be in the mood for'. 'Estar por' means being tempted to do something, or something still to be done.
Using 'ser para' when expressing cause
Fue para la lluvia que cancelaron el evento.
Fue por la lluvia que cancelaron el evento.
'Ser por' gives a cause or reason. 'Ser para' gives a purpose or recipient.

B1Prepositions

No Preposition Stranding in Spanish

Preposición antes del pronombre relativo

English can leave a preposition at the end: 'Who are you talking to?', 'the house I live in'. Spanish never does this. The preposition moves to the front, together with the question word or the relative pronoun: '¿Con quién hablas?' (not '¿Quién hablas con?'), 'la casa en la que vivo' (not 'la casa que vivo en'). This works the same way for every preposition. In a relative clause, the article before 'que' agrees with the noun: 'el amigo con el que salgo', 'la mesa en la que escribo'. Don't drop the preposition either. If the verb needs one ('vivir en', 'ser de'), keep it: 'la casa en la que vivo', not 'la casa que vivo'; '¿De qué ciudad eres?', not '¿Qué ciudad eres?'.

Key rule

In Spanish the preposition always goes in front of the question word or relative pronoun ('¿Con quién hablas?', 'la casa en la que vivo'); it is never left at the end of the clause, and a preposition the verb needs is never dropped ('la casa que vivo' is wrong).

Examples

¿Con quién hablas?
¿Quién hablas con?
The preposition 'con' must come before the question word 'quién' - never at the end.
¿De dónde eres?
¿Dónde eres de?
'De' must precede 'dónde' when asking about origin. Stranding 'de' at the end is impossible.
La casa en la que vivo es pequeña.
La casa que vivo en es pequeña.
In relative clauses, the preposition comes before the article + 'que': 'en la que' ('en que' is also correct). It can't stay after the verb.

Common mistakes

Stranding prepositions in questions (English transfer)
¿Quién es este regalo para?
¿Para quién es este regalo?
Spanish puts the preposition before the question word. It can never be left at the end.
Stranding prepositions in relative clauses
La persona que salí con ayer es mi prima.
La persona con la que salí ayer es mi prima.
In relative clauses, the preposition + article + 'que' stay together at the start of the clause ('con quien' is also correct).

B1Syntax

Cleft and Pseudo-Cleft Sentences

Oraciones hendidas y pseudohendidas

Cleft sentences rebuild a statement around 'ser' to put the spotlight on one element. A pseudo-cleft starts with the relative 'lo que' (not 'qué') for things and ideas, or with 'quien' or 'el que / la que' for a person: 'Lo que quiero es descansar' (What I want is to rest), 'Quien me ayudó fue mi hermana' (The one who helped me was my sister). With verbs of wanting, if someone else is to do the action, use 'que' + subjunctive: 'Lo que quiero es que descanses'. A cleft is ser + focus + a relative word that fits the focus: 'quien/quienes' or 'el que / la que / los que / las que' for people, 'lo que' for things, 'donde' for places, 'cuando' for times: 'Fue María quien lo hizo' (It was María who did it), 'Es aquí donde vivo' (This is where I live). Unlike English 'it was', 'ser' agrees with the focus in number and, with a pronoun, also in person: 'Fueron ellos los que llegaron tarde', 'Fui yo quien lo hizo' (It was me who did it). If the focus has a preposition, repeat it before 'quien', 'el que' or 'lo que': 'Es a ti a quien busco'. Use clefts to stress key information or to correct someone: 'No fue Juan, fue María quien lo hizo'.

Key rule

Pseudo-cleft: 'lo que' (or 'quien' for a person) + clause + ser + focus ('Lo que quiero es descansar', 'Quien me ayudó fue mi hermana'). Cleft: ser + focus + a relative that fits it, 'quien(es)' or 'el/la/los/las que' for people, 'lo que' for things, 'donde' for places, 'cuando' for times ('Fue María quien lo hizo'); 'ser' agrees with the focus in number and, with a pronoun, in person ('Fueron ellos los que llegaron', 'Fui yo quien lo hizo'), and a preposition on the focus is repeated before 'quien', 'el que' or 'lo que' ('Es a ti a quien busco').

Examples

Lo que quiero es descansar.
Lo que quiero es que descanso.
The person who wants and the person who rests are the same, so the focus is a plain infinitive: 'es descansar'. After 'querer', a 'que' clause is used only when the person changes, and then it takes the subjunctive: 'Lo que quiero es que descanses.'
Fue María la que lo hizo.
Fue María el que lo hizo.
In 'el que / la que / los que / las que', the article agrees with the focused person. María is a woman, so 'la que'. 'Quien' has no gender: 'Fue María quien lo hizo.'
Es aquí donde vivo.
Está aquí donde vivo. (intended: This is where I live.)
A cleft is always built with 'ser', even when the focus is a place: 'Es aquí donde vivo' (This is where I live). With 'estar', the sentence stops being a cleft and only says where someone or something is: 'Está aquí donde vivo' (He/She/It is here, where I live).

Common mistakes

Dropping the repeated preposition in a cleft
Fue con Pedro quien hablé.
Fue con Pedro con quien hablé.
When the focus has a preposition ('con Pedro'), the same preposition goes before the relative: 'con quien hablé'.
Using 'estar' instead of 'ser' in a place cleft
Está en Madrid donde vivo. (intended: It's in Madrid that I live.)
Es en Madrid donde vivo.
Clefts are always built with 'ser', even when the focus is a place: 'Es en Madrid donde vivo'. With 'estar', the sentence stops being a cleft and only says where someone or something is: 'Está en Madrid donde vivo' (He/She/It is in Madrid, where I live).

B1Syntax

Topicalization and Fronting

Topicalización y anteposición

To make an object the topic of your sentence, that is, something already known that you are talking about, you can put it at the front. Spanish then repeats it with a matching object pronoun before the verb. A direct object takes 'lo', 'la', 'los' or 'las', matching its gender and number: 'La película la vimos el viernes' (The film, we saw it on Friday). A person keeps the personal 'a': 'A Juan lo vi ayer' (Juan, I saw him yesterday). An indirect object (to or for someone) takes 'le' or 'les': 'A María le regalé un libro' (I gave María a book). English often fronts an object with no pronoun at all ('That I didn't know'), but in Spanish a fronted known object sounds wrong without it. This is very common in everyday Spanish, especially with 'eso' and 'lo de...': 'Eso no lo sabía' (I didn't know that), 'Lo del accidente, ¿lo sabías?' (Did you know about the accident?). A bare noun with no article takes no pronoun: 'Dinero no tengo' (I don't have any money).

Key rule

When a known object moves to the front as the topic, repeat it with a matching pronoun before the verb: 'lo/la/los/las' for a direct object ('La película la vimos', 'A María la vi'), 'le/les' for an indirect object ('A María le regalé un libro').

Examples

A Juan lo vi ayer en el parque.
A Juan vi ayer en el parque.
When the direct object 'a Juan' moves to the front, the pronoun 'lo' is required: 'A Juan lo vi.'
Eso no lo sabía.
Eso no sabía.
Fronted 'eso' is a known direct object, so it is repeated with neuter 'lo': 'Eso no lo sabía.'
La película la vimos el viernes.
La película vimos el viernes.
Fronted 'la película' (feminine singular) needs the matching pronoun 'la'.

Common mistakes

Omitting the object pronoun with a fronted object
A Pedro vi en la calle.
A Pedro lo vi en la calle.
When a known direct object is fronted, the pronoun 'lo' is required: 'A Pedro lo vi.'
Using the wrong pronoun gender or number
Las flores lo compré ayer.
Las flores las compré ayer.
The pronoun must match the fronted noun: 'las flores' (feminine plural) requires 'las', not 'lo'.

B1Syntax

Adverb Placement in Spanish

Posición de los adverbios

Spanish adverbs are fairly flexible, but a few rules are firm. 'Muy', 'bastante', 'demasiado' and similar words go directly before the adjective or adverb they modify: 'Es muy alto' (He's very tall), 'Corre bastante rápido' (He runs quite fast). In compound tenses, keep 'haber' and the participle together and put the adverb before or after them: 'Siempre he querido viajar' (I've always wanted to travel), not 'He siempre querido viajar'. 'No' goes directly before the verb and any object pronouns: 'No lo sé'. 'Nunca' and 'tampoco' can stand alone before the verb ('Nunca voy al gimnasio'), but after the verb they need 'no' in front of the verb: 'No voy nunca al gimnasio', 'No he estado nunca en México'. Manner adverbs like 'bien' usually follow the verb: 'Habla bien español'.

Key rule

Put degree words (muy, bastante, demasiado) directly before the adjective or adverb, keep 'haber' + participle together ('Siempre he querido', not 'He siempre querido'), and put 'no' directly before the verb and its object pronouns; 'nunca' or 'tampoco' after the verb needs 'no' before the verb ('No voy nunca'). Most other adverbs are flexible.

Examples

No lo sé.
Lo no sé.
'No' goes directly before the verb together with its object pronouns, so it comes before 'lo': 'No lo sé.'
Es muy alto.
Es alto muy.
Degree words like 'muy' go directly before the adjective: 'muy alto', not 'alto muy'.
Siempre he comido aquí.
He siempre comido aquí.
Keep 'he comido' together. Put 'siempre' before 'he' (or after 'comido'), not between them as in English 'I have always eaten'.

Common mistakes

Placing an adverb between 'haber' and the participle (English influence)
He siempre querido viajar.
Siempre he querido viajar.
Spanish keeps 'he' and 'querido' together, and an adverb between them sounds foreign. Put 'siempre' before the verb group: 'Siempre he querido viajar'.
Putting 'nunca' after the verb without 'no'
Voy nunca al gimnasio.
Nunca voy al gimnasio.
'Nunca' goes before the verb on its own. If it comes after the verb, 'no' must go before the verb: 'No voy nunca al gimnasio.'

B1Syntax

Word Order in Subordinate Clauses

Orden de palabras en oraciones subordinadas

In Spanish subordinate clauses the subject often comes after the verb, and after most question words it must. In embedded questions (No sé dónde..., Me pregunto qué...), put a subject noun after the verb: 'No sé dónde vive Juan' (I don't know where Juan lives), not 'dónde Juan vive'. 'Por qué' and yes/no 'si' are the exceptions: 'No sé por qué Juan se fue' and 'No sé si Juan viene' are also correct. Subject pronouns are usually dropped: 'No sé qué quieres' (I don't know what you want). In exclamations, too, the subject follows the verb: '¡Qué alto es tu hermano!', not '¡Qué alto tu hermano es!'. In clauses with 'que', 'cuando' or 'donde', both orders are correct, and verb + subject is very common: 'cuando llegó el tren', 'lo que dijo el profesor'. Never drop 'que' the way English drops 'that' ('el libro que compré', the book I bought), and put a preposition before the relative, never at the end: 'la persona con la que vivo' (the person I live with).

Key rule

After a question word, a subject noun normally goes after the verb, in embedded questions and exclamations alike ('No sé dónde vive Juan', '¡Qué alto es tu hermano!'); 'por qué' and yes/no 'si' also allow it before ('No sé si Juan viene'). In other subordinate clauses both orders are correct, but never drop 'que' where English drops 'that', and never leave a preposition at the end ('la persona con la que vivo').

Examples

No sé dónde vive Juan.
No sé dónde Juan vive.
After the question word 'dónde', the subject noun goes after the verb: 'dónde vive Juan'.
Cuando llegó María, empezó la fiesta.
Both orders are correct: 'Cuando llegó María' and 'Cuando María llegó'. Verb + subject is very common with verbs like 'llegar', 'empezar' or 'salir'.
No sé qué quiere tu hermano.
No sé qué tu hermano quiere.
After 'qué', the subject noun cannot come between the question word and the verb: 'qué quiere tu hermano'.

Common mistakes

Putting the subject between the question word and the verb (English order)
No sé dónde tu hermana vive.
No sé dónde vive tu hermana.
In Spanish embedded questions, a subject noun goes after the verb: 'dónde vive tu hermana'.
Dropping 'que' in a relative clause
La película vimos ayer era muy buena.
La película que vimos ayer era muy buena.
English can leave out 'that' ('the film we saw'), but Spanish always needs the relative 'que'.

B1Syntax

Passive Voice with Ser

Voz pasiva con ser

Spanish forms the passive with 'ser' + past participle, and 'por' introduces the agent: 'El libro fue escrito por Cervantes' (The book was written by Cervantes). 'Ser' agrees with the subject and carries the tense; for a single past event, use the preterite ('fue', 'fueron'), not the imperfect ('era'). The participle agrees in gender and number with the subject: 'La carta fue escrita' (The letter was written), 'Los edificios fueron construidos' (The buildings were built). Watch out for irregular participles such as 'escrito', 'roto', 'abierto' and 'hecho'. 'Estar' + participle describes the resulting state, not the action: 'La puerta estaba abierta' (The door was open). English 'I was told' has no 'ser' passive: say 'Me dijeron'. This passive is much less common than in English and belongs mainly to news, history and formal writing. In everyday speech Spanish prefers the active voice or the 'se' passive: 'Se habla español' (Spanish is spoken).

Key rule

Form the passive with ser + past participle: 'ser' carries the tense and agrees with the subject, the participle agrees with the subject in gender and number, and 'por' introduces the agent ('Las cartas fueron escritas por Ana'). In everyday speech, prefer the active voice or the 'se' passive.

Examples

El libro fue escrito por Cervantes.
El libro fue escribido por Cervantes.
The past participle of 'escribir' is irregular: 'escrito', not 'escribido'.
La carta fue escrita por mi abuela.
La carta fue escrito por mi abuela.
The participle must agree with the feminine subject 'la carta': 'escrita', not 'escrito'.
Los edificios fueron construidos en 1990.
Los edificios fue construidos en 1990.
'Ser' must agree with the plural subject: 'fueron construidos', not 'fue construidos'.

Common mistakes

Failing to make the participle agree with the subject
La canción fue cantado por el coro.
La canción fue cantada por el coro.
The participle must agree with the feminine subject 'la canción': 'cantada', not 'cantado'.
Using 'estar' instead of 'ser' for a passive action
El ladrón está detenido ayer por la policía.
El ladrón fue detenido ayer por la policía.
'Estar' + participle describes a present state, which clashes with 'ayer'. A completed action takes 'ser': 'fue detenido'.

B1Syntax

Reported Speech with Tense Backshift

Estilo indirecto con cambio de tiempos verbales

When you report someone's words with a past verb (dijo, contó, preguntó), the reported verbs usually move one step back: present → imperfect ('Estoy cansado' → 'Dijo que estaba cansado'), future → conditional ('Vendré' → 'Dijo que vendría'), present perfect → pluperfect ('He terminado' → 'Dijo que había terminado'). A preterite may shift to the pluperfect or stay ('Dijo que había ido al médico' or 'Dijo que fue al médico'), and the imperfect, pluperfect and conditional stay as they are. A command becomes 'que' + imperfect subjunctive: '¡Ven!' → 'Me dijo que viniera' (He told me to come). If what was said is still true now, you may keep the original tense ('Me dijo que está enfermo': he still is), and after a present reporting verb nothing shifts ('Dice que está cansado'). Never drop 'que' the way English drops 'that'. A reported yes/no question uses 'si', and any other question keeps its question word, tilde included: 'Preguntó si queríamos ir' (He asked if we wanted to go), 'Preguntó dónde trabajábamos' (He asked where we worked).

Key rule

After a past reporting verb, shift the reported verbs one step back (present → imperfect, present perfect → pluperfect, future → conditional, command → 'que' + imperfect subjunctive); a preterite may shift to the pluperfect or stay, and the imperfect, pluperfect and conditional stay as they are. Keep a present, present perfect or future only if it still holds or is still ahead now, and never drop 'que' where English drops 'that'.

Examples

Ayer me dijo que estaba enfermo, pero hoy ya está bien.
Ayer me dijo que está enfermo, pero hoy ya está bien.
The illness is over, so the reported present shifts to the imperfect 'estaba'. 'Está' would mean he is still sick, which contradicts the rest of the sentence.
Dijo que había ido al médico.
The pluperfect 'había ido' is the classic shift for an earlier action ('Fui al médico'). Keeping the preterite, 'Dijo que fue al médico', is also correct and very common in speech.
Me prometió que vendría a mi cumpleaños, pero no vino.
Me prometió que vendrá a mi cumpleaños, pero no vino.
The birthday is already past, so the future 'vendré' shifts to the conditional 'vendría'. 'Vendrá' only works for an event that is still ahead.

Common mistakes

Not shifting a situation that is already over
Anoche dijo que tiene sueño y se fue a dormir.
Anoche dijo que tenía sueño y se fue a dormir.
The situation belongs to last night, so after the past reporting verb 'dijo' the present 'tiene' shifts to the imperfect 'tenía'.
Omitting 'que' after the reporting verb
Dijo estaba cansado.
Dijo que estaba cansado.
In a reported statement, 'que' is obligatory; it cannot be omitted as English 'that' can.

B1Connectors

Concessive Connectors

Conectores concesivos

Concessive connectors mention an obstacle that does not stop something from happening. 'Sin embargo' (however) and the more formal 'no obstante' (nevertheless) begin the second statement and take a comma after them: 'Llovía mucho; sin embargo, salimos' (It was raining hard; however, we went out). 'A pesar de' (despite) goes before a noun or an infinitive ('a pesar de la lluvia'), and 'a pesar de que' before a conjugated verb. 'Aunque' (although) introduces the obstacle itself: 'Aunque llueve, salimos'. Don't add 'pero' after an 'aunque' clause.

Key rule

'Sin embargo' and 'no obstante' introduce the unexpected result and take a comma after them. 'A pesar de' + noun or infinitive, 'a pesar de que' + conjugated verb, and 'aunque' introduce the obstacle; don't add 'pero' after an 'aunque' clause.

Examples

Llovía mucho; sin embargo, salimos a pasear.
Llovía mucho; sin embargo salimos a pasear.
When 'sin embargo' begins the second statement, a comma must follow it.
No obstante, decidimos continuar con el proyecto.
No obstante decidimos continuar con el proyecto.
Like 'sin embargo', 'no obstante' (nevertheless) takes a comma after it when it begins a sentence.
A pesar de la lluvia, fuimos al parque.
A pesar la lluvia, fuimos al parque.
The connector is 'a pesar de'. Before a noun like 'la lluvia', the 'de' can't be left out.

Common mistakes

Adding 'pero' after an 'aunque' clause
Aunque estaba lloviendo, pero fuimos al cine.
Aunque estaba lloviendo, fuimos al cine.
'Aunque' already introduces the obstacle, so the main clause can't also start with 'pero'. Keep one: 'Aunque estaba lloviendo, fuimos al cine' or 'Estaba lloviendo, pero fuimos al cine'.
Omitting 'de' in 'a pesar de'
A pesar el frío, salimos.
A pesar del frío, salimos.
The connector is 'a pesar de': before a noun, the 'de' can't be left out, and it contracts with 'el' to form 'del'.

B1Connectors

Exemplification & Clarification Connectors

Conectores de ejemplificación y aclaración

These connectors take you from a general idea to something specific. 'Por ejemplo' (for example, never 'para ejemplo') introduces examples and takes a comma after it: 'Hablo varios idiomas, por ejemplo, inglés y francés'. 'Como' (such as) puts examples straight into the sentence, with no comma after it: 'deportes como el tenis'. 'En particular' (in particular) and 'en concreto' (specifically) single out one item from the group you have just named. They follow a comma and never change form: 'Me interesa la ciencia, en concreto la biología'. 'Es decir' (that is, in other words) does something different. It says the same thing again more clearly, and it also takes a comma after it: 'Es vegetariano; es decir, no come carne'.

Key rule

'Por ejemplo' gives examples and 'es decir' restates the same idea in other words; both take a comma after them. 'Como' (such as) introduces examples inside the sentence with no comma after it, and 'en particular' / 'en concreto' single out one item and never change form.

Examples

Hay muchas frutas; por ejemplo, manzanas y naranjas.
Hay muchas frutas; para ejemplo, manzanas y naranjas.
'For example' is 'por ejemplo', with 'por'. 'Para ejemplo' copies English 'for' word for word and is wrong.
Llegamos el 24 de diciembre, es decir, en Nochebuena.
Llegamos el 24 de diciembre, por ejemplo, en Nochebuena.
Nochebuena is not an example of 24 December: it is the same day, said in other words. Restating the same thing calls for 'es decir'.
Me gustan los deportes, en particular el tenis.
Me gustan los deportes en particular el tenis.
'En particular' picks out one item from the group just named. A comma must separate it from the general statement; without it, the sentence runs together.

Common mistakes

Omitting the comma after 'por ejemplo'
Hay muchos colores; por ejemplo rojo, azul y verde.
Hay muchos colores; por ejemplo, rojo, azul y verde.
'Por ejemplo' always takes a comma after it, before the examples it introduces.
Using 'ejemplo' instead of 'por ejemplo'
Me gustan muchas cosas, ejemplo la música.
Me gustan muchas cosas, por ejemplo, la música.
The full expression is 'por ejemplo'; 'ejemplo' alone cannot function as a connector.

B1Connectors

Reformulation Connectors

Conectores de reformulación

Reformulation connectors let you say something again in a different way, usually more clearly or more precisely. 'O sea' (I mean, that is) is very common in conversation and everyday writing, and it is always two words: 'No vendré; o sea, no cuentes conmigo'. 'En otras palabras' (in other words) and 'dicho de otro modo' (put another way; also 'dicho de otra manera') restate the whole idea: 'El proyecto fracasó; en otras palabras, perdimos el dinero'. Keep the word 'dicho': as a connector, 'de otro modo' alone means 'otherwise'. 'Mejor dicho' (or rather) corrects or sharpens what you have just said: 'Tengo tres hermanos, mejor dicho, cuatro'. All of them take a comma after them.

Key rule

Reformulation connectors restate the same idea: 'o sea' (very common in speech and everyday writing), 'en otras palabras' and 'dicho de otro modo' rephrase it, and 'mejor dicho' corrects or sharpens it. They take a comma after them, and 'o sea' is always two words.

Examples

No vendré; o sea, no cuentes conmigo.
No vendré; osea, no cuentes conmigo.
'O sea' is always two words. 'Osea' is a very common spelling mistake.
Es inteligente, mejor dicho, es brillante.
Es inteligente, mejor dicho es brillante.
'Mejor dicho' is set off by commas on both sides; the comma after it is missing here.
El proyecto fracasó; en otras palabras, perdimos el dinero invertido.
El proyecto fracasó; en otras palabras perdimos el dinero invertido.
'En otras palabras' always takes a comma after it, before the restated idea.

Common mistakes

Writing 'o sea' as one word 'osea'
No puedo ir, osea, no me esperes.
No puedo ir, o sea, no me esperes.
'O sea' is always written as two separate words. 'Osea' is a spelling mistake (and 'ósea', with a tilde, is an adjective meaning 'bony').
Using 'por ejemplo' to restate an idea
El restaurante estaba vacío; por ejemplo, no había nadie.
El restaurante estaba vacío; en otras palabras, no había nadie.
'No había nadie' says the same as 'estaba vacío'; it is not an example. To restate an idea, use a reformulation connector such as 'en otras palabras', 'o sea' or 'es decir'.

B1Connectors

Summary & Conclusion Connectors

Conectores de resumen y conclusión

Summary connectors tell your listener or reader that you are wrapping up. Most of them open the final sentence and take a comma after them. 'En resumen' (in short) and 'para resumir' (to sum up) condense what came before: 'En resumen, el proyecto fue un éxito'. 'En conclusión' (in conclusion) closes an argument, mostly in writing and presentations, and takes no article: 'en la conclusión' means 'in the conclusion (section)'. 'En definitiva' (all things considered) gives your final verdict; it does not mean 'definitely'. In conversation, 'en fin' (well, anyway; 'fin' has no written accent) closes a topic, often with resignation. Don't confuse it with 'por fin' (at last) or 'al final' (at the end). 'Total que' (so, basically) jumps to how a story ended, with no comma after it: 'Total que llegamos tarde'.

Key rule

'En resumen' and 'para resumir' condense, 'en conclusión' (no article) closes an argument and 'en definitiva' gives the final verdict; they usually open the final statement, followed by a comma. 'En fin' (well, anyway) and 'total que' (so, basically) are typical of conversation.

Examples

En resumen, el proyecto fue un éxito.
En resumen el proyecto fue un éxito.
When 'en resumen' opens the summary, a comma must follow it.
En conclusión, necesitamos mejorar la comunicación.
En la conclusión, necesitamos mejorar la comunicación. (intended: In conclusion, we need to improve communication.)
As a connector, 'en conclusión' takes no article. 'En la conclusión' would mean 'in the conclusion (section)'.
En definitiva, fue la mejor decisión que pudimos tomar.
En definitiva fue la mejor decisión que pudimos tomar.
'En definitiva' introduces the final verdict and takes a comma after it.

Common mistakes

Adding an article in 'en conclusión'
En la conclusión, creo que es mejor esperar. (intended: In conclusion, I think it's better to wait.)
En conclusión, creo que es mejor esperar.
As a connector, 'en conclusión' is a fixed expression with no article. 'En la conclusión' means 'in the conclusion (section)' of a text, so this sentence would point to a part of a text instead of introducing your conclusion.
Putting an accent on 'fin' in 'en fin'
En fín, no importa.
En fin, no importa.
One-syllable words take no written accent (tilde), except a few that need one to tell apart look-alike pairs, such as 'mí' (me) and 'mi' (my). 'Fin' has no such pair, so it is 'en fin'.

B1Connectors

Advanced Sequence Connectors

Conectores de secuencia avanzados

These connectors organize a text or a talk into clear steps. They usually open the sentence and take a comma after them. 'En primer lugar' (first of all), 'en segundo lugar' (secondly) and 'en tercer lugar' (thirdly) list your points; note 'primer' and 'tercer', without -o, before 'lugar'. 'A continuación' (next) moves on to the next step or section; 'próximo' is an adjective ('la próxima semana') and can't do this job. 'Por último' or 'finalmente' (lastly, finally) introduces the last point; 'últimamente' means 'lately', not 'lastly'. 'Por un lado... por otro (lado)' or 'por una parte... por otra (parte)' (on the one hand... on the other hand) weighs two sides, and once you start the pair, finish it: 'Por un lado, es barato; por otro lado, la calidad no es buena'.

Key rule

List points with 'en primer / segundo / tercer lugar', move on with 'a continuación', close with 'por último' or 'finalmente', and weigh two sides with 'por un lado... por otro (lado)'. These connectors usually open the sentence and take a comma after them.

Examples

En primer lugar, debemos analizar los datos.
En primer lugar debemos analizar los datos.
'En primer lugar' is followed by a comma to clearly set off the first point.
En segundo lugar, necesitamos más recursos.
En segundo lugar necesitamos más recursos.
'En segundo lugar' requires a comma after it, just like 'en primer lugar'.
Por un lado, es barato; por otro lado, la calidad no es buena.
Por un lado es barato; por otro lado la calidad no es buena.
Both 'por un lado' and 'por otro lado' take a comma after them.

Common mistakes

Not shortening 'tercero' (or 'primero') before 'lugar'
En tercero lugar, hay que reducir los gastos.
En tercer lugar, hay que reducir los gastos.
'Primero' and 'tercero' drop the final -o before a masculine singular noun: 'en primer lugar', 'en tercer lugar'.
Using 'por un lado' without completing with 'por otro lado'
Por un lado, el proyecto es interesante. También es difícil.
Por un lado, el proyecto es interesante; por otro lado, es difícil.
'Por un lado' announces a second side, so complete the pair with 'por otro (lado)' or 'por otra parte'. 'Por otro lado' on its own, by contrast, is fine.

B1Connectors

Opinion Markers

Marcadores de opinión

Opinion markers show that what follows is your personal view. In conversation, the most common are 'creo que' (I think), 'me parece que' (it seems to me) and 'para mí' (for me). 'En mi opinión' (in my opinion) and 'desde mi punto de vista' (from my point of view) work in speech and writing, and 'a mi juicio' (in my judgment) sounds more formal. These phrases, like 'para mí', usually open the sentence with a comma after them: 'En mi opinión, es la mejor solución'. Note the written accents: 'mi' (my) has none, but the pronoun 'mí' after a preposition does. For an opinion, say 'para mí', not 'por mí' (fine by me). To introduce a clause, 'creo' and 'me parece' need 'que', with no 'de' before it ('creo de que' is wrong). They take the indicative ('Creo que tiene razón'), but after 'no creo que' the verb goes into the subjunctive ('No creo que tenga razón').

Key rule

'Creo que' and 'me parece que' take the indicative, but 'no creo que' and 'no me parece que' take the subjunctive; no 'de' goes before 'que'. 'En mi opinión', 'desde mi punto de vista', 'a mi juicio' and 'para mí' (not 'por mí') are followed by a comma.

Examples

En mi opinión, es la mejor solución.
En mí opinión, es la mejor solución.
'Mi' (my) is a possessive and has no written accent (tilde). 'Mí' with a tilde is the pronoun used after a preposition, as in 'para mí'.
Me parece que tiene razón.
Me parece de que tiene razón.
'Me parece' is followed directly by 'que'. Adding 'de' is a common error called dequeísmo.
Creo que es una buena idea.
Creo que sea una buena idea.
Affirmative 'creo que' presents what you believe, so it takes the indicative ('es'). The subjunctive ('sea') is used after the negative: 'No creo que sea una buena idea'.

Common mistakes

Dequeísmo: adding 'de' before 'que' with 'creer' and 'parecer'
Creo de que es importante estudiar.
Creo que es importante estudiar.
'Creer' and 'parecer' are followed directly by 'que', with no 'de' in between. Adding 'de' is the error called dequeísmo.
Confusing 'para mí' (opinion) with 'por mí' (indifference or cause)
Por mí, este restaurante es el mejor de la ciudad.
Para mí, este restaurante es el mejor de la ciudad.
'Para mí' means 'in my view'. 'Por mí' means 'fine by me, I don't mind' or 'because of me', so it can't introduce an opinion.

B1Orthography

Systematic Accentuation Rules

Reglas de acentuación sistemática

Whether a Spanish word needs a written accent (tilde) depends on which syllable is stressed and how the word ends. Agudas are stressed on the last syllable and take a tilde when they end in a vowel, n or s (café, canción, también), but not with other endings (papel, hablar). Llanas, also called graves, are stressed on the second-to-last syllable and take a tilde only when they do NOT end in a vowel, n or s (árbol, fácil), so casa and examen have none. An n or s right after another consonant counts as a consonant ending: robots has no tilde, but cómics and bíceps do. Esdrújulas (stress on the third-to-last syllable) and sobresdrújulas (stress even earlier) always take one (teléfono, dígamelo). One-syllable words take none (fue, dio, pan), except the diacritic pairs described at the end. One rule overrides the aguda and llana rules: a stressed i or u next to a, e or o always takes a tilde (día, había, baúl). On top of these rules, the tilde diacrítica tells apart short words that are spelled alike: él (he) vs el (the), tú (you) vs tu (your), mí (me) vs mi (my), sí (yes) vs si (if), sé (I know) vs se (pronoun), más (more) vs mas (literary 'but'). Question and exclamation words carry one whenever they ask or exclaim, even inside a sentence ('¿Cuándo llega?', 'No sé dónde vive', from '¿Dónde vive?'). When they don't ask anything, as in 'Cuando llega, cenamos' or 'la casa donde vive', they have none. Adverbs in -mente keep the adjective's tilde: rápido → rápidamente.

Key rule

Agudas (stressed on the last syllable) take a written accent when they end in a vowel or in an n or s after a vowel (café, canción); llanas (stressed on the second-to-last) take one in all other cases (árbol, fácil, cómics); esdrújulas and sobresdrújulas (stressed earlier) always do (teléfono, dígamelo). One-syllable words take none except diacritic pairs (él/el), and a stressed i or u next to a, e or o always takes one (día, país).

Examples

La canción es muy bonita.
La cancion es muy bonita.
'Canción' is aguda (stress on last syllable) ending in N, so it requires an accent.
El árbol está en el jardín.
El arbol está en el jardin.
'Árbol' is llana ending in L (not vowel/N/S), so it needs an accent. 'Jardín' is aguda ending in N, so it also needs an accent.
El teléfono está sonando.
El telefono está sonando.
'Teléfono' is esdrújula (stress on te-LÉ-fo-no), so it always carries an accent.

Common mistakes

Adding an accent to llanas ending in vowel/N/S
El exámen es difícil.
El examen es difícil.
'Examen' is a llana (e-XA-men) ending in n, and llanas ending in a vowel, n or s take no written accent. Only the plural 'exámenes', an esdrújula, needs one.
Forgetting the accent on agudas ending in vowel/N/S
La leccion es sobre la nacion.
La lección es sobre la nación.
Both 'lección' and 'nación' are agudas ending in N, so they must carry an accent.

B1Orthography

G vs J Spelling Rules

Distinción ortográfica entre G y J

Before e and i, the letters g and j sound the same: both have the harsh Spanish j sound (gente, jefe, girar, jirafa). Before a, o and u, g is hard as in English 'go' (gato, gusto). To keep that hard g before e or i, write a silent u: guerra, guitarra. If that u is pronounced, it takes a diéresis: vergüenza, pingüino. A few patterns tell you which letter to write: nouns ending in -aje use j (viaje, garaje), and verbs ending in -ger or -gir switch from g to j before a and o (escoger → escojo, elegir → elijo). Other common words, like gente or jefe, simply have to be learned.

Key rule

Before e and i, g sounds like j, so the spelling has to be learned: write gue/gui for a hard g (guerra, guitarra) and güe/güi when the u is pronounced (pingüino). Nouns ending in -aje take j (viaje), and verbs in -ger/-gir change g to j before a and o (escojo, elijo).

Examples

La gente es muy amable.
La jente es muy amable.
'Gente' is spelled with G, even though ge- sounds like je-. This word comes from Latin and keeps the G.
La guerra terminó hace años.
La gerra terminó hace años.
'Guerra' needs the silent U (gue) to produce the hard G sound before E.
El pingüino vive en el frío.
El pinguino vive en el frío.
'Pingüino' needs the diéresis (güi) because the U is pronounced: pin-GWI-no.

Common mistakes

Writing J for G before e/i in established words
La jente viaja mucho en verano.
La gente viaja mucho en verano.
'Gente' is etymologically spelled with G. Many common words use G before e/i: gente, general, gesto, girar, gigante.
Forgetting the silent U in gue/gui
La gerra es terrible. Toca la gitarra.
La guerra es terrible. Toca la guitarra.
To produce a hard G before e/i, you must include the silent U: guerra, guitarra, guiar.

B1Orthography

LL vs Y Spelling Rules

Distinción ortográfica entre LL e Y

In most Spanish-speaking regions, ll and y sound the same (this is called yeísmo), so pronunciation can't tell you which one to write. Use ll in words ending in -illo/-illa, including diminutives (amarillo, silla, chiquillo), and learn other common ll words by heart (calle, caballo, estrella, llave). Use y for the word 'and' (it becomes e before a word that starts with an i sound: padre e hijo), for an unstressed i sound after a vowel at the end of a word (hoy, rey, muy), and where the unstressed i of a verb ending falls between two vowels (leer → leyendo, leyó; caer → cayó). A stressed final i after a, e or o is written í instead: leí, caí, oí. Watch the pairs that sound alike: cayó (fell) and calló (went quiet), haya (from haber) and halla (finds), vaya (from ir) and valla (fence).

Key rule

Use ll in the endings -illo/-illa and in many common words that must be memorized (calle, llave). Use y for 'and' (e before a word that starts with an i sound: padre e hijo), for an unstressed final i sound after a vowel (hoy, rey, muy) and for the unstressed i of a verb ending between two vowels (leyendo, cayó); a stressed final i after a, e or o is written í (leí, caí).

Examples

La calle está llena de gente.
La caye está yena de gente.
'Calle' is a common LL word to memorize. 'Llena' starts with LL (from Latin 'plenus').
El amarillo es mi color favorito.
El amariyo es mi color favorito.
'Amarillo' ends in -illo, which is always spelled with LL.
Hoy es un día muy bonito.
Hoi es un día muy bonito.
'Hoy' ends in Y, not I, as do words whose final sound is an unstressed 'i' after a vowel: hoy, rey, ley.

Common mistakes

Confusing cayó and calló
El niño se calló de la bicicleta.
El niño se cayó de la bicicleta.
'Cayó' (fell, from caer) uses Y. 'Calló' (fell silent, from callar) uses LL. Falling = cayó; going silent = calló.
Confusing halla and haya
Espero que halla una solución.
Espero que haya una solución.
'Haya' (subjunctive of haber) uses Y. 'Halla' (finds, from hallar) uses LL.

B1Register

Hedging and Softening

Atenuación y suavización del discurso

Hedging means softening what you say so you don't sound too direct. Opinion phrases present a view as personal: 'creo que' (I think), 'me parece que' (it seems to me), 'desde mi punto de vista' (from my point of view). Possibility words make a claim less certain: 'quizás' or 'tal vez' (perhaps), 'a lo mejor' (maybe), 'puede que' or 'es posible que' (it may be that). The conditional softens requests and suggestions: '¿Podrías ayudarme?' (Could you help me?), '¿Te importaría...?' (Would you mind...?), 'Yo diría que...' (I'd say...), 'Sería mejor...' (It would be better...). 'Es que...' softens a refusal by giving a reason: 'Es que no puedo ir'. Watch what follows: 'creo que' (never 'creo de que'), 'me parece que' and 'a lo mejor' take the indicative ('A lo mejor viene'); 'puede que', 'es posible que' and 'sería mejor que' take the subjunctive ('Puede que venga', 'Sería mejor que hablaras con ella'); 'quizás' and 'tal vez' can take either. Negated opinion phrases take the subjunctive: 'No creo que venga'.

Key rule

Soften statements, opinions and requests with hedges such as 'creo que', 'me parece que', 'quizás', 'a lo mejor', 'puede que' and the conditional ('¿Podrías...?', 'Yo diría que...'). Mind the mood: 'creo que', 'me parece que' and 'a lo mejor' take the indicative, but negated 'no creo que' and 'no me parece que' take the subjunctive ('No creo que venga'); 'puede que' and 'es posible que' take the subjunctive, and 'quizás' takes either.

Examples

Creo que deberíamos salir más temprano.
Creo de que deberíamos salir más temprano.
'Creo que' + conditional softens the suggestion. 'Creer' takes 'que' directly; 'creo de que' is a common error (dequeísmo).
¿Podrías ayudarme con esto?
The conditional '¿Podrías...?' makes a softer, more polite request than the imperative 'Ayúdame con esto', which is fine among friends but sounds more direct.
Quizás tengamos que cambiar de plan.
'Quizás' hedges the statement. It can take the subjunctive (tengamos), as here, or the indicative (tenemos); the subjunctive sounds more doubtful.

Common mistakes

Using indicative after 'puede que'
Puede que viene mañana.
Puede que venga mañana.
'Puede que' always requires the subjunctive: venga, llueva, sea, tenga.
Using subjunctive after 'a lo mejor'
A lo mejor venga Pedro.
A lo mejor viene Pedro.
'A lo mejor' always takes the indicative, unlike 'quizás' or 'tal vez', which can take either.

B1Register

Academic vs Conversational Register

Registro académico frente a coloquial

Spanish, like English, changes its words and structures with the level of formality. Academic and formal writing prefers precise, more formal equivalents of everyday words: 'realizar' or 'llevar a cabo' rather than 'hacer', 'obtener' rather than 'conseguir', 'debido a' + a noun for 'because of' ('debido a que' + a clause for 'because'), 'mediante' for 'by means of', and 'Sin embargo' or 'No obstante' rather than 'Pero' at the start of a sentence. It also prefers passive 'se', where the verb agrees with the noun ('Se realizó un estudio', 'Se obtuvieron datos'), to an everyday first person ('Hicimos un estudio'), and it leaves out fillers. It usually avoids 'yo', but a formal 'nosotros' is common ('En este trabajo analizamos...'). Conversation uses the everyday words and fillers like 'bueno', 'pues' and 'mira'; formal words there sound stiff. Many words, such as 'pero', 'aunque' and 'con', are neutral and fit both registers, and the contractions 'al' and 'del' are required in both.

Key rule

Academic Spanish prefers precise formal vocabulary (realizar, obtener, debido a, mediante, sin embargo), passive and impersonal 'se' constructions (se obtuvieron los datos, se observa que...) and no fillers; conversation uses everyday words (hacer, conseguir), the first person and fillers like 'bueno' and 'pues'. Neutral words such as 'pero', 'aunque' and 'con' fit both.

Examples

Se realizó un estudio exhaustivo.
Academic writing prefers 'realizar' and passive 'se' constructions. In conversation you would say 'Hicimos un estudio muy completo'.
Sin embargo, los resultados no fueron concluyentes.
'Sin embargo' is the formal equivalent of 'pero' and is preferred in academic texts; starting with 'Pero' is common in speech and informal writing.
Debido a la falta de recursos, se canceló el proyecto.
Debido a que la falta de recursos, se canceló el proyecto.
'Debido a' is a formal way to express cause and is followed by a noun. 'Debido a que' needs a full clause (debido a que faltaban recursos).

Common mistakes

Using informal language in academic writing
Bueno, pues hicimos el experimento y nos salió bien.
Se llevó a cabo el experimento y se obtuvieron resultados satisfactorios.
Academic writing needs formal vocabulary ('llevar a cabo', 'obtener') and no conversational fillers like 'bueno' or 'pues'. It also usually prefers passive 'se' ('se llevó a cabo', 'se obtuvieron') to a conversational first person ('hicimos', 'nos salió bien').
Using overly formal language in casual conversation
Deseo manifestar que, no obstante mis esfuerzos, no logré realizar la tarea.
Mira, es que intenté hacerlo, pero no pude.
Using academic register in casual contexts sounds unnatural, pompous, and socially awkward.

B1Vocabulary usage

Common Spanish Collocations

Colocaciones comunes del español

Collocations are word combinations that native speakers use naturally, even when a different combination might seem logical. Many Spanish collocations use a different verb from English: 'tomar una decisión' (literally 'take a decision', English 'make a decision'), 'hacer una pregunta' ('make a question', English 'ask a question'), 'dar un paseo' ('give a walk', English 'take a walk') and 'prestar atención' ('lend attention', English 'pay attention'). Learn them as units, together with other common ones: 'tener lugar' (take place), 'hacer caso' (pay attention to, obey), 'tener en cuenta' (bear in mind), 'poner la mesa' (set the table), 'echar de menos' (miss someone) and 'darse cuenta de' (realize; 'realizar' means 'carry out'). Translating them word for word from English is the most common mistake.

Key rule

Spanish collocations often use a different verb from English, so learn them as fixed units: 'tomar una decisión' (make a decision), 'hacer una pregunta' (ask a question), 'dar un paseo' (take a walk) and 'prestar atención' (pay attention).

Examples

Tengo que tomar una decisión importante.
Tengo que hacer una decisión importante.
In Spanish, decisions are 'taken' (tomar una decisión), not 'made'. 'Hacer una decisión' is a calque from English.
El profesor hizo una pregunta difícil.
El profesor preguntó una pregunta difícil.
In Spanish, questions are 'made' (hacer una pregunta). 'Preguntar una pregunta' is redundant.
La reunión tendrá lugar el lunes.
La reunión tomará lugar el lunes.
'Tener lugar' means 'to take place'. 'Tomar lugar' is an English calque.

Common mistakes

Translating 'make a decision' literally
Necesito hacer una decisión.
Necesito tomar una decisión.
Spanish uses 'tomar' (take), not 'hacer' (make), with 'decisión'. This is one of the most common English interference errors.
Saying 'pagar atención' instead of 'prestar atención'
Debes pagar atención en clase.
Debes prestar atención en clase.
'Prestar' (lend) is used with 'atención'. 'Pagar' means to pay money, not to pay attention.

B1Vocabulary usage

Diminutives and Augmentatives

Diminutivos y aumentativos

Spanish can change the size or feeling of a word with a suffix instead of an extra adjective. Diminutives, above all -ito/-ita, make something small or add affection: casa → casita, perro → perrito, un momento → un momentito. Words of two or more syllables ending in -e, -n or -r usually take -cito/-cita instead: café → cafecito, camión → camioncito, mujer → mujercita. One-syllable words ending in a consonant usually take -ecito/-ecita: flor → florecita. Augmentatives make something big or impressive: -ón/-ona, -ote/-ota and -azo/-aza. A golazo is a great goal, and -ote/-ota agrees like any -o/-a adjective: un chico grandote, una chica grandota. Watch the spelling: pedazo → pedacito, poco → poquito, amigo → amiguito. The base word also loses its written accent, because the stress moves to the suffix: café → cafecito, árbol → arbolito. Some of these forms have become separate words, such as bolsillo (pocket) and sillón (armchair). Sillón is masculine (el sillón), even though silla is feminine.

Key rule

Add -ito/-ita for smallness or affection (usually -cito after -e, -n or -r, as in cafecito and camioncito, and -ecito in one-syllable words like flor → florecita) and -ón, -ote or -azo for size or emphasis, keeping the spelling changes (pedacito, poquito, amiguito). Learn lexicalized forms such as el bolsillo (pocket) and el sillón (armchair) as words of their own.

Examples

Espera un poquito, ya casi termino.
Espera un pocito, ya casi termino.
Before -ito, c becomes qu to keep the k sound: poco → poquito (also chico → chiquito).
Mi hijo ha traído a un amiguito del colegio.
Mi hijo ha traído a un amigito del colegio.
Before -ito, g becomes gu to keep the hard g sound: amigo → amiguito. Written amigito, the g would sound like a Spanish j.
Dame un pedacito de pastel.
Dame un pedazito de pastel.
Before -ito, z is written c: pedazo → pedacito (also taza → tacita, lápiz → lapicito).

Common mistakes

Forgetting the z → c spelling change before -ito
Dame un pedazito de pan.
Dame un pedacito de pan.
Before -ito/-ita, z is written c: pedazo → pedacito, taza → tacita, lápiz → lapicito.
Adding plain -ito to words ending in -n or -r
Es un jovenito muy educado.
Es un jovencito muy educado.
Words of two or more syllables ending in -n or -r add -cito/-cita, not plain -ito: joven → jovencito, mujer → mujercita, camión → camioncito.

B1Vocabulary usage

Word Formation with Suffixes

Formación de palabras con sufijos

Spanish builds many words by adding a suffix to a word you already know. Verbs give nouns with -ción/-sión (comunicar → comunicación, decidir → decisión), -miento (conocer → conocimiento) or -anza (enseñar → enseñanza). A feminine adjective gives an adverb with -mente, and any written accent stays: rápida → rápidamente, fácil → fácilmente. Nouns give adjectives with -oso/-osa (peligro → peligroso). Many jobs end in -ero/-era, which changes for gender (enfermero, enfermera), or in -ista, which has one form for both (el periodista, la periodista). Adjectives give nouns for qualities with -dad/-tad (feliz → felicidad, leal → lealtad), and many adjectives in -ante/-ente have nouns in -ancia/-encia (importante → importancia, paciente → paciencia). These patterns help you recognize hundreds of words, but which suffix a word takes often can't be predicted, so learn each new word as you meet it.

Key rule

Learn the main suffixes as patterns: -ción/-sión, -miento and -anza make nouns from verbs; -mente on the feminine adjective makes adverbs; -oso makes adjectives; -ero/-era, -ista and -dor name people; -dad/-tad and -ancia/-encia name qualities. Which suffix a word takes often cannot be predicted, so learn each derived word rather than guessing.

Examples

La comunicación es importante en el trabajo.
El comunicamiento es importante en el trabajo.
Comunicar forms its noun with -ación: la comunicación. The ending -miento belongs to other verbs, such as conocer → conocimiento.
Ella habla rápidamente.
Ella habla rápidomente.
Adverbs in -mente are built on the feminine adjective: rápida + -mente = rápidamente. The written accent of rápida stays.
Este camino es muy peligroso.
Este camino es muy peligro.
Peligro is the noun (danger). To describe the road, you need the adjective formed with -oso: peligroso (dangerous).

Common mistakes

Forming -mente adverbs from the masculine adjective
Él camina lentomente.
Él camina lentamente.
Adverbs ending in -mente are formed from the feminine form of the adjective: lenta + -mente = lentamente.
Changing the ending of -ista nouns for men
Mi hermano es periodisto.
Mi hermano es periodista.
Nouns ending in -ista have one form for both genders; only the article changes: el periodista, la periodista.

B1Determiners

Todo/a/os/as as Determiner

Todo/a/os/as como determinante

Todo (all, every, the whole) agrees with its noun: todo, toda, todos, todas. Before a noun it normally takes a determiner, most often the definite article: todo el día (all day), toda la casa (the whole house), todos los días (every day), todas las semanas (every week). A possessive or a demonstrative can take the article's place: toda mi vida, todo este tiempo. A few set patterns have none: toda España, todo tipo de. Cada (each, every) never changes, takes no article and goes with a singular noun: cada día (but cada dos días, every two days). Careful: todo el día means 'all day long', but todos los días means 'every day'. On its own, todo means 'everything': Todo está listo.

Key rule

Todo agrees with its noun and normally needs the article, a possessive or a demonstrative between it and the noun: todo el día, todas las semanas, toda mi vida (not todo día or todos días). Singular todo el means 'the whole'; plural todos los means 'all the' or 'every' (for 'every', invariable cada + a singular noun also works).

Examples

He estudiado todo el día.
He estudiado todo día.
For 'all day', todo needs the article: todo el día, not todo día.
Toda la familia vino a cenar.
Toda familia vino a cenar.
For 'the whole family', toda needs la: toda la familia. Without the article, toda familia would mean 'every family' in a general statement, which does not fit one dinner.
Todos los estudiantes aprobaron.
Todos estudiantes aprobaron.
For 'all the students', todos needs los: todos los estudiantes, not todos estudiantes.

Common mistakes

Omitting the article after todo/a/os/as
Trabajo todos días.
Trabajo todos los días.
Before a common noun, todo/a/os/as normally needs a determiner between it and the noun, here the definite article: todos los días, not todos días.
Adding an article after cada
Cada la semana voy al gimnasio.
Cada semana voy al gimnasio.
Cada never changes and never takes an article. It goes directly before the noun.

B1Determiners

Indefinite Determiners: Cualquier, Alguno, Ninguno

Determinantes indefinidos: cualquier, alguno, ninguno

Spanish often needs no word for English 'any': ¿Tienes hermanos? (Do you have any brothers or sisters?), No tengo tiempo (I don't have any time). When you do use one, alguno goes in questions (¿Tienes algún libro?), ninguno in negative sentences, meaning 'not a single' (No tengo ningún libro), and cualquiera means 'any at all, no matter which' (Puedes elegir cualquier libro). In statements, alguno means 'some': algún día (some day), algunos amigos (some friends). All three shorten before a noun: cualquiera → cualquier before any singular noun, alguno → algún and ninguno → ningún before a masculine singular noun (algún día, ningún problema, but alguna vez, ninguna idea). Ninguno is normally singular: No tengo ningún amigo aquí. When ninguno comes after the verb, put no (or another negative word) before the verb: No hay ningún problema. When it comes first, it is the only negative: Ningún alumno vino.

Key rule

Before a noun use the short forms: cualquier (with any singular noun), algún and ningún (with masculine singular nouns); ninguno is normally singular. Spanish often needs no word for English 'any' (¿Tienes hermanos?); when it does, use alguno in questions, ninguno in negatives (with no or another negative word before the verb when ninguno follows it) and cualquiera for 'any at all'.

Examples

Puedes elegir cualquier libro.
Puedes elegir cualquiera libro.
Before a noun, 'cualquiera' shortens to 'cualquier': cualquier libro.
Es una persona cualquiera.
Es una persona cualquier.
After the noun, the full form cualquiera is used, often with a dismissive tone: una persona cualquiera (a nobody).
¿Tienes algún problema?
¿Tienes alguno problema?
Before a masculine singular noun, 'alguno' shortens to 'algún': algún problema.

Common mistakes

Using full form cualquiera before a noun
Cualquiera día voy a visitarte.
Cualquier día voy a visitarte.
Before a singular noun, 'cualquiera' shortens to 'cualquier', whatever the noun's gender: cualquier día, cualquier semana.
Using plural form of ninguno
No tengo ningunos libros.
No tengo ningún libro.
Ninguno is normally singular. Use ningún libro even where English says 'any books'.

B1Numbers dates time

Percentages and Fractions

Porcentajes y fracciones

Percentages use por ciento, written as two words, and normally take a singular article, el or un, never los: el 50% (el cincuenta por ciento), un 20% de descuento. When a percentage of a plural noun is the subject, the verb can be singular or plural: El 30% de los alumnos aprobó / aprobaron. For fractions, 'half of' is la mitad de (mitad is feminine), a third is un tercio (not tercero, which means 'third' in a series) and a quarter is un cuarto. Tercio and cuarto are masculine nouns, even before a feminine noun (tres cuartos de la novela); with parte, the feminine ordinal is used instead: una cuarta parte. Medio/media agrees with its noun and goes straight before it, with no de: media hora, medio kilo. In 'and a half' it comes after the noun, agrees in gender and stays singular: dos horas y media (not y medias), dos kilos y medio.

Key rule

Say el (or un) + number + por ciento, with a singular article and por ciento as two words; after de + a plural noun, the verb can be singular or plural. For fractions use la mitad de, un tercio and un cuarto; medio/media agrees in gender with its noun and goes right before it (media hora) or after it in y medio / y media, which stays singular (dos horas y media).

Examples

El cincuenta por ciento de la población vive en ciudades.
El cincuenta porciento de la población vive en ciudades.
Por ciento is always written as two words. With digits, you can also use the symbol: el 50%.
El treinta por ciento de los alumnos aprobó el examen.
Los treinta por ciento de los alumnos aprobó el examen.
The article before a percentage is singular (el or un), never los. The verb could also be plural here: aprobaron.
Necesito media hora para terminar.
Necesito medio hora para terminar.
Hora is feminine, so medio must agree: media hora.

Common mistakes

Using medio de instead of la mitad de
Medio de mis amigos viven en otro país.
La mitad de mis amigos viven en otro país.
'Half of' + a noun is la mitad de. Medio/media is an adjective that goes directly before a noun (medio kilo, media hora) and never takes de.
Wrong gender agreement with medio/a
Necesito medio hora más.
Necesito media hora más.
Hora is feminine, so medio must become media to agree: media hora.

B1Numbers dates time

Large Numbers: Thousands, Millions, Billions

Números grandes: miles, millones, billones

For 1000 just say mil, not un mil: mil personas, dos mil, cien mil. Mil never becomes plural inside a number: cincuenta mil. The hundreds in front of mil agree with a feminine noun: quinientas mil personas. Millón is a noun, so it takes un, has a plural and needs de before a noun: un millón de personas, tres millones de euros. There is no de when another number follows: un millón quinientos mil. Careful: Spanish billón is a million millions (an English trillion). An English billion is mil millones.

Key rule

For 1000, say mil, not un mil, and never make mil plural inside a number (cincuenta mil); say un millón / dos millones de + noun, with no de before another number. Spanish billón is an English trillion, and an English billion is mil millones.

Examples

Hay mil estudiantes en la escuela.
Hay un mil estudiantes en la escuela.
For one thousand, Spanish says just mil: mil estudiantes, not un mil estudiantes.
La ciudad tiene un millón de habitantes.
La ciudad tiene un millón habitantes.
Millón is a noun, so it needs de before another noun: un millón de habitantes.
Tres millones de personas viven aquí.
Tres millones personas viven aquí.
Millones also needs de before a noun: tres millones de personas.

Common mistakes

Adding un before mil
Tengo un mil razones para quedarme.
Tengo mil razones para quedarme.
For one thousand, Spanish says just mil, without un.
Omitting de after millón/millones before a noun
Ganó dos millones euros.
Ganó dos millones de euros.
Millón and millones are nouns and need de before another noun: millones de euros.

B1Numbers dates time

Approximate Quantities

Cantidades aproximadas

To say 'about' with a number, put unos/unas before it, agreeing with the noun: unos veinte euros, unas treinta personas. With millones, use unos, because millones is masculine: unos dos millones de personas. Other options are alrededor de (around), cerca de (close to), casi (almost), más o menos (more or less), aproximadamente (approximately) and, in casual speech, como (Había como cien personas). Alrededor de and cerca de keep their de, but casi takes none: casi mil personas. Don't use acerca de for this: it means 'about' only in the sense 'on the topic of'. After a round number, y pico or y tantos means 'and a bit more': treinta y pico años (thirty-something).

Key rule

Put unos/unas before a number for 'about', agreeing with the noun (unas veinte personas, but unos dos millones de personas, since millones is masculine); alrededor de and cerca de need de, casi does not, and acerca de is only 'about' a topic. Use aproximadamente in formal texts, como in casual speech, and y pico or y tantos after a round number for 'and a bit more'.

Examples

Había unas veinte personas en la fiesta.
Había unos veinte personas en la fiesta.
Unos/unas agrees with the noun: personas is feminine, so unas veinte personas.
El viaje dura aproximadamente tres horas.
El viaje dura aproximado tres horas.
Use the adverb aproximadamente (approximately), not the adjective aproximado.
Casi mil personas asistieron al concierto.
Casi de mil personas asistieron al concierto.
Casi (almost) goes directly before the number, with no de: casi mil personas. Don't copy the de of alrededor de or cerca de (alrededor de mil, cerca de mil).

Common mistakes

Wrong gender agreement with unos/unas
Vinieron unos treinta personas.
Vinieron unas treinta personas.
Personas is feminine, so the approximation marker must be feminine too: unas treinta personas.
Making unos agree with the noun after millones
En Madrid viven unas tres millones de personas.
En Madrid viven unos tres millones de personas.
Unos/unas agrees with millones, which is masculine, not with personas: unos tres millones de personas.

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B1 Spanish Grammar — 70 Topics & Common Mistakes

Present Subjunctive - Regular Verbs

Present Subjunctive - Irregular Verbs

Conditional Tense - Regular Verbs

Conditional Tense - Irregular Verbs

Pluperfect Tense

Future Perfect Tense

Past Progressive

Gerund vs. Infinitive Usage

Passive 'Se' Construction

Imperative - Nosotros (Let's)

Imperative - Vosotros

Present Perfect Subjunctive

Haber Idioms & Expressions

Llevar + Gerund / Time for Duration

Ir + Gerund for Gradual Action

Quedar vs Quedarse

Volver a + Infinitive (To Do Again)

Verbs of Change (Ponerse, Hacerse, Volverse, Convertirse, Llegar a ser)

Dejar vs Dejar de

Soler in the Imperfect (Past Habits)

Subjunctive After Emotion Verbs

Subjunctive After Doubt and Denial

Subjunctive After Desire and Request Verbs

Subjunctive After Impersonal Expressions

Ojalá + Subjunctive

Subjunctive in Purpose Clauses

Subjunctive After Temporal Conjunctions (Future)

Subjunctive in Relative Clauses (Unknown Antecedent)

Subjunctive After Negative Antecedent

Subjunctive After 'Es + Adjective + Que' (Judgment)

Lo + Adjective as Abstract Noun

Mixed Gender Plural Agreement

Adjective Position Changes Meaning

Emphatic Prepositional Pronoun Construction

Relative Pronouns: El cual & Quien

Todo/a/os/as as Pronoun

Impersonal Se

Passive Se

Advanced Por vs Para Distinctions

Compound Prepositions

Al + Infinitive for 'Upon Doing'

De + Infinitive for Conditional Meaning

Prepositions Required After Adjectives

Por/Para with Ser and Estar

No Preposition Stranding in Spanish

Cleft and Pseudo-Cleft Sentences

Topicalization and Fronting

Adverb Placement in Spanish

Word Order in Subordinate Clauses

Passive Voice with Ser

Reported Speech with Tense Backshift

Concessive Connectors

Exemplification & Clarification Connectors

Reformulation Connectors

Summary & Conclusion Connectors

Advanced Sequence Connectors

Opinion Markers

Systematic Accentuation Rules

G vs J Spelling Rules

LL vs Y Spelling Rules

Hedging and Softening

Academic vs Conversational Register

Common Spanish Collocations

Diminutives and Augmentatives

Word Formation with Suffixes

Todo/a/os/as as Determiner

Indefinite Determiners: Cualquier, Alguno, Ninguno

Percentages and Fractions

Large Numbers: Thousands, Millions, Billions

Approximate Quantities