A1 English Grammar — 72 Topics & Common Mistakes

Present Tense - To Be (am / is / are)

The verb 'be' has three forms in the present: 'am', 'is', and 'are'. Use 'am' with 'I'. Use 'is' with 'he', 'she', 'it', and one person or thing ('My brother is tall.'). Use 'are' with 'you', 'we', 'they', and more than one person or thing ('My parents are at home.'). We use 'be' to say who someone is, where they are, how they feel, and how old they are, and with 'it' for the weather and the time: 'I'm a student.', 'She's at work.', 'It's cold.' In speech we usually use short forms: 'I'm', 'you're', 'he's', 'she's', 'it's', 'we're', 'they're'. For a negative, add 'not': 'I'm not', 'isn't', 'aren't'. For a question, put 'am', 'is', or 'are' before the subject: 'Are you ready?'

Present Tense - To Have (have / has)

The verb 'have' has two forms in the present. Use 'has' with 'he', 'she', 'it', and one person or thing ('My sister has a dog.'). Use 'have' with 'I', 'you', 'we', 'they', and more than one ('I have a car.', 'My parents have a big house.'). We use 'have' for things we own, for family, for how people look, and for illnesses: 'She has blue eyes.', 'I have a cold.' We also use it for meals and some activities: 'We have lunch at one.' Questions and negatives use the helper verb 'do/does' + 'have': 'Do you have a pen?', 'He doesn't have a car.' After 'does' and 'doesn't', say 'have', not 'has'.

Present Simple - Regular Verbs

The present simple is the tense for habits, routines, facts, and things that are generally true: 'I work in a bank.', 'We drink coffee every morning.', 'Water boils at 100 degrees.' With 'I', 'you', 'we', 'they', and more than one person or thing, use the base form of the verb (the dictionary form, such as 'work' or 'live'). With 'he', 'she', 'it', and one person or thing, add -s (or -es): 'She works.', 'My brother watches TV.' 'Have' becomes 'has': 'She has a dog.' For a negative, put 'don't' or 'doesn't' before the base form: 'I don't eat meat.', 'He doesn't eat meat.' For a question, put 'do' or 'does' before the subject: 'Do you speak English?', 'Where does she live?' Do not put 'am', 'is', or 'are' before the base form: say 'I work', not 'I am work'.

Present Simple - Third Person Singular -s/-es/-ies

In the present simple, the verb gets -s when the subject is 'he', 'she', 'it', or one person or thing, such as 'my mother', 'the dog', or 'Tom': 'I work', but 'she works'. Spelling: most verbs just add -s ('play → plays'). Verbs ending in -s, -sh, -ch, -x, -z, or -o add -es ('watch → watches', 'go → goes'). Verbs ending in a consonant + -y change the -y to -ies ('study → studies'). 'Have' becomes 'has'. In questions and negatives, the -s goes on 'does' or 'doesn't', so the main verb has no -s: 'Does she work?', 'She doesn't work.' Modal verbs, special helper verbs such as 'can' and 'must', never add -s, and neither does the verb after them: 'She can swim.', not 'She can swims.'

Present Continuous (am/is/are + -ing)

The present continuous is for actions that are happening now, at the moment of speaking: 'I'm cooking.', 'Look, it's raining!' It is also used for temporary situations around now: 'I'm staying with a friend this week.' To make it, use 'am', 'is', or 'are' + the -ing form of the verb: 'I am working', 'she is eating', 'they are playing'. Watch the spelling: 'make → making', 'run → running'. In speech we use short forms: 'I'm', 'she's', 'they're'. For a negative, add 'not': 'He isn't listening.' For a question, put 'am', 'is', or 'are' before the subject: 'Are you listening?' Words that often go with it: 'now', 'right now', 'at the moment', 'today', 'this week'. Stative verbs (verbs for states, not actions), such as 'know', 'like', and 'want', usually stay in the present simple, even for right now: 'I know the answer.', not 'I'm knowing the answer.'

Present Simple vs Continuous - Basic Distinction

English has two main present tenses with different meanings. The present simple ('I work', 'she works') is for habits, routines, facts, and permanent situations: 'I drink coffee every morning.' The present continuous ('I am working') is for actions happening now and for temporary situations: 'I'm drinking coffee right now.' Signal words for the present simple: 'every day', 'usually', 'often', 'never', 'on Mondays'. Signal words for the present continuous: 'now', 'right now', 'at the moment', 'today', 'this week'. Stative verbs (verbs for states, not actions), such as 'know', 'like', and 'want', usually stay in the present simple even when you mean 'now': 'I know the answer.'

Past Simple - To Be (was / were)

The past of 'be' has two forms. Use 'was' with 'I', 'he', 'she', 'it', and one person or thing. Use 'were' with 'you', 'we', 'they', and more than one. We use it for places, feelings, descriptions, age, and weather in the past: 'I was at home.', 'The film was good.', 'It was cold yesterday.' We also say 'I was born in 1998.' For a negative, add 'not': 'wasn't' (was not), 'weren't' (were not). For a question, put 'was' or 'were' before the subject: 'Were you tired?' Do not use 'did' with 'was' or 'were'.

Past Simple - Regular Verbs (-ed)

Most English verbs are regular. To make their past simple, add -ed to the base form: 'work → worked', 'play → played', 'watch → watched'. The form is the same for every subject: 'I worked', 'she worked', 'they worked'. We use it for finished actions at a time in the past: 'I watched a film last night.' For negatives and questions, use the helper verb 'did': 'I didn't work.', 'Did you work?' After 'did' and 'didn't', the verb has no -ed. Watch the spelling: 'live → lived', 'study → studied', 'stop → stopped'. Some very common verbs are irregular and do not add -ed ('go → went', 'see → saw'); they have their own lesson.

Past Simple - Common Irregular Verbs

Many of the most common English verbs are irregular: their past simple does not end in -ed. You need to learn these forms: 'go → went', 'have → had', 'do → did', 'say → said', 'make → made', 'see → saw', 'get → got', 'come → came', 'take → took', 'eat → ate', 'buy → bought', 'think → thought'. Like regular verbs, the past form is the same for every subject: 'I went', 'she went', 'they went'. In negatives and questions, use 'didn't' or 'did' + the base form: 'I didn't go.', 'Did you go?', not 'Did you went?'

Future with `be going to` - Plans and Predictions from Evidence

Use 'be going to' + the base form of a verb to talk about the future in two situations. First, for plans you have already decided: 'I'm going to visit my grandmother on Saturday.' Second, for predictions based on something you can see or know now: 'Look at those clouds! It's going to rain.' Form: 'am', 'is', or 'are' + 'going to' + base form: 'She is going to study tonight.' For a negative, add 'not': 'We aren't going to buy it.' For a question, put 'am', 'is', or 'are' before the subject: 'Are you going to come?' Do not forget 'be' or 'to'.

Imperative Form - Affirmative

The imperative is the verb form for instructions, orders, advice, warnings, and invitations. To make it, use the base form of the verb (the dictionary form without 'to', such as 'sit', 'open', or 'be') with no subject: 'Sit down.', 'Open your book.', 'Be careful!' The form is the same when you speak to one person or to a group. Add 'please' at the start or at the end to sound friendlier: 'Please sit down.' or 'Sit down, please.' For a negative instruction, put 'don't' before the verb: 'Don't run.'

Suggestions with `Let's`

Use 'let's' + the base form of a verb (the dictionary form without 'to') to suggest that you and the other person do something together: 'Let's go.', 'Let's have lunch.', 'Let's watch a film.' 'Let's' is short for 'let us' and always has an apostrophe. For a negative suggestion, use 'let's not' + base form: 'Let's not argue.' To agree, you can say 'Yes, let's.' or 'Good idea!'

Verbs of Preference + -ing

To say which activities you like or don't like, use a verb of liking or disliking ('like', 'love', 'enjoy', 'hate', 'don't mind') + the -ing form of another verb: 'I like swimming.', 'She loves reading.', 'I hate waiting.' 'Don't mind' means that something is not a problem for you: 'I don't mind waiting.' After 'like', 'love', and 'hate' you can also use 'to' + the base form (the dictionary form of the verb): 'I like to swim.' This is especially common in American English, and the meaning is almost the same. After 'enjoy' and 'don't mind', only the -ing form is correct: 'I enjoy cooking.', not 'I enjoy to cook'. Questions and negatives use 'do/does': 'Do you like dancing?', 'He doesn't like cooking.'

`want / would like` + to-infinitive

Use 'want' + 'to' + base form (the dictionary form of a verb) to say what you want to do: 'I want to go home.', 'She wants to eat pizza.' 'Would like' + 'to' + base form means the same, but it is more polite: 'I'd like to order, please.' 'I'd' is the short form of 'I would'. Use 'would like' in shops and restaurants and when you offer something or invite someone: 'Would you like a drink?' Both can also take a noun directly: 'I want a new phone.', 'I'd like a coffee, please.'

`have got` vs `have` - Possession

`have got` vs `have` - Possession (BrE vs AmE)

'Have' and 'have got' both talk about possession: things you own, your family, how someone looks, and illnesses. 'I have a car.' and 'I've got a car.' mean the same. 'Have got' is very common in British English, especially in speech. American English usually uses 'have'. The two forms make questions and negatives in different ways: 'Do you have a car?' and 'I don't have a car.', but 'Have you got a car?' and 'I haven't got a car.' For actions such as meals ('I have breakfast at seven.') and for the past ('I had a car.'), use only 'have'.

`can` - Ability and Permission (basic)

Use 'can' + base form (the dictionary form of a verb) to talk about ability ('I can swim.') and to ask for or give permission ('Can I come in?', 'You can sit here.'). 'Can' is a modal verb (a special helper verb), so it has the same form for every person, with no -s: 'I can', 'she can', 'they can'. The next verb has no 'to' and no -s: 'She can speak French.' For questions, put 'can' before the subject: 'Can you help me?' The negative is 'cannot', usually shortened to 'can't': 'I can't drive.'

`do` as Auxiliary vs Main Verb

'Do' has two jobs in English. As a main verb, it means to perform an action or a task: 'I do my homework.', 'She does the dishes.' As a helper verb, 'do/does/did' makes questions and negatives in the present simple and the past simple: 'Do you like coffee?', 'I don't like coffee.', 'Did you see it?' After the helper, the main verb is in the base form (the dictionary form): 'Does she like it?', not 'Does she likes it?' The helper 'do' is not used with 'be', with 'have got', or with modal verbs (special helper verbs such as 'can' and 'will'): 'Are you tired?', 'Have you got a pen?', 'Can you swim?' But a negative instruction uses 'don't' even with 'be': 'Don't be late!' When the main verb is also 'do', you see it twice: 'Do you do yoga?' Forms: 'do' (I/you/we/they), 'does' (he/she/it), 'did' (past, all persons).

Short Answers

A short answer is 'Yes' or 'No' + a subject pronoun + the verb that starts the question ('be', 'do/does/did', 'can', 'will', or 'have'). It is the natural, polite way to answer a yes/no question: 'Are you tired?' 'Yes, I am.' / 'No, I'm not.' 'Do you like it?' 'Yes, I do.' / 'No, I don't.' 'Can you swim?' 'Yes, I can.' / 'No, I can't.' In a 'yes' short answer, do not shorten the verb: 'Yes, I am.', not 'Yes, I'm.' In a 'no' short answer, short forms are normal: 'No, I'm not.', 'No, she isn't.'

`be` for Age, Weather, Hunger, Feelings

English uses 'be' (am/is/are), not 'have', for age and for how you feel. Say 'I'm 20.' or 'I'm 20 years old.', not 'I have 20 years'. Say 'I'm hungry.', 'She's thirsty.', 'We're cold.', 'He's afraid of dogs.' Words like 'hungry', 'thirsty', 'cold', and 'afraid' are adjectives (describing words), so they go with 'be', not 'have'. Use 'be' for being right or wrong too: 'You're right.', not 'You have reason'. For weather and time, use 'it is': 'It's cold today.', 'It's three o'clock.' For illnesses, English does use 'have': 'I have a cold.' means you are ill.

Common Contractions

A contraction is a short form of two words. An apostrophe (') shows where letters are missing: 'I am → I'm', 'you are → you're', 'he is → he's', 'we have → we've', 'I will → I'll', 'do not → don't', 'is not → isn't'. Two forms are irregular: 'will not → won't' and 'cannot → can't'. Contractions are normal in speech, messages, and emails to friends. In formal writing, such as essays and business letters, use the full forms. Do not shorten 'am', 'is', 'are', 'have', 'has', 'had', 'will', or 'would' when it is the last word of a sentence: 'Yes, I am.', not 'Yes, I'm.' Negative short forms are fine at the end: 'No, I'm not.', 'No, it isn't.'

`there is / there are` - Existence

Use 'there is' and 'there are' to say that something exists or is in a place. Use 'there is' with a singular noun or an uncountable noun (a noun with no plural, such as 'milk' or 'water'): 'There is a book on the table.', 'There's some milk in the fridge.' ('There's' is the short form of 'there is'.) Use 'there are' with a plural noun: 'There are three books on the table.' Here 'there' does not mean 'in that place'. It only fills the subject position, and the place usually comes later in the sentence. Questions: 'Is there a bank near here?', 'Are there any questions?' Negatives: 'There isn't any milk.', 'There aren't any chairs.'

Indefinite Article: `a` vs `an`

The indefinite article is 'a' or 'an'. It means 'one' or 'any one', and it goes before a singular countable noun (a noun you can count, like 'book' or 'apple'). 'A' and 'an' mean the same thing. The first sound of the next word decides which one you use, not its first letter. Use 'a' before a consonant sound: 'a book', 'a car', 'a university' ('university' starts with a 'y' sound, like 'you'). Use 'an' before a vowel sound: 'an apple', 'an egg', 'an hour' (the 'h' in 'hour' is silent). If another word comes between 'a/an' and the noun, the first sound of that word decides: 'an old car', 'a big apple', 'a very old car'. English also needs 'a' or 'an' when you say what someone's job is: 'She is a doctor.', not 'She is doctor.' Do not use 'a' or 'an' with plural nouns ('books') or with uncountable nouns ('water').

Indefinite (a/an) vs Definite (the) - Basic Introduction

Articles are small words that go before a noun. 'A/an' is the indefinite article, and 'the' is the definite article. Use 'a/an' when the listener does not know which one you mean, for example when you mention something for the first time or when you mean any one of many: 'I have a dog.' Use 'the' when the listener knows exactly which one you mean, because you mentioned it before, because there is only one, or because the situation makes it clear: 'The dog is in the garden.' A typical pattern is 'a' for the first mention and 'the' after that: 'I bought a book. The book is very interesting.' 'A/an' goes only with singular countable nouns, but 'the' goes with singular, plural, and uncountable nouns. For things in general, use a plural or uncountable noun with no article: 'I like dogs.', 'Music is important.'

Zero Article with Plural Generic Nouns

When you talk about a group of things or people in general (all of them, as a type), use a plural noun with no article: 'I like dogs.' (dogs in general), 'Cars are expensive.', 'Children need sleep.' This is called the zero article. Use 'the' with a plural noun only when you mean a particular group that the listener can identify: 'The dogs next door bark all night.' Many languages use 'the' in general statements, so 'I like the dogs' (for dogs in general) is a very common mistake. Also, a singular countable noun cannot stand alone here: say 'I like cats.', not 'I like cat.'

Zero Article with Uncountable Generic Nouns

Uncountable nouns are nouns for things you cannot count one by one, such as 'water', 'rice', 'bread', 'money', 'music', 'information', and 'advice'. They have no plural form and do not take 'a/an'. When you talk about them in general, use no article: 'I drink water.', 'Music makes me happy.', 'Money isn't everything.' Use 'the' only when the listener knows exactly which water, music, and so on you mean: 'The water in this glass is cold.', 'The music at the party was great.' To talk about a quantity, use 'some' ('some bread') or a phrase like 'a glass of water' or 'a piece of advice'. Uncountable nouns take a singular verb: 'The news is good.'

`the` with Unique Things

Use 'the' with things that there is only one of, so everyone knows which one you mean: 'the sun', 'the moon', 'the sky', 'the world'. Say 'The sun is hot.', not 'Sun is hot.' We also use 'the' for things there is only one of in our country or town: 'the government', 'the President', 'the police', 'the station'. Some fixed phrases use 'the' too: 'on the Internet', 'listen to the radio', 'the weather', 'the sea'. But most names of people, cities, and countries have no article: 'Maria', 'Paris', 'France'. The words 'nature' and 'space' (meaning everything outside the Earth) have no article either: 'I love nature.' (not 'the nature'), 'Astronauts work in space.' (not 'in the space').

Demonstratives (this / that / these / those)

Demonstratives are the words 'this', 'that', 'these', and 'those'. They point to people and things. Use 'this' (singular) and 'these' (plural) for things near you: 'this book' (in your hand), 'these shoes'. Use 'that' (singular) and 'those' (plural) for things further away: 'that house' (over there), 'those people'. The word must match the noun, and the verb must match too: 'This book is new.', but 'These books are new.' Uncountable nouns (nouns you cannot count, such as 'milk' and 'news') take 'this' or 'that': 'this milk', 'this news'. Demonstratives can go before a noun, as in 'This coffee is hot.' They can also stand alone, as in 'This is my sister.' or 'These are my parents.' English has only two distances: near ('this/these') and not near ('that/those').

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive Adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)

Possessive adjectives show who something belongs to. The forms are: I → 'my', you → 'your', he → 'his', she → 'her', it → 'its', we → 'our', they → 'their'. They go before the noun and never change their form: 'my book', 'my books'. The choice depends on the owner, not on the thing: 'Tom and his sister', 'Anna and her brother'. Do not use 'the' or 'a' with them: say 'my car', not 'the my car'. English also uses them with parts of the body and with family members: 'I brush my teeth.', 'I love my mother.' Be careful: 'its' (no apostrophe) means 'belonging to it', but 'it's' means 'it is' or 'it has'.

`some` vs `any` - Basic

`some` vs `any` - Basic Affirmative/Negative/Interrogative

'Some' and 'any' mean an amount or a number that is not exact. They go with plural nouns ('some apples') and with uncountable nouns, which are nouns you cannot count ('some water'). Use 'some' in positive sentences: 'I have some friends in London.' Use 'any' in negative sentences and in most questions: 'I don't have any money.', 'Do you have any questions?' When you offer something or ask for something, use 'some' in the question: 'Would you like some tea?', 'Can I have some water?' With a singular countable noun, use 'a/an' instead: 'I have a car.' In a positive sentence, 'any' means 'it does not matter which', and with this meaning it can also go with a singular noun: 'Take any seat.'

`much / many / a lot of` with Countables and Uncountables

'Many', 'much', and 'a lot of' mean 'a large number' or 'a large amount'. Use 'many' with plural countable nouns: 'many friends', 'many books'. Use 'much' with uncountable nouns: 'much time', 'much money'. 'A lot of' goes with both: 'a lot of friends', 'a lot of time'. 'Much' is mainly used in negative sentences and questions: 'I don't have much time.', 'How much money do you need?' In positive sentences, use 'a lot of' instead of 'much': 'I have a lot of time.' (not 'I have much time'). But after 'too' and 'so', 'much' is normal: 'You drink too much coffee.' Ask 'How many...?' with plural nouns and 'How much...?' with uncountable nouns.

Numerals as Determiners

Numbers can go directly before a countable noun (a noun you can count, like 'book' or 'cat'), with no article: 'two books', 'three cats', 'five people'. After 'one', the noun is singular: 'one book'. After two or more, the noun is plural: 'two books' (not 'two book'). After 'one of', the noun is plural too: 'one of my friends'. Uncountable nouns (nouns you cannot count, such as 'advice' and 'information') cannot follow a number directly. Use a unit word, such as 'piece' or 'cup': 'two pieces of advice' (not 'two advices'). When you mean one, you can also use 'a/an' instead of 'one': 'I have a brother.' 'One' is stronger and stresses the number: 'I have one brother, not two.' For zero, English usually says 'no': 'I have no sisters.' After a number, 'hundred' and 'thousand' have no -s: 'two hundred people'.

Subject Pronouns

Subject Pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)

A subject pronoun replaces the subject of a sentence: the person or thing the sentence is about. It usually comes before the verb. English has seven: 'I', 'you', 'he', 'she', 'it', 'we', 'they'. Use 'he' for a man or boy, 'she' for a woman or girl, 'it' for a thing or an animal, and 'they' for two or more people or things. 'They' can also mean one person when you do not know if the person is a man or a woman: 'Someone is at the door. They want to talk to you.' 'You' is the same for one person or many, and for friends or strangers. Always write 'I' with a capital letter. A normal English sentence needs a subject, so do not leave the pronoun out: say 'She is my sister.', not 'Is my sister.'

Object Pronouns

Object Pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, them)

Object pronouns are the forms you use when the pronoun is not the subject: after a verb, for the person or thing the action is done to, or after a preposition (a small word such as 'for', 'with' or 'to'). There are seven: 'me', 'you', 'him', 'her', 'it', 'us', 'them'. Each one matches a subject pronoun: 'I' → 'me', 'he' → 'him', 'she' → 'her', 'we' → 'us', 'they' → 'them'. 'You' and 'it' do not change. Compare 'I love her.' and 'She loves me.' In English, the object pronoun comes after the verb: 'He calls me every day.', not 'He me calls every day.' After a preposition, use the object form too: 'This is for you.', 'Come with us.' When the object is the same person as the subject, use 'myself', 'himself' and so on instead: 'I hurt myself.', not 'I hurt me.' But when you take or have something with you, keep the object form after 'with': 'Take your keys with you.'

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)

A possessive pronoun says who something belongs to, and it stands alone, with no noun after it: 'This book is mine.' ('mine' = 'my book'). The forms are 'mine', 'yours', 'his', 'hers', 'ours', 'theirs'. Before a noun, use a possessive adjective instead: 'my', 'your', 'his', 'her', 'our', 'their'. Compare 'This is my book.' and 'This book is mine.' 'His' is the same in both places. Possessive pronouns never have an apostrophe and never take 'the': write 'hers' and 'yours', not 'her's' and 'your's', and say 'Mine is faster.', not 'The mine is faster.' Choose 'his' or 'hers' by the owner, not by the thing: 'That's Anna's bike. It's hers.'

Reflexive Pronouns - Introduction

Reflexive Pronouns - Introduction (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)

A reflexive pronoun ends in '-self' (one person or thing) or '-selves' (more than one). The forms are 'myself', 'yourself', 'himself', 'herself', 'itself', 'ourselves', 'yourselves', 'themselves'. 'Yourself' is for one person and 'yourselves' for two or more. Use a reflexive pronoun when the object is the same person or thing as the subject: 'I cut myself.' means that the person who cuts and the person who gets cut are the same. Compare 'She looked at herself.' (her own face) and 'She looked at her.' (another woman). But after 'with' when you take or have something with you, and usually after words of place such as 'behind', use the object form ('me', 'him', 'her', and so on): 'She took her umbrella with her.', 'She closed the door behind her.' A reflexive pronoun can also mean 'with no help': 'I made this cake myself.' 'By myself' means 'alone'. Many verbs that are reflexive in other languages are not reflexive in English: 'I get up at seven.', 'I feel tired.'

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns (this, that, these, those)

'This', 'that', 'these' and 'those' can stand alone, with no noun after them. Then they are demonstrative pronouns (pointing words): 'This is my friend Tom.', 'Those are my keys.' Use 'this' (one) and 'these' (more than one) for things near you. Use 'that' (one) and 'those' (more than one) for things further away. 'This' and 'that' take a singular verb ('is', 'was'); 'these' and 'those' take a plural verb ('are', 'were'). Uncountable nouns (nouns you cannot count, such as 'news' and 'advice') are singular, so use 'this' or 'that' for them: 'This is good news.' Use 'that' for something that is finished or that someone has just said: 'That was a great film.', 'That's a good idea!'

Interrogative Pronouns (who, what, which)

Question words ask for information, and they come at the start of the question. 'Who' asks about people: 'Who is your teacher?' 'What' asks about things, actions and information: 'What is your name?', 'What do you do?' 'Which' asks someone to choose from a small group of options: 'Which bag is yours, the red one or the blue one?' 'Whose' asks who something belongs to: 'Whose phone is this?' After the question word usually comes a helper verb ('do', 'does', 'did', 'is', 'are', 'can') and then the subject (the person or thing that does the action): 'What do you want?' But when the question word, or the question word + a noun, is the subject, there is no 'do': 'Who called you?', 'What happened?', 'Which bus goes to the station?'

Dummy `it` for Weather, Time, Distance

A normal English sentence needs a subject. When there is no real subject, English uses 'it' as an empty subject. This 'it' does not mean any particular thing. Use it for the weather ('It's raining.', 'It's cold.'), for time, days and dates ('It's three o'clock.', 'It's Monday.'), for distance ('It's five kilometres to the station.'), for how long something takes ('It takes ten minutes.'), and before an adjective + 'to' ('It's nice to meet you.'). Do not leave this 'it' out: say 'It's hot today.', not 'Is hot today.'

Dummy `there` for Existence

To say that something exists or is in a place, English uses 'there is' for one thing or for something you cannot count, such as 'milk' (an uncountable noun), and 'there are' for more than one thing: 'There is a park near my house.', 'There is some milk in the fridge.', 'There are three cats in the garden.' Here 'there' does not mean 'in that place'. It only fills the subject position, and the real subject is the noun after the verb. The verb agrees with that noun: 'there is a book', 'there are two books'. The short form of 'there is' is 'there's'. In the past, use 'there was' and 'there were'. In questions, put the verb before 'there': 'Is there a bank near here?', 'Are there any eggs?', 'How many eggs are there?'

Time Prepositions: `in` / `on` / `at`

'At', 'on', and 'in' are prepositions (small words that go before a noun). They tell you when something happens. Use 'at' with clock times and exact moments ('at 7 o'clock', 'at noon'), and in the fixed phrase 'at night'. Use 'on' with days and dates: 'on Monday', 'on 15 May', 'on my birthday'. Use 'in' with longer periods, such as months, years, seasons, and parts of the day: 'in June', 'in 2020', 'in winter', 'in the morning'. Do not use 'at', 'on', or 'in' before 'today', 'tomorrow', and 'yesterday', or before 'this', 'next', 'last', and 'every' + a time word: 'See you tomorrow.', 'We met last year.'

Place Prepositions: `in` / `on` / `at`

'In', 'on', and 'at' also tell you where something is. Use 'in' for inside a space: 'in the kitchen', 'in my bag', 'in London'. Use 'on' for a surface: 'on the table', 'on the wall', 'on the floor'. Use 'at' for a point or a place where you do something: 'at the bus stop', 'at the door', 'at the station'. Learn these fixed phrases: 'at home', 'at work', 'at school', and 'in bed'. For transport, say 'on the bus', 'on the train', and 'on the plane', but 'in the car' and 'in a taxi'.

Direction: `to`

Use 'to' before the place you are going to: 'I go to school.', 'She's flying to Japan.' 'To' comes after verbs of movement, such as 'go', 'come', 'walk', 'drive', 'fly', and 'travel'. For the place where you are, use 'at' or 'in': 'I'm at school.' Do not use 'to' before 'home' on its own or before words that already say where, such as 'here', 'there', 'upstairs', 'downstairs', 'inside', 'outside', and 'abroad': 'I'm going home.', 'Come here!' After 'arrive', use 'in' or 'at', not 'to': 'We arrived in London.'

Origin: `from`

Use 'from' for a starting point: where someone or something comes from, or where something begins. Origin: 'I'm from Germany.' Sender: 'This present is from my grandmother.' Start of a journey: 'The bus from London is late.' Start of a period of time: 'I work from 9 to 5.' 'From' often goes with 'to': 'from Monday to Friday', 'from Berlin to Vienna'. When 'where' or 'who' asks about the starting point, 'from' usually goes at the end of the question: 'Where are you from?', 'Who is this present from?'

`with` - Accompaniment and Instrument

'With' has three main meanings. Together with someone: 'I live with my parents.', 'Come with me.' Using a tool or an object: 'Cut the bread with a knife.', 'I write with a pen.' Having something, to describe people and things: 'a man with a beard', 'a house with a garden', 'coffee with milk'. The opposite of 'with' is 'without': 'I drink tea without sugar.' Be careful: 'marry' takes no 'with': 'She married Tom.' For a way of travelling, use 'by' with no 'the', 'a', or 'my' after it, not 'with': 'I go to work by bus.'

`for` - Purpose and Duration (basic)

'For' has five main uses at this level. First, 'for' + the person or thing that gets or enjoys something: 'This present is for you.', 'a table for two'. After verbs of making and getting, such as 'buy', 'make', and 'cook', use 'for' before the person: 'I made a cake for Anna.' But after verbs of giving, sending, and showing, such as 'give', 'send', 'lend', and 'show', use 'to': 'I gave the cake to Anna.' Second, 'for' + a length of time, to say how long: 'I waited for twenty minutes.', 'We lived there for two years.' Third, 'for' + a reason, after 'thank you', 'sorry', and 'famous': 'Thank you for your help.', 'Sorry for being late.' Fourth, 'for' + a noun, to give a purpose: 'I went to the shop for some bread.' Fifth, 'pay' + an amount of money + 'for' + the thing you buy: 'I paid £20 for this shirt.' After 'for', use a noun or an -ing form ('Thanks for coming.'), never the base form of a verb ('for come'). For a purpose with a verb (what someone wants to do), use 'to' + verb, not 'for': 'I went to the shop to buy bread.', not 'for buy bread' or 'for buying bread'.

`of` - Possession and Relationship (basic)

'Of' links two nouns. Use it for a part of something or for something that belongs to a thing: 'the end of the film', 'the name of the street', 'the capital of France'. Use it for amounts and containers: 'a cup of coffee', 'a piece of cake', 'a lot of people'. For things that belong to a person, English usually uses 's instead: 'Anna's book', not 'the book of Anna'. Some adjectives are followed by 'of': 'afraid of', 'proud of'. Say 'a friend of mine', not 'a friend of me'.

`about` - Topic

'About' has two main meanings. First, it gives the topic: 'This book is about history.', 'We talked about the weather.' Many verbs use 'about' before the topic: 'talk', 'think', 'read', 'write', 'know', 'worry', 'ask', and 'tell someone'. Second, before a number, 'about' means 'approximately' (a little more or a little less): 'about 20 people', 'at about 8 o'clock'. For suggestions, use 'What about...?' or 'How about...?' + a noun or an -ing form: 'How about pizza?', 'What about going out?' Be careful: 'discuss' takes no 'about': 'We discussed the plan.', not 'We discussed about the plan.'

`by` - Means of Transport and Near

`by` - Means of Transport and Near (basic)

'By' has several uses. For a way of travelling, use 'by' + transport, with no 'the', 'a', or 'my': 'by car', 'by bus', 'by train', 'by plane'. For walking, say 'on foot'. 'By' also means 'next to': 'Sit by the window.', 'a house by the sea'. With a time, it means 'not later than': 'Finish it by Friday.' It shows who made something: 'a book by Jane Austen'. It also shows how you send or pay: 'by email', 'by credit card'.

Coordination: `and` (addition)

'And' joins two or more things of the same kind: two nouns ('tea and coffee'), two adjectives ('tall and friendly'), two verbs ('We sang and danced.'), or two sentences ('I cooked dinner, and my friend washed the dishes.'). In a list of three or more, put commas between the items and 'and' before the last one: 'I bought bread, cheese, and milk.' The comma before 'and' is optional. Two subjects joined with 'and' are plural, so the verb is plural too: 'Tom and Anna are here.'

Coordination: `but` (contrast)

'But' joins two ideas that contrast: the second idea is different from the first, or it is a surprise after the first. 'I'm tired, but I'm happy.' / 'I like pizza, but I don't like pasta.' 'But' can join two sentences or two short words: 'small but strong', 'cheap but good'. Between two sentences, we usually put a comma before 'but', not after it; with short sentences, the comma is often left out. If there is no contrast, use 'and': 'She's kind and friendly.'

Coordination: `or` (alternative)

'Or' gives a choice between two or more things: 'Tea or coffee?' / 'We can go on Saturday or Sunday.' In a question with 'or', the answer is usually one of the options: 'Tea or coffee?' 'Tea, please.' In a negative sentence, 'or' means 'not this and not that': 'I don't eat meat or fish.' After an order, 'or' means 'if not': 'Hurry up, or you'll miss the bus.' When 'or' joins two subjects, the verb agrees with the nearer one: 'Mum or Dad drives me to school.'

Subordination: `because` (cause)

'Because' gives the reason for something. It answers the question 'Why?': 'I'm tired because I worked all day.' After 'because', use a subject and a verb ('I worked', 'it was raining'). Before a noun or a pronoun alone, use 'because of': 'I'm cold because of the wind.' / 'I'm happy because of you.' The part that starts with 'because' is called the because-clause. It can come second, usually with no comma, or first, with a comma after it: 'Because it was raining, we stayed at home.' In conversation, you can answer 'Why?' with just the because-clause: 'Why are you late?' 'Because the bus was late.'

Coordination: `so` (consequence)

Coordination: `so` (consequence - basic)

'So' introduces a result: first comes the reason, then 'so' and what happens because of it. 'It was raining, so I stayed at home.' / 'I was hungry, so I made a sandwich.' 'So' and the result together are called the so-part. It always comes second, and it normally has its own subject, even when it is the same person as in the first part: 'so I made a sandwich'. When the subject changes, you must say the new subject: 'It was raining, so I stayed at home.' Not 'It was raining, so stayed at home.' Orders and advice that start with the verb have no subject: 'It's cold, so wear a coat.' 'So' and 'because' show the same facts from opposite sides: 'I stayed at home because it was raining.' Put a comma before 'so' when it joins two sentences; in short, informal sentences, the comma is often left out. Use either 'so' or 'because' to link a reason and its result, not both. This 'so' is different from 'so' meaning 'very': 'I'm so happy!'

Basic Word Order (SVO)

In an English statement, the parts come in a fixed order: subject + verb + object. The subject is the person or thing that does the action, the verb is the action, and the object is the person or thing that receives it. In 'Anna reads books.', 'Anna' is the subject, 'reads' is the verb, and 'books' is the object. Every statement needs a subject, even if it is only 'it': 'It is cold.' Do not put place or time phrases between the verb and the object. Put them at the end, or put a time phrase at the start and keep the order subject + verb after it: 'I meet my friends in the park every Saturday.', 'Every Saturday I meet my friends in the park.' Short frequency words such as 'always' and 'often' are different. They go before the main verb but after 'be': 'I always drink coffee.', 'She is always late.'

Yes/No Questions with `be`

A yes/no question is a question you can answer with 'yes' or 'no'. With the verb 'be' ('am', 'is', 'are', 'was', 'were'), put 'be' before the subject: 'She is tired.' → 'Is she tired?', 'You are ready.' → 'Are you ready?', 'They were at home.' → 'Were they at home?' Do not use 'do' with 'be': 'Are you happy?', not 'Do you be happy?' Give a short answer with the same verb: 'Yes, she is.' / 'No, she isn't.'

Yes/No Questions with `do / does`

A yes/no question is a question you can answer with 'yes' or 'no'. With most verbs in the present simple and the past simple, English needs the helper verb 'do', 'does', or 'did' at the start: 'do' with I, you, we, and they; 'does' with he, she, and it; 'did' for the past, with every subject. After the subject, use the base form of the main verb (the dictionary form without 'to'): 'Do you like coffee?', 'Does she speak French?', 'Did you see him?' The helper already shows the -s and the past, so the main verb has no -s and no past form: 'Does she work?', not 'Does she works?' Do not use 'do' with 'be' or with modal verbs such as 'can' and 'will': 'Are you tired?', 'Can you swim?', 'Will you help me?'

Wh-Questions (what, where, when, why, who, how)

Wh-questions ask for information, not for 'yes' or 'no'. They start with a question word: 'what' (a thing), 'where' (a place), 'when' (a time), 'why' (a reason), 'who' (a person), and 'how' (the way, or with an adjective: 'How old...?'). After the question word, use yes/no question order. With most verbs in the present simple and the past simple, that is question word + the helper verb 'do', 'does', or 'did' + subject + base form (the dictionary form without 'to'): 'Where do you live?', 'What does she want?', 'When did they arrive?' With 'be', it is question word + 'be' + subject + the rest: 'Why are you late?', 'Where is she?' Modal verbs such as 'can', 'will', and 'should' also go before the subject, with no 'do': 'What can you see?' When 'who' or 'what' is the subject (the one who does the action), do not add 'do', 'does', or 'did', and the verb has the same form as after 'he', 'she', or 'it': 'Who lives here?', 'Who called you?', 'What happened?' There is also no 'do', 'does', or 'did' when a question word + noun is the subject: 'How many people live here?'

Frequency Adverbs Position

Frequency Adverbs Position (always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never)

Frequency adverbs say how often something happens. From most often to least often, the main ones are 'always', 'usually', 'often', 'sometimes', 'rarely', and 'never'. They normally go in the middle of the sentence: before the main verb ('I always drink coffee.'), after 'be' ('She is always happy.'), and after a helper verb such as 'don't', 'can', or 'have' ('I don't usually eat meat.'). Do not put them between a verb and its object: 'I always drink coffee.', not 'I drink always coffee.' 'Never' is already negative, so do not use it with 'don't': 'I never eat meat.', not 'I don't never eat meat.'

Negation with `be`

Negation with `be` (I'm not / isn't / aren't / wasn't / weren't)

To make a sentence with 'be' negative, put 'not' after 'am', 'is', 'are', 'was', or 'were': 'I am not tired.', 'She is not here.', 'They were not happy.' In speech and informal writing we usually use short forms (contractions): 'I'm not', 'isn't', 'aren't', 'wasn't', 'weren't'. The short form of 'I am not' is 'I'm not'. Do not use 'do' with 'be': 'I'm not hungry.', not 'I don't be hungry.' Instructions are different: 'Don't be late!'

Negation with `do / does / don't / doesn't`

To make most verbs negative in the present simple and the past simple, put 'don't', 'doesn't', or 'didn't' before the base form of the main verb (the dictionary form without 'to'). These are forms of the helper verb 'do' + 'not'. Use 'don't' (do not) with I, you, we, and they: 'I don't like coffee.' Use 'doesn't' (does not) with he, she, and it: 'She doesn't speak French.' Use 'didn't' (did not) for the past, with every subject: 'We didn't go.' The helper already shows the -s and the past, so the main verb has no -s and no past form: 'She doesn't like it.', not 'She doesn't likes it.' Do not use 'don't' with 'be' or 'can': 'I'm not hungry.', 'I can't swim.' Instructions are different: 'Don't be late!'

`there is / are` in Questions and Negatives

'There is' and 'there are' say that something exists. To ask a question, put 'is' or 'are' before 'there': 'Is there a bank near here?', 'Are there any questions?' To make a negative, add 'not' after 'is' or 'are': 'There isn't a bank near here.', 'There aren't any chairs.' Use 'is' with a singular noun or an uncountable noun (a noun with no plural, such as 'milk') and 'are' with a plural noun. Questions and negatives usually have 'any' before plural and uncountable nouns: 'Is there any milk?', 'There aren't any eggs.' The past works the same way: 'Was there...?', 'Were there...?', 'There wasn't...', 'There weren't...'

Negative Imperative

Negative Imperative (Don't run! Don't be late!)

To tell someone not to do something, use 'don't' + the base form of the verb (the dictionary form without 'to'): 'Don't run!', 'Don't worry.', 'Don't touch it.' There is no subject, and the form is the same for one person or for a group. 'Be' works the same way: 'Don't be late!', 'Don't be afraid.' The full form 'do not' sounds more formal and is common on signs: 'Do not enter.' Add 'please' to sound polite: 'Please don't shout.' or 'Don't shout, please.'

Capitalization Basics

A capital letter is a big letter (A, B, C). Use one at the start of every sentence and for the pronoun 'I', wherever it is: 'Then I went home.' Names also start with a capital letter: people and pets ('Anna', 'Rex'), places ('London', 'Italy', 'Oxford Street'), days, months, and holidays ('Monday', 'May', 'Christmas'), and languages and nationalities ('English', 'French', 'a German car'). A title before a name has a capital too: 'Mr. Smith', 'Dr. Brown'. Ordinary nouns ('dog', 'book', 'teacher') and the seasons ('spring', 'summer') are lowercase (small letters). Unlike German, English does not capitalize every noun.

Apostrophe in Contractions

Apostrophe in Contractions (I'm, don't, he's, they've)

A contraction is a short form of two words, such as 'I'm' (= 'I am') or 'don't' (= 'do not'). The apostrophe (') goes exactly where letters are missing: 'I am' → 'I'm', 'do not' → 'don't', 'they have' → 'they've'. Common contractions: 'I'm', 'you're', 'he's', 'it's', 'we're', 'they're', 'I've', 'I'll', 'I'd', 'isn't', 'aren't', 'don't', 'doesn't', 'can't'. 'Won't' (= 'will not') is irregular. Contractions are normal in speech and in friendly writing, but a positive short answer uses the full form: 'Yes, I am.'

Apostrophe for Possessive `'s`

Apostrophe for Possessive `'s` (Anna's book, the boys' ball)

To show that something belongs to a person or an animal, add an apostrophe and s ('s) to the noun: 'Anna's book' (the book that belongs to Anna), 'my brother's car', 'the cat's bed'. If the noun is a plural that already ends in -s, add only an apostrophe after the s: 'my parents' house', 'the boys' ball'. Plurals that do not end in -s take 's: 'the children's toys', 'the women's team'. Never use an apostrophe to make a plural: 'two dogs', not 'two dog's'.

Plural Spelling

Plural Spelling (-s, -es, -ies, -ves)

A plural means 'more than one'. Most nouns add -s: 'book' → 'books', 'car' → 'cars'. Nouns ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z add -es: 'bus' → 'buses', 'watch' → 'watches', 'box' → 'boxes'. The letters a, e, i, o, and u are vowels, and the other letters are consonants. A consonant + y changes to -ies ('baby' → 'babies'), but a vowel + y just adds -s ('day' → 'days'). Many nouns ending in -f or -fe change to -ves ('leaf' → 'leaves', 'knife' → 'knives'), but some just add -s ('roof' → 'roofs'). Most nouns ending in -o just add -s ('photo' → 'photos'), but a few common ones add -es ('potato' → 'potatoes', 'tomato' → 'tomatoes'). Some common plurals are irregular and must be learned: 'man' → 'men', 'woman' → 'women', 'child' → 'children', 'person' → 'people', 'foot' → 'feet', 'tooth' → 'teeth'. 'Sheep' and 'fish' do not change.

Basic Punctuation

Basic Punctuation (period, question mark, exclamation mark, comma in lists)

Every English sentence ends with a punctuation mark. Use a full stop (.) for a statement: 'I am a student.' (American English calls it a 'period'.) Use a question mark (?) for a question: 'Are you a student?' Use an exclamation mark (!) for a strong feeling or a strong order: 'What a great idea!', 'Stop!' After these marks, the next sentence starts with a capital letter. Use commas (,) between the items in a list: 'tea, coffee and milk'. A comma alone cannot join two sentences: write 'I was tired, so I went home.' or 'I was tired. I went home.' Put a space after these marks, but never before them. English does not use upside-down marks (¿ ¡) at the start of a sentence.

Recognising Cognates (EN vs L1)

A cognate is an English word that looks or sounds like a word in your language and has the same meaning, for example 'hotel', 'taxi', 'music', 'information', 'problem', or 'important'. Cognates help you understand many English words quickly. But the spelling and the pronunciation are often a little different: English 'music' has no accent, and '-tion' in 'information' sounds like 'shun'. Be careful with false friends: words that look similar but mean something different. For example, a 'library' is a place where you borrow books, but French 'librairie', Spanish 'librería', and Italian 'libreria' mean 'bookshop'.

Cardinal Numbers 1-100

Learn 1 to 12 by heart: 'one', 'two', 'three', 'four', 'five', 'six', 'seven', 'eight', 'nine', 'ten', 'eleven', 'twelve'. Numbers 13 to 19 end in '-teen': 'thirteen', 'fourteen', 'fifteen', 'sixteen', 'seventeen', 'eighteen', 'nineteen'. The tens end in '-ty': 'twenty', 'thirty', 'forty', 'fifty', 'sixty', 'seventy', 'eighty', 'ninety'. For 21 to 99, say the tens first and then the ones, and write a hyphen (-) between them: 'twenty-one', 'forty-five'. 100 is 'a hundred' or 'one hundred'. Watch the spelling: 'forty' has no 'u', and 'eighteen' and 'eighty' have only one 't'. In speech, '-teen' numbers are usually stressed on 'teen', but '-ty' numbers are stressed on the first part ('thir' in 'thirty'). This helps you hear the difference between 13 and 30.

Days, Months and Seasons

The days of the week and the months always start with a capital letter. Days: 'Monday', 'Tuesday', 'Wednesday', 'Thursday', 'Friday', 'Saturday', 'Sunday'. Months: 'January', 'February', 'March', 'April', 'May', 'June', 'July', 'August', 'September', 'October', 'November', 'December'. The seasons are lowercase: 'spring', 'summer', 'autumn' ('fall' in American English), 'winter'. Use 'on' with days ('on Monday') and 'in' with months and seasons ('in July', 'in winter'). Before 'next', 'last', 'this', and 'every', use no preposition: 'next Monday', 'last summer'.

Telling Time - Basic

Telling Time - Basic (o'clock, half past, quarter past/to, digital)

To ask the time, say 'What time is it?' or 'What's the time?' The answer starts with 'It's'. For a full hour, use 'o'clock': 'It's three o'clock.' (3:00). Up to 30 minutes after the hour, say the minutes + 'past' + the hour: 'ten past three' (3:10). After 30 minutes, count the minutes left until the next hour and say the minutes + 'to' + the next hour: 'twenty to four' (3:40). 15 minutes is 'quarter' and 30 minutes is 'half': 'quarter past three' (3:15), 'half past three' (3:30), 'quarter to four' (3:45). You can also just say the numbers: 'three fifteen', 'three forty-five'. For 1 to 9 minutes, say 'oh' before the number: 'three oh five' (3:05). Use 'at' to say when something happens: 'The class starts at nine o'clock.'

Greetings (Hello / Hi / Good morning / Goodbye / Bye / See you)

Greetings (formal and informal)

Choose a greeting that fits the person and the time of day. With friends and family, say 'Hi' or 'Hey'. 'Hello' works with everyone. In formal situations, for example with a customer, a teacher, or someone you don't know, say 'Good morning' (until about 12:00), 'Good afternoon' (until about 6 p.m.), or 'Good evening' (after that). To say goodbye, use 'Goodbye', or with friends 'Bye', 'See you', or 'See you later'. 'Good night' is only for saying goodbye late in the evening or before bed; it is not a greeting. After a greeting, people often ask 'How are you?' and answer briefly: 'Fine, thanks. And you?'