A1 English Grammar — 72 Topics & Common Mistakes

Present Tense - To Be (am / is / are)

The verb 'to be' is the most important verb in English. It changes form depending on the subject: I am, you are, he/she/it is, we are, you are, they are. We use 'be' to say who someone is, where they are, how they feel, what they look like, and even to talk about the weather and the time. In spoken English we usually shorten it: I'm, you're, he's, she's, it's, we're, they're. 'To be' has three present forms (am, is, are) — most other English verbs only have two forms in the present.

Present Tense - To Have (have / has)

The verb 'to have' shows possession (I have a car), relationships (She has two brothers), and is used in some common expressions (I have breakfast at 8). It has just two forms in the present: 'have' for I/you/we/they, and 'has' for he/she/it. In spoken English we often shorten 'I have' to 'I've' and 'she has' to 'she's' in certain contexts — but for simple possession, the full form is more common. To ask questions and make negatives, we use 'do/does': Do you have a car? I don't have a car. (British English also accepts 'have got'.)

Present Simple - Regular Verbs

The Present Simple is the most common English tense. We use it for habits (I work every day), facts and general truths (Water boils at 100 degrees), preferences (I like coffee), and timetables (The train leaves at 8). The good news: English verbs are very simple — for I, you, we, and they, the verb does not change at all (I work / you work / we work / they work). Only in the 3rd person singular (he, she, it) do we add -s (he works / she works / it works). This makes English one of the easiest languages in the world for verb conjugation.

Present Simple - Third Person Singular -s/-es/-ies

In the Present Simple, we add -s to the verb when the subject is 'he', 'she', 'it', or any singular noun (like 'my mother', 'the dog', 'John'). So 'I work' becomes 'He works'. There are three spelling patterns: most verbs just add -s (work → works); verbs ending in -o, -s, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z add -es (go → goes, watch → watches); and verbs ending in consonant + -y change -y to -ies (study → studies). Two verbs are irregular: have → has, and be → is.

Present Continuous (am/is/are + -ing)

The Present Continuous (also called Present Progressive) describes actions happening right now, at this moment. We form it with 'be' (am/is/are) + the -ing form of the verb: I am working, she is eating, they are playing. We use it for actions in progress ('Look! The baby is sleeping'), temporary situations ('I am living with friends this month'), and sometimes for future plans ('We are meeting tomorrow'). Time expressions often used with it: now, right now, at the moment, today, this week.

Present Simple vs Continuous - Basic Distinction

English has two ways to talk about the present, and they mean different things. Use the Present Simple (I work) for things that are generally true — your job, your habits, facts about the world. Use the Present Continuous (I am working) for things happening right now, at this moment, or for temporary situations. Key signal words: Present Simple = every day, usually, often, on Mondays. Present Continuous = now, right now, at the moment, today, this week.

Past Simple - To Be (was / were)

The past of 'to be' has just two forms: 'was' for I, he, she, it; and 'were' for you, we, they. We use it to talk about states, places, and feelings in the past: I was tired. She was at home. We were happy. For questions, just invert: Was she late? Were you there? For negatives: wasn't (was not), weren't (were not). One special use: 'If I were you...' keeps 'were' for all persons when giving advice.

Past Simple - Regular Verbs (-ed)

For most English verbs, we make the past tense by just adding -ed. So 'work' becomes 'worked', 'play' becomes 'played', 'watch' becomes 'watched'. The same form is used for ALL subjects (I, you, he, she, it, we, they) — no need to change anything else. For questions and negatives, we use 'did': Did you work? I didn't work. Notice: after 'did' or 'didn't', the main verb goes back to its basic form (no -ed). There are three spelling patterns for -ed and three pronunciation patterns — but the writing is easy once you know the rules.

Past Simple - Common Irregular Verbs

Many of the most common English verbs don't follow the -ed rule in the past. They have special past forms that you need to memorize: go → went, have → had, say → said, make → made, see → saw, get → got, come → came, know → knew, think → thought, take → took, give → gave, find → found. Like regular verbs, the same form is used for all subjects. And with 'did'/'didn't' in questions and negatives, the verb returns to its base form: Did you go? I didn't go.

Future with `be going to` - Plans and Predictions from Evidence

To talk about future plans or intentions, English uses 'be going to' + verb: I am going to travel next month. She is going to study tonight. We also use 'be going to' when we have evidence that something will happen soon: Look at those clouds — it's going to rain! The structure is: am/is/are + going to + base form of the verb. Don't confuse this with 'I'm going to Paris' (where 'go' is the main verb meaning movement to a place).

Imperative Form - Affirmative

The imperative is how we give orders, instructions, warnings, advice, and invitations. It is extremely simple in English: just use the base form of the verb, with no subject. 'Sit down.' 'Open the book.' 'Be quiet.' 'Come in.' We use the same form for 'you' singular and 'you' plural — no difference. To make it more polite, just add 'please': 'Please sit down.' or 'Sit down, please.' The imperative can sound direct, so in polite requests English often prefers 'Could you...?' or 'Would you...?' instead.

Suggestions with `Let's`

When we want to suggest doing something together (speaker + listener), we use 'Let's' + base form: 'Let's go.' 'Let's have lunch.' 'Let's watch a film.' 'Let's' is a contraction of 'Let us'. It's friendly and informal, used for invitations and suggestions between friends, family, and colleagues. For the negative (not doing something), use 'Let's not' + base form: 'Let's not argue.'

Verbs of Preference + -ing

To talk about what you like or dislike doing, use verbs of preference (like, love, enjoy, hate, don't like) followed by the -ing form of the verb: 'I like swimming. She loves reading. I hate waiting.' In British English, this is the most common structure. (In American English, 'I like to swim' with the to-infinitive is also common and means almost the same thing.) 'Enjoy' always takes -ing, never the to-infinitive.

`want / would like` + to-infinitive

To talk about what you want, use 'want' + to + base form: 'I want to go home. She wants to eat pizza.' For a more polite version (especially in restaurants, shops, requests), use 'would like' + to + base form: 'I'd like to order a coffee.' 'I would like' is politer than 'I want'. Both structures need 'to' between the two verbs. 'I'd like' is the normal spoken contraction of 'I would like'.

`have got` vs `have` - Possession

`have got` vs `have` - Possession (BrE vs AmE)

To talk about possession, family, or descriptions, English has two structures. 'Have' is used everywhere — especially in American English and in writing: 'I have a car. She has two brothers.' 'Have got' is very common in British English spoken and informal writing: 'I've got a car. She's got two brothers.' They mean exactly the same thing for possession. Questions and negatives differ: 'Do you have a car?' (have) vs 'Have you got a car?' (have got). 'Have got' is NOT used for habits or meals — those always use plain 'have': 'I have lunch at 1.'

`can` - Ability and Permission (basic)

Use 'can' + base form of the verb to talk about ability ('I can swim. She can speak French.') and to ask for or give permission ('Can I come in? You can sit here.'). 'Can' is a modal verb, which means it is very simple: it never changes form (no -s for he/she/it), and there is no 'to' after it. For questions: 'Can you help me?' For negatives: 'cannot' or 'can't'. Same form for all persons: I can, you can, he can, she can, we can, they can.

`do` as Auxiliary vs Main Verb

The word 'do' has two completely different jobs in English. As a MAIN verb, 'do' means to perform an action: 'I do my homework. She does the dishes. They do exercise.' As an AUXILIARY (helper), 'do' helps us form questions and negatives with other verbs: 'Do you like coffee? I don't like coffee.' Sometimes you see 'do' twice in the same sentence because one is auxiliary and the other is main: 'Do you do yoga?' Both are normal English! Forms: do (I/you/we/they), does (he/she/it), did (past, all persons).

Short Answers

In English, it often sounds unnatural to just say 'Yes' or 'No' — we add a short answer with the same auxiliary verb from the question. For 'Are you tired?' → 'Yes, I am. / No, I'm not.' For 'Do you like it?' → 'Yes, I do. / No, I don't.' For 'Can you swim?' → 'Yes, I can. / No, I can't.' The rule is simple: repeat the auxiliary (be, do/does/did, can, will, have) from the question, in the affirmative short form we don't contract ('Yes, I am' — never 'Yes, I'm'); in the negative we do contract ('No, I'm not / No, I can't').

`be` for Age, Weather, Hunger, Feelings

English uses 'be' (am/is/are) in many places where other languages use 'have'. We say: 'I AM 20 years old' (not 'I have 20'). 'I AM hungry / thirsty / cold / hot / tired / afraid' (not 'I have hunger / cold / fear'). 'It IS sunny / cold / hot / windy' for weather. 'It IS 3 o'clock' for time. This is one of the most important things to learn at A1 because almost all Romance-language speakers get it wrong at first.

Common Contractions

In spoken English and informal writing, we combine two words into one shorter form using an apostrophe (the symbol '). Common examples: I am → I'm, you are → you're, he is → he's, we have → we've, do not → don't, cannot → can't, will not → won't. Contractions are natural and polite — using only full forms ('I am' instead of 'I'm') can sound stiff or robotic in everyday speech. In formal writing (essays, reports, business letters), full forms are preferred.

`there is / there are` - Existence

To say that something exists or is located somewhere, English uses 'there is' (singular) and 'there are' (plural). 'There is a book on the table.' 'There are three books on the table.' The word 'there' is a placeholder (not really 'there' meaning location) — it just fills the subject slot. The verb 'be' agrees with the noun that follows: singular noun → is, plural noun → are. For uncountables: 'There is water in the glass.' In questions: 'Is there a problem? Are there any questions?' Negatives: 'There isn't any milk.' / 'There aren't any biscuits.'

Indefinite Article: `a` vs `an`

English has two forms of the indefinite article: 'a' and 'an'. They mean the same thing (one / some / any), but the choice depends on the SOUND of the next word, not the letter. Use 'a' before a consonant sound: a book, a car, a university (pronounced 'you-niversity'). Use 'an' before a vowel sound: an apple, an egg, an hour (silent h, sounds like 'our'). Always singular. For plural or uncountable nouns, use no article or 'some'.

Indefinite (a/an) vs Definite (the) - Basic Introduction

Use 'a/an' when you mention something for the FIRST TIME or when it's any one of many: 'I have a dog.' Use 'the' when the listener already knows which specific one you mean — because you mentioned it before, because there's only one, or because the situation makes it clear: 'The dog is in the garden.' A classic pattern: FIRST mention → a/an; SECOND mention → the. 'I bought a book yesterday. The book is really interesting.' 'The' is used with both singular and plural nouns and with uncountables.

Zero Article with Plural Generic Nouns

When we talk about ALL members of a category in general, English uses NO article with plural nouns. 'I like dogs' = all dogs, in general. NOT 'I like the dogs' (that would mean specific dogs we both know). 'Cars are expensive.' 'Children need sleep.' 'Tigers live in Asia.' If you want specific plural things, use 'the': 'The dogs in my neighbourhood bark all night.' This zero article for generalizations is one of the most common A1 errors — especially for Romance-language speakers, who normally say 'I like THE dogs' in their L1.

Zero Article with Uncountable Generic Nouns

Uncountable nouns (things you can't count: water, music, love, bread, money, information) take NO article when we talk about them in general. 'I drink water.' 'I love music.' 'Money is important.' Don't say 'a water' or 'the music' for general meaning. Use 'the' only when talking about a specific, known portion: 'The water in this bottle is cold.' 'The music at the party was great.'

`the` with Unique Things

We use 'the' with things that are UNIQUE — there is only one of them that we all know about: 'the sun, the moon, the Earth, the world, the sky, the sea, the universe.' Also for unique things in a specific context: 'the President, the Prime Minister, the government, the Internet, the police.' Don't say 'sun is hot' — it's 'THE sun is hot.' 'The' signals that everyone knows which one (the only one).

Demonstratives (this / that / these / those)

Demonstratives point to specific things near or far from the speaker. English has four: 'this' (singular, near), 'that' (singular, far), 'these' (plural, near), 'those' (plural, far). 'This book' = a book I can touch. 'That book' = a book over there. 'These books' = books near me. 'Those books' = books far away. They can be determiners (this book) or pronouns (This is my book). For time: 'this week' (current), 'that day' (past/known). English has only TWO distances — unlike Spanish which has three (este/ese/aquel).

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive Adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)

Possessive adjectives show who owns something. They go BEFORE the noun and don't change for the noun: 'my book / my books' (same 'my'). The forms are: I → my, you → your, he → his, she → her, it → its, we → our, they → their. Unlike many other languages, English possessives agree with the OWNER (not the thing owned): 'his book' (a man's book, no matter what kind of book), 'her car' (a woman's car). Don't confuse 'its' (no apostrophe, possessive) with 'it's' (= it is).

`some` vs `any` - Basic

`some` vs `any` - Basic Affirmative/Negative/Interrogative

Use 'some' in AFFIRMATIVE sentences — with plural countables (some books) and uncountables (some water): 'I have some friends. I need some milk.' Use 'any' in NEGATIVES (not any) and QUESTIONS: 'I don't have any money. Do you have any questions?' 'Some' and 'any' both mean an unspecified quantity — small-to-medium amount. For singular countables, use 'a/an' instead. (There's one important exception: in polite offers and requests, we use 'some' in questions: 'Would you like some tea?' — but the basic rule is learned first.)

`much / many / a lot of` with Countables and Uncountables

To say 'a large amount', English uses different words for countable and uncountable nouns. 'MANY' goes with plural countables: 'many books, many friends.' 'MUCH' goes with uncountables: 'much water, much time.' 'A LOT OF' works with BOTH: 'a lot of books, a lot of water.' Important: in modern English, 'much' is mostly used in NEGATIVES and QUESTIONS ('I don't have much time', 'How much money?'). In affirmatives, we prefer 'a lot of' or 'lots of': 'I have a lot of time' (not 'I have much time').

Numerals as Determiners

Numbers go directly before nouns without an article: 'two books, three cats, five people.' No 'the' or 'a' needed — the number itself tells us how many. When the number is ONE, use 'one book' (more specific) or 'a book' (less specific); both are singular. For zero, use 'no' or 'zero': 'I have no brothers' or 'I have zero brothers' (less common). Plural nouns are needed after 2 or more: 'two books', not 'two book'. Exception: 'one' takes singular ('one book, one apple').

Subject Pronouns

Subject Pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)

Subject pronouns replace a noun subject and come before the verb: I, you, he, she, it, we, they. English has just 7. 'You' is the same for singular and plural — English has no separate 'you-plural' or formal 'you' (unlike many languages). 'I' is always capitalized, even in the middle of a sentence. English REQUIRES a subject: you cannot drop it. 'Rains' is wrong; you must say 'It rains' or 'It is raining'.

Object Pronouns

Object Pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, them)

Object pronouns are the form used AFTER a verb or a preposition. The 7 forms: me, you, him, her, it, us, them. 'She sees me.' 'I called him.' 'This is for you.' 'Tell them the truth.' Only 'you' and 'it' look the same as subject forms. Be careful: the subject form goes BEFORE the verb (I, he, she...), the object form goes AFTER (me, him, her...). 'She loves me' — 'I love her.' Never 'She loves I' or 'Me love her.'

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)

Possessive pronouns replace a noun phrase to show ownership: 'This book is mine' (= my book). They stand ALONE — no noun follows. The forms: I → mine, you → yours, he → his, she → hers, we → ours, they → theirs. There is no 'its' form as a possessive pronoun. Compare possessive adjectives (BEFORE a noun): 'my book / your pen / her car', with possessive pronouns (ALONE): 'mine / yours / hers'. Don't say 'mine book' — that's wrong. Say 'my book' OR 'it's mine'.

Reflexive Pronouns - Introduction

Reflexive Pronouns - Introduction (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)

Reflexive pronouns end in -self (singular) or -selves (plural). We use them when the subject and the object are the same person: 'I hurt myself' (= I hurt me — the same person). The 8 forms: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Note: 'yourself' (singular you) and 'yourselves' (plural you) — the only English pronoun that differs for singular and plural! Don't use reflexives when you mean 'each other' or 'one another' — those are reciprocal (covered at A2).

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns (this, that, these, those)

The same four words that work as determiners (this book, these apples) can also work ALONE as pronouns — no noun follows. 'This is my friend.' 'That is a nice shirt.' 'These are my keys.' 'Those are your shoes.' Rule: this/that take a singular verb (is, was). These/those take plural (are, were). 'This is' for one thing near; 'These are' for many things near. 'That was' for one thing far/past; 'Those were' for many far/past.

Interrogative Pronouns (who, what, which)

Use these 3 words to ask questions about people and things: 'WHO' asks about a person ('Who called?' 'Who is she?'). 'WHAT' asks about a thing, an activity, or when the options are open ('What is this?' 'What do you want?'). 'WHICH' asks when choosing from a limited set of options ('Which book do you want — this one or that one?'). For possession, use 'WHOSE': 'Whose car is this?' Questions with these words start the sentence.

Dummy `it` for Weather, Time, Distance

English REQUIRES a subject in every sentence. When there is no real subject (for weather, time, distance, and general situations), we use 'it' as a 'dummy' or 'empty' subject: 'It's raining.' 'It's 3 o'clock.' 'It's 5 kilometres to the town.' 'It is important to sleep well.' Don't translate literally from your L1 — English always needs a subject. Never 'Rains' or 'Is hot today'. Always 'It rains' or 'It is hot today'.

Dummy `there` for Existence

To say that something EXISTS or is LOCATED somewhere, English uses 'there' as a dummy subject with 'be': 'There is a book on the table.' 'There are three cats in the garden.' This 'there' does NOT mean 'in that place'. It just fills the subject position. The real subject is the thing that exists (a book, three cats). The verb 'be' agrees with that real subject: there IS (singular) / there ARE (plural). Don't confuse dummy 'there' with the place-adverb 'there' (meaning 'in that place'): 'There (= in that place), there is a book' — but usually context makes it clear.

Time Prepositions: `in` / `on` / `at`

English uses three different prepositions for time. The rule goes from BIG to SMALL: IN for long periods (in 2026, in January, in the morning, in summer); ON for specific days and dates (on Monday, on 5th May, on my birthday); AT for specific points in time (at 3 o'clock, at midnight, at noon, at the weekend in BrE). Tip: IN → months, years, seasons, parts of the day; ON → days and dates; AT → clock times + night/weekend/holidays. Some expressions take no preposition: next week, last year, this morning, tomorrow, today, yesterday.

Place Prepositions: `in` / `on` / `at`

The same three prepositions (in/on/at) also work for place, but differently from time. IN = inside a space (in the kitchen, in London, in the box, in my bag). ON = on a surface (on the table, on the wall, on the floor, on page 5). AT = at a specific point or location (at the door, at home, at work, at the bus stop, at 10 Main Street). Key pairs: 'at school / at work / at home' (where you are) vs 'in school / in the kitchen' (inside). 'On the train / on the bus' (on public transport) vs 'in the car / in the taxi' (inside a small vehicle).

Direction: `to`

Use 'to' to show direction or movement toward a destination: 'I go TO school.' 'She's going TO London.' 'We're flying TO Japan next week.' 'To' also follows many verbs of movement: go, come, travel, drive, walk, run, fly, move, return. EXCEPTION: with 'home' and 'here/there', we DON'T use 'to': 'I'm going home' (not 'to home'), 'Come here!' (not 'to here').

Origin: `from`

Use 'from' to show origin — where someone or something comes from: 'I'm from Germany.' 'This letter is from my friend.' 'The train comes from London.' Also for starting points in time or space: 'I work from 9 to 5' (time), 'from my house to the station' (distance). Common pair: FROM ... TO ... for both place (from X to Y) and time (from Monday to Friday).

`with` - Accompaniment and Instrument

'With' has two main meanings: (1) ACCOMPANIMENT — together with someone: 'I went to the cinema with my friends.' (2) INSTRUMENT/TOOL — using something: 'I cut the bread with a knife.' 'She opened the door with a key.' Also used for descriptions: 'the woman with long hair, a house with a garden, coffee with milk.' The opposite is 'without': 'I can't work without coffee.'

`for` - Purpose and Duration (basic)

'For' has two main A1 meanings: (1) PURPOSE / BENEFICIARY — 'This gift is for you.' 'A table for two.' 'A present for my mother.' (2) DURATION — how long: 'I studied for two hours.' 'We waited for twenty minutes.' 'She's lived here for five years.' Also common: 'Thank you for your help', 'Sorry for being late', 'famous for its beaches'. Tip: 'for + duration' answers 'How long?'; different from 'during' (when it happened) or 'since' (starting point).

`of` - Possession and Relationship (basic)

'Of' connects two nouns and shows a relationship between them. Common uses: (1) Possession/belonging for THINGS and ABSTRACT (not people): 'the colour OF the sky, the end OF the film, the name OF the city.' (2) Quantities: 'a cup OF coffee, a piece OF cake, a lot OF people.' For PEOPLE'S possession, English prefers the 's ending: 'Anna's book' (not 'the book of Anna'). Exception: 'a friend of mine' (with possessive pronoun). TIP: With people → use 's. With things → use 'of' or 's (both are possible).

`about` - Topic

'About' means 'on the topic of' — what something concerns: 'This book is about history.' 'We talked about the weather.' 'Tell me about yourself.' It also means 'approximately': 'It's about 5 o'clock.' 'There were about 20 people.' After certain verbs: talk about, think about, read about, write about, know about, dream about, worry about.

`by` - Means of Transport and Near

`by` - Means of Transport and Near (basic)

'By' has several meanings. Two basic A1 uses: (1) MEANS OF TRANSPORT — 'I travel BY car, BY train, BY plane, BY bus, BY bike, BY boat.' Notice: no article after 'by' in this pattern! NOT 'by a car'. Exception: ON FOOT (not 'by foot'). (2) LOCATION — next to: 'I live BY the sea.' 'Sit by the window.' Also 'by' as deadline: 'Finish by Monday' (not later than Monday). And 'by' for authors: 'a book BY Hemingway.'

Coordination: `and` (addition)

'And' joins two or more things of the same kind: two words, two phrases, or two whole sentences. 'I like tea AND coffee.' (two nouns) 'We walked AND talked.' (two verbs) 'She is kind AND funny.' (two adjectives) 'I went home and I watched TV.' (two sentences) With a list of three or more: put 'and' before the last item: 'I bought bread, cheese, AND milk.' Between items 1 and 2 we use commas; 'and' goes just before the last one.

Coordination: `but` (contrast)

'But' joins two ideas that contrast or surprise us: 'I'm tired, BUT I'm happy.' 'She studies a lot, BUT she doesn't get good marks.' 'I like pizza, BUT I don't like cheese.' Use a comma before 'but' when it joins two complete sentences. 'But' can also join opposite adjectives directly: 'cheap but good, small but strong'.

Coordination: `or` (alternative)

'Or' gives a choice between two (or more) options: 'Tea OR coffee?' 'Do you want to stay OR go?' 'We can go on Saturday OR Sunday.' For negative choices (no choice), use 'not…or' or 'neither…nor' (B1+): 'I don't like tea or coffee.' With two subjects, the verb agrees with the nearest one: 'My brother or my sisters are coming' (plural). With questions, 'or' signals an open-ended choice: 'Do you want this one or that one?'

Subordination: `because` (cause)

'Because' explains WHY something happens. It introduces a reason: 'I'm tired BECAUSE I worked all day.' 'She's happy BECAUSE she passed the exam.' 'Because' connects to a COMPLETE sentence (subject + verb) — never a noun alone. For a noun, use 'because of': 'I'm tired BECAUSE OF the heat.' Often used to answer 'Why?' questions: 'Why are you late? — Because the bus was late.' Can start a sentence for emphasis: 'Because it was raining, we stayed home.'

Coordination: `so` (consequence)

Coordination: `so` (consequence - basic)

'So' shows the RESULT or CONSEQUENCE of something. 'It was raining, SO I stayed home.' 'I was hungry, SO I ate a sandwich.' It's the opposite direction of 'because': 'because' introduces a cause BEFORE the result, 'so' introduces a result AFTER the cause. Use a comma before 'so' when joining two full sentences. Don't confuse with 'so' meaning 'very' ('I'm so happy!') — covered later.

Basic Word Order (SVO)

English word order is SUBJECT → VERB → OBJECT (SVO) — almost always. 'I [subject] eat [verb] an apple [object].' 'Anna reads books.' 'They love music.' The subject comes first, then the verb, then the object. This order is very strict — unlike in many languages, you CANNOT change it freely. Place words come at the end or beginning (not between verb and object): 'I see my friend at the park.' (not 'I see at the park my friend').

Yes/No Questions with `be`

To make yes/no questions with 'be' (am/is/are/was/were), simply INVERT the subject and 'be': 'She is tired.' → 'Is she tired?' 'You are happy.' → 'Are you happy?' 'They were at home.' → 'Were they at home?' Don't use 'do' with 'be' — 'be' is its own question-maker. Short answers echo 'be': 'Yes, she is. / No, she isn't.'

Yes/No Questions with `do / does`

For yes/no questions with most verbs (not 'be' and not modals), English uses DO-SUPPORT: put 'Do' (I/you/we/they) or 'Does' (he/she/it) at the start, then the subject, then the BASE form of the verb. 'Do you like coffee?' 'Does she speak French?' For past: 'Did' (all persons) + base form. 'Did you see him?' Remember: after 'does' or 'did', the main verb loses its -s or -ed — it returns to its base form.

Wh-Questions (what, where, when, why, who, how)

Wh-questions ask for specific information (not yes/no). The main wh-words: WHAT (thing), WHERE (place), WHEN (time), WHY (reason), WHO (person), HOW (manner). Structure: WH-word + AUXILIARY + subject + verb + ? 'Where do you live?' 'When does she work?' 'Why are you tired?' With 'be': 'Where are you?' 'Who is that?' With do-support: 'What do you want?' 'Where did they go?' Special case: when the WH-word is the SUBJECT, no auxiliary is needed: 'Who called?' 'What happened?'

Frequency Adverbs Position

Frequency Adverbs Position (always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never)

Frequency adverbs tell us HOW OFTEN: always (100%), usually (90%), often (70%), sometimes (50%), rarely (10%), never (0%). Position rule: (1) BEFORE the main verb: 'I always drink coffee.' 'She often reads books.' (2) AFTER the verb 'be': 'She is always happy.' 'They are never late.' So: before normal verbs, AFTER 'be'. Don't put them between verb and object: ✗ 'I drink always coffee.' ✓ 'I always drink coffee.' With auxiliaries (do/have/can), they go between the auxiliary and the main verb: 'I have always liked music.'

Negation with `be`

Negation with `be` (I'm not / isn't / aren't / wasn't / weren't)

To make 'be' negative, just add 'not' directly after it: 'I am NOT tired.' 'She is NOT here.' 'They were NOT happy.' In speech we almost always use contractions: isn't, aren't, wasn't, weren't, I'm not (no contraction of 'am not' — 'amn't' is non-standard). Don't use 'do' with 'be': never 'I don't be' or 'She doesn't be'.

Negation with `do / does / don't / doesn't`

To make main verbs (other than 'be' and modals) negative, use DO-SUPPORT: don't (I/you/we/they) or doesn't (he/she/it) BEFORE the BASE form of the verb. 'I don't like coffee.' 'She doesn't speak French.' Past: didn't + base form (all persons): 'We didn't come.' After don't/doesn't/didn't, the main verb has NO -s and NO -ed — it's just the base form.

`there is / are` in Questions and Negatives

To ask about existence, invert 'be' and 'there': 'Is there a problem?' 'Are there any questions?' For negatives, add 'not' after 'is/are': 'There isn't any milk.' 'There aren't any apples.' With negatives, we usually add 'any' before the noun: 'There isn't ANY / There aren't ANY'. Past follows the same pattern: 'Was there a meeting?' 'There wasn't enough time.' 'Were there many people?' 'There weren't enough chairs.'

Negative Imperative

Negative Imperative (Don't run! Don't be late!)

To tell someone NOT to do something, use 'DON'T' (or 'Do not' — more formal) + BASE form of the verb. 'Don't run!' 'Don't be late!' 'Don't worry!' 'Don't touch it!' The subject is not used — it's implied 'you'. Even 'be' takes 'don't': 'Don't be afraid.' (not 'Aren't be afraid'). For politeness, add 'please': 'Please don't shout.' or 'Don't shout, please.'

Capitalization Basics

English uses CAPITAL letters in specific places: (1) The first letter of every SENTENCE. (2) The pronoun 'I' — always, even in the middle of a sentence. (3) PROPER NOUNS: names of people (Anna, Mr. Smith), places (London, Italy), days (Monday), months (May), languages and nationalities (English, Spanish, French, German, Italian). (4) Titles (Mr., Mrs., Dr.). DON'T capitalize: seasons (spring, summer), common nouns (dog, book, house), days of the week in mid-sentence? — wait: DO capitalize them. Unlike German, English does NOT capitalize all nouns.

Apostrophe in Contractions

Apostrophe in Contractions (I'm, don't, he's, they've)

An apostrophe (') shows that some letters have been removed to make a shorter word. 'I am' → 'I'm' (the 'a' of 'am' is replaced). 'Do not' → 'don't' (the 'o' of 'not' is replaced). 'She is' → 'she's'. 'They have' → 'they've'. ALWAYS put the apostrophe where the missing letters used to be. Common contractions: I'm, you're, he's, she's, it's, we're, they're, don't, doesn't, can't, won't, isn't, aren't, I've, I'll, I'd.

Apostrophe for Possessive `'s`

Apostrophe for Possessive `'s` (Anna's book, the boys' ball)

To show that something belongs to a person, add 's to the person's name: 'Anna's book' (the book of Anna). 'My brother's car.' For plural nouns that already end in -s, just add an apostrophe AFTER the s: 'the boys' ball' (the ball of the boys). For irregular plurals (children, women, men), add 's normally: 'the children's toys'. Never use the apostrophe to make plurals! 'Two dogs' — NOT 'two dog's'.

Plural Spelling

Plural Spelling (-s, -es, -ies, -ves)

Most English plurals just add -s: book → books, cat → cats. But there are 4 special spelling rules: (1) -s/-ss/-sh/-ch/-x/-z + es: bus → buses, box → boxes, watch → watches, dish → dishes. (2) consonant + y → -ies: baby → babies, country → countries. (3) vowel + y just -s: boy → boys, day → days. (4) -f/-fe → -ves: leaf → leaves, wife → wives (but some keep -s: roof → roofs). Irregular plurals you must learn: man → men, woman → women, child → children, foot → feet, tooth → teeth, mouse → mice, person → people, fish → fish (same), sheep → sheep.

Basic Punctuation

Basic Punctuation (period, question mark, exclamation mark, comma in lists)

English sentences end with a punctuation mark: PERIOD (. / also called 'full stop' in BrE) for statements, QUESTION MARK (?) for questions, EXCLAMATION MARK (!) for strong feelings or commands. Use COMMAS (,) to separate items in a list (apples, oranges, and bananas) and before 'and/but/or' when they join two complete sentences. Start every sentence with a CAPITAL LETTER. Put a SPACE after every punctuation mark, not before.

Recognising Cognates (EN vs L1)

COGNATES are words in two languages that look or sound similar AND share the same meaning: 'information' (EN) = 'information' (FR) / 'información' (ES) / 'informazione' (IT) / 'Information' (DE). Knowing cognates helps you understand hundreds of English words for free! Most academic English (science, technology, medicine) comes from Latin/Greek, so European languages share thousands of cognates. BE CAREFUL of FALSE FRIENDS — words that look the same but mean different things: 'library' ≠ 'librairie' (= bookshop in FR; library = bibliothèque).

Cardinal Numbers 1-100

English numbers 1-100: 1 one, 2 two, 3 three, 4 four, 5 five, 6 six, 7 seven, 8 eight, 9 nine, 10 ten. Teens have '-teen' (13 thirteen, 14 fourteen, 15 fifteen, 16 sixteen, 17 seventeen, 18 eighteen, 19 nineteen). Tens have '-ty' (20 twenty, 30 thirty, 40 forty, 50 fifty, 60 sixty, 70 seventy, 80 eighty, 90 ninety). Compound numbers 21-99 use a HYPHEN: twenty-one, thirty-two, forty-five, ninety-nine. 100 = one hundred / a hundred. No 'and' between tens and ones in AmE ('a hundred two'), but BrE uses 'and' ('a hundred and two').

Days, Months and Seasons

DAYS OF THE WEEK (always capital!): Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday. Use 'on' with days: 'on Monday'. MONTHS (also capital!): January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December. Use 'in' with months: 'in July'. SEASONS (lowercase!): spring, summer, autumn (BrE) / fall (AmE), winter. Use 'in' with seasons: 'in summer'.

Telling Time - Basic

Telling Time - Basic (o'clock, half past, quarter past/to, digital)

To say the time in English: EXACT HOURS: '3 o'clock' (3:00). HALF PAST: 'half past 3' (3:30). QUARTER PAST (15 min after): 'quarter past 3' (3:15). QUARTER TO (15 min before): 'quarter to 4' (3:45). Minutes: 'X past' (0-30 min after hour: 'ten past 3' = 3:10) or 'X to' (31-59: 'twenty to 4' = 3:40). Alternatively, DIGITAL: say the numbers — 3:15 = 'three fifteen', 3:45 = 'three forty-five'. AM (morning) / PM (afternoon/evening) to distinguish. Use 'at' for time: 'at 3 o'clock'.

Greetings (Hello / Hi / Good morning / Goodbye / Bye / See you)

Greetings (formal and informal)

FORMAL greetings: 'Good morning' (before 12), 'Good afternoon' (12-6 pm), 'Good evening' (after 6 pm), 'Hello'. FORMAL goodbyes: 'Goodbye', 'Good night' (when leaving at night or going to bed). INFORMAL greetings (with friends/family): 'Hi', 'Hey', 'Hiya'. INFORMAL goodbyes: 'Bye', 'Bye-bye', 'See you (later/soon/tomorrow)', 'Take care', 'Cheers' (BrE). Questions: 'How are you?' (formal-ish) / 'How's it going?' (casual) / 'How are you doing?' (casual). Answer: 'Fine, thanks. And you?' / 'I'm great!' / 'Not bad.'