A2 English Grammar — 60 Topics & Common Mistakes

Past Continuous (was/were + -ing)

The past continuous describes an action that was in progress at a moment in the past: it had started, but it had not finished yet. Form: 'was' or 'were' + verb + '-ing'. Use 'was' with 'I', 'he', 'she', 'it', and one person or thing, and 'were' with 'you', 'we', 'they', and more than one: 'At 8 o'clock last night, I was watching TV.' It often works together with the past simple: the past continuous is the longer background action, and the past simple is the short action that interrupts it: 'I was cooking when the phone rang.' Negative: 'wasn't/weren't' + -ing ('She wasn't listening.'). Question: 'Were you sleeping?'

Past Simple vs Past Continuous

Past Simple vs Past Continuous (interrupted actions, background)

The past simple ('I worked', 'I saw') is for finished actions in the past. The past continuous ('I was working', 'I was watching') is for an action that was in progress at a past moment. We often use both in one sentence: the past continuous is the longer background action, and the past simple is the short action that happens in the middle of it: 'I was reading a book when the phone rang.' Use 'while' before the longer action: 'While I was walking home, I saw an accident.' For actions that happen one after another, use the past simple: 'I got up, had breakfast, and went to work.'

Present Perfect - Introduction

Present Perfect - Introduction (experience with ever/never, result with just/already/yet)

The present perfect is 'have' or 'has' + the past participle. For regular verbs, the past participle ends in '-ed' ('worked'); irregular verbs have their own forms that you must learn ('seen', 'gone', 'eaten', 'been'). The present perfect links the past to now. At A2, use it for three things: (1) life experience, when the exact time is not important: 'Have you ever been to Japan?' 'I've never tried sushi.' (2) recent actions with a result now, often with 'just', 'already', or 'yet': 'I've just eaten.' 'Have you finished yet?' (3) a situation that started in the past and is still true now, with 'for' or 'since': 'I've lived here for five years.' (not 'I live here for five years'). With a finished time such as 'yesterday', 'last week', or 'in 2020', use the past simple instead: 'I saw him yesterday.'

`be going to` Future - Full Use

`be going to` Future - Full Use (intentions + predictions from evidence)

'Be going to' + base form (the verb with no ending, like 'go' or 'eat') talks about the future. Form: 'am/is/are' + 'going to' + base form: 'I'm going to study medicine.' Use it for (1) plans: things you have already decided to do: 'We're going to move house next year.' (2) predictions based on something you can see or know now: 'Look at those clouds! It's going to rain.' Negative: 'I'm not / she isn't / they aren't going to…'. Question: put 'am/is/are' before the subject: 'Are you going to come?'

`will` Future - Basic

`will` Future - Predictions, Promises, Spontaneous Decisions

'Will' + base form (the verb with no ending) talks about the future. It is the same for all persons: 'I will', 'she will', 'they will'. Short form: 'I'll', 'she'll'. Negative: 'won't' (= will not). Question: 'Will you…?' Use 'will' for: (1) predictions, often with 'I think', 'probably', or 'maybe': 'I think it will rain tomorrow.' (2) decisions you make while you are speaking: 'I'm hungry. I'll make a sandwich.' (3) promises and offers: 'I'll help you.' 'I'll carry that for you.' (4) requests: 'Will you open the window, please?'

Present Continuous for Arranged Future

Present Continuous for Arranged Future (I'm meeting him tomorrow)

You can use the present continuous ('am/is/are' + verb-ing) for the future when something is already arranged: you have agreed a time with other people, bought tickets, or made a booking. 'I'm meeting Anna tomorrow at 5.' 'We're flying to Paris next Monday.' Add a future time expression ('tomorrow', 'next week', 'on Friday') or make the future clear from the situation; otherwise the present continuous means 'now'. To ask about someone's plans: 'What are you doing this weekend?'

Present Simple for Scheduled Future

Present Simple for Scheduled Future (The train leaves at 6.)

You can use the present simple for the future when something is fixed by a timetable or schedule, such as trains, flights, films, classes, and opening times: 'The train leaves at 6.' 'The film starts at 8 tonight.' 'What time does the shop open tomorrow?' We also use the present simple, not 'will', after 'when', 'if', 'as soon as', 'before', 'after', and 'until' when they give the time or the condition of a future action: 'I'll call you when I arrive.' 'If it rains, we'll stay at home.' But when 'when' or 'if' asks a question, 'will' is correct, also inside a sentence, for example after 'I don't know': 'When will you arrive?' 'I don't know if she'll come.'

`used to` for Past Habits and States

'Used to' + base form (the verb with no ending) talks about habits and states in the past that are not true now: 'I used to smoke, but I stopped.' 'She used to live in Paris.' (She doesn't live there now.) 'There used to be a cinema here.' It is the same for all persons. Negative: 'didn't use to' ('I didn't use to like coffee.'). Question: 'Did you use to…?' ('Did you use to play football?'). After 'did' and 'didn't', write 'use' without '-d'. There is no present form: for habits now, use the present simple ('I usually walk to work.').

Present Simple vs Continuous - Stative Verbs

Present Simple vs Continuous - Stative Verbs (know, believe, want, like)

Stative verbs describe states, not actions: what we know or believe, what we like or want, what we own, and how things are. We do not normally use them in the continuous (-ing) form, even for right now. Use the present simple: 'I know the answer.' (not 'I'm knowing the answer'), 'This bag belongs to me.' Common stative verbs: 'know', 'understand', 'believe', 'mean', 'remember', 'like', 'love', 'hate', 'want', 'need', 'prefer', 'own', 'belong', 'seem', 'cost'. Some verbs have a state meaning and an action meaning: 'I have a car.' (own: a state) but 'I'm having lunch.' (eating: an action); 'I think it's a good idea.' (opinion) but 'I'm thinking about it.' (using my mind). 'Feel' can take both forms: 'I feel tired.' and 'I'm feeling tired.' are both correct.

`can / could` - Ability (present vs past)

'Can' and 'could' are modal verbs: small helper verbs that go before a main verb and add a meaning. Here the meaning is ability. Use 'can' for what someone is able to do now: 'I can swim.', 'She can speak three languages.' Use 'could' for what someone was able to do in general in the past: 'When I was a child, I could run very fast.' Both have the same form for every person (no -s: 'she can'), and the next verb is in the base form (the simple verb, like 'swim'), with no 'to': 'can swim', not 'can to swim'. The negatives are 'can't' (or 'cannot', written as one word) and 'couldn't'. For a question, put 'can' or 'could' before the subject, with no 'do', 'does', or 'did': 'Can you drive?', 'Could you read when you were four?' Because 'can' has no 'to' form and no form with 'will', say 'I want to be able to drive.' and 'I will be able to swim.', not 'to can' or 'will can'.

`should` - Advice and Recommendation

Use 'should' to give advice or to say what is a good idea: 'You should drink more water.', 'You should see a doctor.' The negative 'shouldn't' (should not) says that something is a bad idea: 'You shouldn't work so hard.' 'Should' is a modal verb (a helper verb that adds a meaning to the main verb). It has the same form for every person (no -s: 'she should'), and the next verb is in the base form (the simple verb, like 'go'), with no 'to': 'should go', not 'should to go'. To ask for advice, put 'should' before the subject: 'Should I call her?', 'What should I do?' 'Should' is softer than 'must' or 'have to': it gives advice, not a rule.

`must` - Obligation and Strong Necessity (basic)

Use 'must' to say that something is necessary or very important: 'You must wear a seatbelt.', 'I must finish this report today.' It is common in rules and notices ('Students must arrive on time.') and when the speaker feels strongly about something. 'Must' is a modal verb (a helper verb like 'can' or 'should'): it has the same form for every person (no -s), and the next verb is in the base form (the simple verb, like 'go'), with no 'to': 'must go', not 'must to go'. The negative 'mustn't' (must not) means that something is not allowed: 'You mustn't smoke here.' It does not mean 'not necessary'; for that, say 'don't have to'. 'Must' has no past form, so for the past use 'had to': 'I had to work late yesterday.'

`might / may` - Possibility

Use 'might' or 'may' to say that something is possible, but you are not sure: 'It might rain later.', 'She may be at home now.' Used this way, they mean 'perhaps'. For possibility they are almost the same: 'may' is a little more formal, and 'might' is very common in speech. Both are modal verbs (helper verbs like 'can' and 'must'): they have the same form for every person (no -s), and the next verb is in the base form (the simple verb, like 'go'), with no 'to': 'might go', not 'might to go'. The negative is 'might not' or 'may not' (= perhaps not): 'He might not come.' Do not mix up 'may be' (two words, a verb) with 'maybe' (one word, meaning 'perhaps'): 'She may be at home.' = 'Maybe she's at home.'

`have to / has to` - External Obligation

Use 'have to' + base form (the simple verb, like 'go') to say that something is necessary, often because of a rule, a job, or a situation: 'I have to wear a uniform at work.' With 'he', 'she', and 'it', use 'has to': 'She has to finish this by Friday.' The past is 'had to': 'I had to leave early yesterday.' The future is 'will have to': 'You'll have to wait.' 'Have to' is not a modal verb like 'must' or 'can', so in the present simple and the past simple, questions and negatives use the helper verb 'do', 'does', or 'did': 'Do you have to work on Saturdays?', 'She doesn't have to work on Sundays.', 'Did you have to wait?' Be careful: 'don't have to' means 'it is not necessary', not 'it is not allowed' (for that, use 'mustn't').

Phrasal Verbs - Introduction

A phrasal verb is a verb + a small word such as 'up', 'down', 'on', 'off', 'in', 'out', or 'for'. This small word is called a particle. The two words work together as one verb, and the meaning is often different from the verb alone: 'get up' = get out of bed, 'turn on' = switch on a light or a machine, 'look for' = try to find, 'take off' = remove (clothes or shoes). Learn each one as a unit. Only the verb part changes for the tense: 'I get up at seven.', 'Yesterday I got up at nine.' With 'turn on', 'turn off', 'put on', and 'take off', a pronoun goes in the middle: 'Turn it off.' With 'look for' and 'wait for', it goes after 'for': 'I'm looking for it.' Common ones at this level: 'wake up', 'get up', 'sit down', 'stand up', 'come in', 'go out', 'turn on', 'turn off', 'put on', 'take off', 'look for', and 'wait for'.

Gerund as Subject

You can make an activity the subject of a sentence (the thing the sentence is about). To do this, add -ing to the verb: 'Swimming is fun.', 'Learning English takes time.' This -ing form works like a noun, and it is often called a gerund. It can have its own words after it: 'Reading books is my hobby.' The verb after it is singular ('is', 'takes'), even when a plural noun comes just before it: 'Reading books is...', not 'Reading books are...'. Do not use the base form (the simple verb, like 'swim'): 'Swim is fun.' is wrong. You can also start with 'it': 'It is important to learn English.' A sentence like 'To swim is fun.' is correct, but it sounds formal, so in everyday English use the -ing form.

Infinitive of Purpose

To say why someone does something (the purpose), use 'to' + base form (the simple verb, like 'buy'): 'I went to the shop to buy milk.', 'She's learning English to get a better job.' This is called the infinitive of purpose. It answers the question 'Why?', and it can be a short answer on its own: 'Why did you call?' 'To ask about the meeting.' To say why, do not use 'for' before the verb: say 'to buy', not 'for buy' or 'for buying'. 'For' is correct before a noun: 'I went to the shop for some milk.' 'In order to' + base form means the same as 'to', but it is more formal: 'I left early in order to catch the train.'

Verb + -ing after Preposition

Words like 'for', 'before', 'after', 'without', 'instead of', 'by', 'at', 'in', 'of', and 'about' are prepositions. When a verb comes right after one of them, use the -ing form of the verb: 'Thanks for coming.', 'Wash your hands before eating.', 'She left without saying goodbye.', 'I'm good at swimming.' Do not use the base form (the simple verb, like 'eat') or 'to' + base form after these words: 'before eat' and 'without to say' are wrong. Be careful with 'to'. In 'I want to see you', 'to' belongs to the verb, so the base form follows. In 'I'm looking forward to seeing you', 'to' is a preposition, so the -ing form follows.

Countable vs Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are things you can count: 'one chair, two chairs'. They have a singular and a plural form, and a singular countable noun needs 'a/an' or another word such as 'the' or 'my': 'a chair', 'an apple'. Uncountable nouns are things we see as a mass or an idea, not as separate items: 'water', 'money', 'music', 'bread', 'advice', 'information', 'furniture'. They have no plural, do not take 'a/an', and take a singular verb: 'The information is useful.' Use 'many' with plural countable nouns ('many books') and 'much' with uncountable nouns ('How much time do we have?'). In positive sentences, 'a lot of' is more natural than 'much': 'We have a lot of time.' To count an uncountable noun, use a phrase such as 'a glass of water', 'a piece of advice' or 'a loaf of bread'.

`the` with Superlatives

A superlative says that one person or thing has the most (or the least) of a quality in a group: 'the tallest', 'the most expensive', 'the best'. Put 'the' before it: 'She is the tallest girl in the class.' / 'This is the most interesting book I've read.' Most one-syllable adjectives, and two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, add -est: 'tall → the tallest', 'big → the biggest', 'happy → the happiest'. Most other adjectives with two or more syllables, and adjectives ending in -ed such as 'bored', use 'the most': 'the most expensive', 'the most beautiful', 'the most bored'. Some are irregular: 'good → the best', 'bad → the worst', 'far → the furthest' (or 'the farthest'). After 'my', 'your', 'Tom's' and other possessives, do not use 'the': 'my best friend'.

`the` with Geographical Names vs Zero Article

Some place names take 'the' and others take no article at all (this is called the zero article). Use 'the' with oceans, seas and rivers ('the Atlantic', 'the Mediterranean', 'the Nile'), mountain ranges ('the Alps'), deserts ('the Sahara'), groups of islands ('the Maldives'), and countries whose name is plural or contains a word like 'Kingdom', 'Republic' or 'States' ('the Netherlands', 'the United Kingdom', 'the UK', 'the USA'). Use no article with continents ('Europe'), most countries ('France', 'Japan'), cities ('Paris'), single mountains ('Mount Everest'), lakes named 'Lake …' ('Lake Garda'), single islands ('Sicily'), and most streets and parks ('Oxford Street', 'Central Park').

Zero Article with Meals, Languages, Sports

Use no article (no 'a', 'an' or 'the') with meals, languages, sports and games, and school subjects: 'I have breakfast at 7.' / 'She speaks Japanese.' / 'We play tennis.' / 'I study history.' This is true even when you mean a meal on one particular day: 'What's for dinner?' / 'I had lunch with Tom yesterday.' Use 'the' when words after the noun say exactly which one: 'The dinner we had last night was great.' Use 'a' when an adjective comes before a meal: 'I had a big breakfast.' Musical instruments are different: we usually say 'play the piano', 'play the guitar'.

`some / any` in Offers and Requests

The basic rule is: 'some' in positive sentences ('I've got some milk.') and 'any' in negatives and questions ('I haven't got any milk.' / 'Have you got any milk?'). But when you offer something or ask for something, use 'some' in the question: 'Would you like some tea?' (an offer) / 'Can I have some water, please?' (a request). 'Some' shows that you expect or want the answer 'yes'. In a real question, when you do not know the answer, use 'any': 'Do you have any pets?' In a positive sentence, 'any' can also mean 'it doesn't matter which': 'Take any seat you like.'

`a little / a few` vs `little / few`

'A few' and 'few' go with plural countable nouns ('friends', 'books'). 'A little' and 'little' go with uncountable nouns ('time', 'money', 'water'). With 'a', the meaning is positive: 'a few' = some, a small number; 'a little' = some, a small amount. 'I have a few friends here' means I have some friends, and that is good. Without 'a', the meaning is negative: 'few' = not many, almost none; 'little' = not much, almost none. 'I have little time' means I have almost no time, and that is a problem. In everyday speech, people often say 'not many' and 'not much' instead of 'few' and 'little'.

`enough` with Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs

'Enough' means 'as much as you need' or 'as many as you need'. Its position depends on the word it goes with. It comes before a noun: 'enough time', 'enough chairs'. It comes after an adjective or an adverb: 'old enough', 'big enough', 'fast enough'. You can add 'to' + verb or 'for' + a person: 'I have enough money to buy it.' / 'He isn't old enough to drive.' / 'Is it big enough for you?' For the negative, use 'not': 'There isn't enough milk.' / 'She isn't tall enough.'

`all / every / each` - Introduction

'All', 'every' and 'each' talk about the members of a group. 'All' goes with a plural noun and a plural verb: 'All the students are here.' It also goes with an uncountable noun and a singular verb: 'All the food is ready.' 'Every' and 'each' go with a singular noun and a singular verb: 'Every student is here.' / 'Each student has a book.' 'Every' looks at the whole group, with no exceptions; 'each' looks at the members one by one. For two things, use 'each': 'She wore a ring on each hand.'

`(an)other / the other / (the) others`

'Another' means 'one more' or 'a different one'. It is one word, and it goes with a singular noun: 'Would you like another cup of tea?' / 'I need another pen.' 'Other' goes before a plural or uncountable noun: 'other books', 'other people'. 'The other' is the second one of two, or the rest of a group: 'I have two brothers. One is a doctor; the other is a teacher.' Without a noun after it, the plural form is 'others' or 'the others': 'Some people like cats; others like dogs.' / 'Tom stayed, but the others went home.' Before a noun, 'other' never adds -s: 'other ideas', not 'others ideas'.

Reflexive Pronouns - Full

A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of the sentence. The forms are 'myself', 'yourself', 'himself', 'herself', 'itself', 'ourselves', 'yourselves' and 'themselves': singular forms end in '-self' and plural forms end in '-selves'. Use one when the person who does the action is also the person it happens to: 'I cut myself.' 'She looked at herself in the mirror.' You can also use it to stress that nobody helped: 'I built this table myself.' 'By myself' means 'alone': 'He lives by himself.' Many verbs that are reflexive in other languages are not reflexive in English: say 'I feel tired', not 'I feel myself tired', and 'We met at six', not 'We met ourselves at six'.

Reciprocal `each other / one another` - Introduction

'Each other' shows that two or more people do the same action to the other person or people: 'Anna and Tom love each other.' means that Anna loves Tom and Tom loves Anna. 'One another' means the same; 'each other' is more common. Do not use 'themselves', 'ourselves' or an object pronoun such as 'us' for this. 'They looked at each other.' means each person looked at the other person, but 'They looked at themselves.' means each person looked at their own face, for example in a mirror. The possessive form is 'each other's': 'We know each other's families.'

Indefinite Compounds (someone/anything/nothing/everywhere...)

Compound indefinite words talk about people, things or places in a general way, without naming them. They are made of 'some-', 'any-', 'no-' or 'every-' plus '-one' or '-body' (people), '-thing' (things) or '-where' (places): 'someone', 'anything', 'nowhere', 'everybody'. They are written as one word, except 'no one'. Use some- words in positive sentences, offers and requests ('I need something to eat.'), any- words in negative sentences, most questions and after 'if' ('I don't know anyone here.' 'Is anyone home?' 'If anyone calls, tell me.'), no- words with a positive verb ('Nobody called.'), and every- words to mean 'all' ('I've looked everywhere.'). In a positive sentence, an any- word means 'it doesn't matter who, what or where': 'Anyone can learn to swim.', 'Sit anywhere you like.' They all take a singular verb: 'Everyone is here.', not 'Everyone are here.'

Relative Pronouns `who / which / that` - Introduction (defining)

A defining relative clause comes right after a noun and tells us which person or thing we mean: 'The man who called is my uncle.' It starts with a relative pronoun. Use 'who' for people ('the woman who lives next door'), 'which' for things and animals ('the book which I bought'), and 'that' for people, things or animals ('the man that called', 'the book that I bought'). The relative pronoun takes the place of a pronoun such as 'he', 'it' or 'them', so do not use both: 'the keys that I found', not 'the keys that I found them'. When the relative pronoun is the object of the clause, you can leave it out: 'the book I bought'. Do not use commas here, and do not start the clause with 'what': 'the book that I bought', not 'the book what I bought'.

Possessive Adjective vs Possessive Pronoun

Possessive adjectives come before a noun: 'my', 'your', 'his', 'her', 'its', 'our', 'their'. 'This is my book.' 'Her car is red.' Possessive pronouns stand alone, with no noun after them: 'mine', 'yours', 'his', 'hers', 'ours', 'theirs'. 'This book is mine.' 'The red car is hers.' 'His' is the same in both uses, and 'its' is almost never used alone. Possessive pronouns never have an apostrophe: 'yours', 'hers', 'ours', 'theirs', not 'your's' or 'her's'. Choose 'his' or 'her' by the owner, not by the thing: 'Maria is visiting her brother.'

`one / ones` as Substitute

Use 'one' (singular) or 'ones' (plural) so that you don't repeat a countable noun: 'I don't want the small bag. I'll take the big one.' 'These shoes are too small. I need bigger ones.' 'One' usually comes after an adjective ('the red one', 'a new one') or after 'this', 'that' or 'which' ('that one', 'which one'). After an adjective such as 'big' or 'new', don't leave 'one' out: 'I'll take the big one.', not 'I'll take the big.' Before a phrase that says which one you mean, use 'the one' or 'the ones': 'The one on the chair is mine.' On its own, 'one' already means 'a/an + noun', so don't put 'a' before it: 'I need a pen. Have you got one?', not 'Have you got a one?' Don't use 'one' for uncountable nouns such as 'milk' or 'information': 'I prefer cold milk.', not 'I prefer cold one.'

`it` vs `there` - Choosing Correctly

English statements and questions need a subject, even when no real person or thing does the action. For this, English uses 'there' or 'it'. Use 'there is' or 'there are' to say that something exists or is in a place: 'There is a book on the table.' 'There are three cats in the garden.' Use 'it' for the weather, the time and the date, distances, and before an adjective + 'to' + verb: 'It's raining.' 'It's five o'clock.' 'It's 20 kilometres to the airport.' 'It's difficult to learn a new language.' But with a weather noun such as 'wind' or 'snow', use 'there': 'There was a lot of snow.' Also use 'it' (or 'they' for plurals) for something you have already mentioned: 'There's a new café near my flat. It's very nice.'

Place Prepositions - Advanced

Prepositions of place say where something is. You already know 'in', 'on', and 'at'. These prepositions give a more exact position: 'between' (in the middle of two things: 'between the bank and the café'), 'among' (inside a group: 'a house among the trees'), 'behind' (at the back of: 'behind the house'), 'in front of' (at the front of: 'in front of the cinema'), 'next to' or 'beside' (directly at the side of: 'next to the window'), 'opposite' (facing something, often across a street: 'opposite the bank'), 'above' and 'over' (higher than: 'above the sofa'), and 'below' and 'under' (lower than: 'under the table'). Learn the small words too: 'in front of' needs 'of' and 'next to' needs 'to', but 'behind', 'beside', 'near', and 'opposite' never take 'of': 'behind the house', not 'behind of the house'.

Movement Prepositions

Prepositions of movement show where someone or something goes. 'Into' = from outside to inside ('She walked into the kitchen.'). 'Out of' = from inside to outside ('He ran out of the house.'). 'Onto' = to a place on a surface ('The cat jumped onto the table.'). 'Off' = away from a surface ('The cup fell off the table.'). 'Across' = from one side to the other ('across the road'). 'Through' = from one end to the other, inside something ('through the tunnel'). 'Along' = following a line, such as a river or a street ('along the river'). 'Towards' = in the direction of ('towards the door'). 'Past' = going by something without stopping ('past the bank'). 'Up' and 'down' = to a higher or a lower place ('up the stairs'). Remember: to say where something is, use 'in' and 'on', not 'into' and 'onto': 'The cat is on the table.' After some verbs, such as 'put', 'jump', and 'fall', 'in' and 'on' can also show movement: 'Put the milk in the fridge.', 'The cat jumped on the table.'

Time: `during / while / for / since`

These four words all talk about time, but each one needs a different kind of word after it. 'During' + a noun: 'during the film', 'during the summer'. 'While' + a subject and a verb: 'while I was eating', 'while she was at work'. 'For' + a length of time (how long): 'for three hours', 'for two weeks' (not 'during two weeks'). 'Since' + the moment something started: 'since Monday', 'since 2020', 'since I was a child'. For something that started in the past and is still true now, use the present perfect with 'since' and 'for': 'I've lived here since 2020.', not 'I live here since 2020.'

`by` - Means and Agent Introduction

'By' can show how something is done and who does it. First, the way you travel, communicate, or pay: 'by' + a noun with no 'the', 'a', or 'my': 'by car', 'by train', 'by email', 'by phone', 'by credit card'. For walking, say 'on foot'. For one particular vehicle, use 'in' or 'on': 'in my car', 'on the bus'. Second, a method: 'by hand' (made by a person, not a machine), 'by mistake', or 'by' + -ing: 'I learn new words by reading.' Third, in a passive sentence, where the subject is the thing that receives the action, 'by' shows who or what did the action: 'This book was written by Shakespeare.' Use 'by' here, not 'from'.

`without` + Noun / + -ing

'Without' is the opposite of 'with'. It means that someone does not have something or does not do something. Use 'without' + a noun: 'coffee without sugar', 'Don't go out without a coat.' A singular countable noun still needs 'a', 'an', 'the', or a word like 'my': 'without an umbrella', 'without my phone'. Or use 'without' + the -ing form of a verb: 'She left without saying goodbye.' Don't use 'to' or the base form after 'without': 'without saying', not 'without to say' or 'without say'. 'Without' is already negative, so use 'any' and 'anything' after it, not 'no' and 'nothing': 'without any money', 'without saying anything'.

`instead of` + Noun / + -ing

'Instead of' means 'in place of'. You choose one thing and not another. Put the thing you don't choose right after 'instead of': 'I'll have tea instead of coffee.' (You have tea, not coffee.) 'Instead of' can also start the sentence: 'Instead of coffee, I'll have tea.' After 'instead of', use a noun, a pronoun, or the -ing form of a verb: 'instead of the bus', 'instead of me', 'We walked instead of taking the bus.' Don't use 'to' or the base form after it: 'instead of going', not 'instead of to go'. When the thing you don't choose is already clear, use 'instead' alone, with no 'of'. It usually goes at the end of the sentence, or at the start with a comma: 'There was no coffee, so I had tea instead.', 'I didn't call. Instead, I sent a message.'

`because of / due to` + Noun

'Because', 'because of', and 'due to' all give a reason. 'Because' is followed by a clause, which means a subject and a verb: 'The flight was cancelled because the weather was bad.' 'Because of' and 'due to' are followed by a noun or a noun phrase: 'The flight was cancelled because of the bad weather.', 'The flight was cancelled due to fog.' 'Due to' means the same as 'because of', but it is more formal. You often hear it in announcements. So say 'because it rained', but 'because of the rain'.

`for` + -ing (Function / Purpose of a Tool)

Use 'for' + the -ing form of a verb to say what a thing or a place is used for, its function: 'A pen is for writing.', 'This knife is for cutting bread.', 'A bedroom is for sleeping.' The question is 'What is it for?': 'What's this key for?' 'It's for opening the garage.' After 'for', don't use 'to' or the base form: 'for writing', not 'for to write' or 'for write'. For a person's purpose (what they want to do), use 'to' + the base form instead: 'I went to the shop to buy bread.', not 'for buying bread'.

Question Tags - Introduction

A question tag is a short question, such as 'isn't it?' or 'do you?', at the end of a statement. We use it to check something we think is true, or to ask the other person to agree: 'It's cold, isn't it?' The basic rule: after a positive statement, use a negative tag; after a negative statement, use a positive tag: 'You're tired, aren't you?' / 'You aren't tired, are you?' The tag repeats 'be' or the helper verb (auxiliary) of the statement, for example 'have', 'can' or 'will', together with a pronoun for the subject: 'Anna can swim, can't she?' If there is no helper verb (present simple and past simple), use 'do', 'does' or 'did': 'She likes tea, doesn't she?' / 'They went home, didn't they?'

Negative Questions

A negative question is a yes/no question with a negative helper verb (auxiliary), such as 'don't', 'isn't', 'can't', or 'haven't': 'Don't you like coffee?' 'Isn't she coming?' We use negative questions to show surprise when we expected 'yes' ('Don't you remember me?'), to check something we think is true ('Isn't this your bag?'), to invite or offer ('Won't you stay for dinner?'), and to complain ('Aren't you ready yet?'). Take the helper verb of the normal question, add n't ('will' → 'won't', 'can' → 'can't'), and keep it before the subject: 'Do you like coffee?' → 'Don't you like coffee?', 'Is she coming?' → 'Isn't she coming?' For 'I am', the short form is 'Aren't I…?', not 'Amn't I…?': 'Aren't I invited?' The full form puts 'not' after the subject and sounds more formal: 'Do you not like coffee?' To answer, talk about the facts, not the form of the question: if someone asks 'Don't you like coffee?', 'No, I don't.' means you don't like it, and 'Yes, I do.' means you like it.

Indirect / Embedded Questions - Introduction

An indirect question is a question inside another sentence. We often use it to be more polite: 'Could you tell me where the station is?' 'Do you know what time it is?' After the question word, use normal statement order (subject + verb), not question order: 'Where is the station?' becomes 'Could you tell me where the station is?' Drop the 'do', 'does' or 'did' of the direct question, and give the main verb the form it has in a statement: 'What time does the film start?' becomes 'Do you know what time the film starts?' A negative keeps 'don't', 'doesn't' or 'didn't': 'Why didn't she come?' becomes 'Do you know why she didn't come?' For a yes/no question, add 'if' or 'whether': 'Is the shop open?' becomes 'Do you know if the shop is open?'

Exclamatives with `What` and `How`

An exclamation shows a strong feeling, such as surprise, pleasure or anger. English often starts exclamations with 'What' or 'How'. Use 'What' + a noun, often with an adjective before it: 'What a day!' 'What a beautiful dress!' 'What nice people!' Put 'a/an' before a singular countable noun (a noun you can count, like 'day' or 'dress'), but not before plural or uncountable nouns: 'What lovely weather!' Use 'How' + an adjective or adverb with no noun after it: 'How kind!' 'How beautiful!' 'How fast he runs!' You can add a subject and verb at the end, in normal statement order: 'What a big house you have!' 'How tall your brother is!'

Comparison of Equality: `as ... as`

Use 'as + adjective or adverb + as' to say that two people or things are the same in some way: 'She is as tall as her brother.' 'He runs as fast as me.' Keep the adjective or adverb in its normal form: 'as tall as', not 'as taller as'. To say that something is less, make the verb negative: 'I'm not as tall as you.' (= You are taller than me.) 'He doesn't run as fast as his sister.' (= His sister runs faster.) With nouns, use 'as much' + uncountable noun and 'as many' + plural noun: 'I don't have as much time as you.' 'She has as many books as I do.'

Comparatives (-er / more + than)

Use a comparative + 'than' to say that one person or thing has more of a quality than another: 'Tom is taller than Anna.' Most one-syllable adjectives and two-syllable adjectives ending in -y add -er: 'tall → taller', 'big → bigger', 'happy → happier'. Most other adjectives with two or more syllables use 'more': 'more careful', 'more interesting'. Some comparatives are irregular: 'good → better', 'bad → worse', 'far → farther/further'. Use either -er or 'more', never both: 'taller', not 'more taller'. To make the difference bigger, use 'much' or 'a lot', not 'very': 'much bigger'.

Superlatives (-est / most)

Use a superlative to say that one person or thing has the most of a quality in a group: 'She is the tallest girl in the class.' Most one-syllable adjectives and two-syllable adjectives ending in -y add -est: 'tall → the tallest', 'big → the biggest', 'happy → the happiest'. Most other adjectives with two or more syllables use 'the most': 'the most interesting', 'the most expensive'. Irregular forms: 'good → the best', 'bad → the worst', 'far → the farthest/furthest'. Put 'the' before a superlative, but not after 'my', 'your', 'his' and other possessives: 'my best friend'. After a superlative, use 'in' with places and groups ('the best in the world') and 'of' with a number of people or things ('the oldest of the three').

`too` + adjective + to-inf / `enough` + to-inf

'Too' means 'more than is good or possible'. 'Enough' means 'as much as is needed'. Both are often followed by a to-infinitive ('to' + base form). 'Too' + adjective + to-infinitive: 'The coffee is too hot to drink.' (= I can't drink it.) Adjective + 'enough' + to-infinitive: 'She is old enough to drive.' (= She can drive.) 'Too' goes before the adjective, and 'enough' goes after it: 'old enough', not 'enough old'. Before a noun, 'enough' comes first: 'enough money to buy a car'. To say who, add 'for' + person: 'The box is too heavy for me to carry.' Do not repeat the subject with 'it' at the end: 'too hot to drink', not 'too hot to drink it'.

Zero and First Conditional - Introduction

A conditional sentence has two parts: the if-clause (the condition) and the main clause (the result). Zero conditional: 'if' + present simple, present simple, for things that are always true: 'If you heat ice, it melts.' First conditional: 'if' + present simple, 'will' + base form, for a real possibility in the future: 'If it rains tomorrow, I'll stay home.' In both types, the if-clause uses the present simple, even for the future: 'If it rains', not 'If it will rain'. The if-clause can come first or second. When it comes first, we usually put a comma after it: 'If I have time, I'll call you.' / 'I'll call you if I have time.'

Time Subordinators (when, as soon as, before, after, until)

Time words such as 'when', 'as soon as', 'before', 'after' and 'until' join two events and show when they happen. 'When' means 'at the time that': 'When I arrived, she was waiting.' 'As soon as' means 'immediately after': 'I'll call you as soon as I get home.' 'Before' means 'earlier than': 'Wash your hands before you eat.' 'After' means 'later than': 'I called her after I got home.' 'Until' means 'up to the time that': 'I'll wait until you come.' Important: when these words join two events in the future, use the present simple after them, not 'will': 'I'll call you when I arrive.', not 'when I will arrive'. The other part of the sentence (the main clause) can still use 'will'. But when 'when' asks a question, 'will' is correct, also inside a sentence after 'I don't know' or 'Can you tell me': 'When will you arrive?', 'I don't know when she'll arrive.'

Spelling Rules (-y → -ies, consonant doubling)

When you add an ending such as -s, -es, -ed, -ing, -er, or -est to a word, the spelling sometimes changes. The vowels are a, e, i, o, and u; the other letters are consonants. Rule 1: after a consonant, a final y changes to i before -es, -ed, -er, and -est: 'baby' → 'babies', 'study' → 'studied', 'happy' → 'happier'. After a vowel, the y stays: 'boy' → 'boys', 'play' → 'played'. Before -ing, the y always stays: 'studying', 'playing'. Rule 2: a one-syllable word that ends in one vowel + one consonant doubles the consonant before -ing, -ed, -er, and -est: 'run' → 'running', 'stop' → 'stopped', 'big' → 'bigger'. There is no doubling after two vowels ('rain' → 'raining') or after two consonants ('jump' → 'jumping'), and w, x, and y are never doubled ('fix' → 'fixed'). A longer word usually doubles only when its last syllable is stressed: 'begin' → 'beginning', but 'visit' → 'visiting' (British English also doubles a final l: 'travelled'). Rule 3: a silent -e at the end drops before -ing ('make' → 'making'), and -ie becomes y ('lie' → 'lying'); before -ed, -er, and -est, just add -d, -r, or -st ('like' → 'liked', 'nice' → 'nicer').

Silent Letters Awareness

A silent letter is a letter that you write but do not pronounce. English has many of them. Some common patterns: k before n at the start of a word ('know', 'knife', 'knee'); w before r ('write', 'wrong'); b after m at the end of a word ('lamb', 'climb'); l in 'walk', 'talk', 'half', 'could', and 'should'; gh in 'night', 'light', and 'daughter'; t in 'listen' and 'castle'; and h in a few words such as 'hour' and 'honest'. A word with a silent h starts with a vowel sound, so it takes 'an': 'an hour', 'an honest man'. Because of silent letters, some words sound the same: 'know' and 'no', 'write' and 'right', 'hour' and 'our'. Do not pronounce the silent letter, but always write it.

Basic Homophones

Homophones are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings, so you choose the spelling by the meaning. The most important ones: 'their' (belonging to them), 'there' (in that place, or in 'there is' and 'there are'), and 'they're' (= 'they are'); 'your' (belonging to you) and 'you're' (= 'you are'); 'to' (direction, or before a verb: 'to go'), 'too' (also, or more than enough: 'too hot'), and 'two' (the number 2); 'its' (belonging to it) and 'it's' (= 'it is' or 'it has'). A quick test: if you can say 'they are', 'you are', 'it is', or 'it has' instead, write the form with the apostrophe.

British vs American Spelling

British English and American English spell some common words differently, and both spellings are correct. In each pair below, the British spelling comes first. The main patterns are '-our' / '-or' ('colour' / 'color', 'favourite' / 'favorite'), '-re' / '-er' ('centre' / 'center', 'theatre' / 'theater'), a double l / a single l before an ending ('travelled' / 'traveled', 'cancelled' / 'canceled'), and '-yse' / '-yze' ('analyse' / 'analyze'). Words like 'realise' and 'organise' can end in '-ise' or '-ize' in British English, but American English uses '-ize'. Some single words differ too: 'grey' / 'gray', 'cheque' / 'check', and 'programme' / 'program' for a TV show; computer software is a 'program' in both. Choose one system and use it in the whole text.

Politeness with `could / would`

'Could' and 'would' make requests and offers sound polite. Here they do not talk about the past. Ask someone to do something with 'Could you…?' or 'Would you…?': 'Could you help me, please?' Ask for something with 'Could I have…?' and ask for permission with 'Could I…?': 'Could I have the bill, please?', 'Could I sit here?' Offer something with 'Would you like…?': 'Would you like some tea?' Say what you want with 'I'd like' (= 'I would like'): 'I'd like a coffee, please.' This sounds softer than 'I want'. For a very polite request, use 'Would you mind' + -ing form: 'Would you mind closing the window?' The verb right after 'could' or 'would' is the base form (the dictionary form of a verb, such as 'open'), with no 'to': 'Could you open the door?', not 'Could you to open the door?' But before another verb, 'would like' needs 'to': 'I'd like to pay.'

Common False Friends

False friends are words that look or sound like a word in your language but mean something different in English. Some common ones: 'sensible' means 'practical and reasonable', not 'sensitive' (easily upset). 'Actually' means 'in fact', not 'now' (say 'currently' or 'at the moment'). A 'library' lends books; a shop that sells books is a 'bookshop'. 'Eventually' means 'in the end, after a long time', not 'maybe'. 'Sympathetic' means 'kind to someone who has a problem', not 'nice'. You 'attend' a meeting (you are there); 'assist' means 'help'. Which words are false friends depends on your first language, so check a word in a dictionary when it looks familiar.

Large Numbers, Fractions, Percentages

Big numbers: 100 = 'a hundred' or 'one hundred', 1,000 = 'a thousand', 1,000,000 = 'a million', 1,000,000,000 = 'a billion'. After a number, these words have no -s: 'two hundred people', 'three million euros'. For a large number that is not exact, use the plural + 'of': 'hundreds of people', 'thousands of birds'. British English says 'and' before the part of a number that is under 100: 'one hundred and five', 'two thousand and twenty', but 'one thousand two hundred'. American English often leaves it out: 'one hundred five'. Use a comma to separate thousands (1,500) and a point for decimals: 2.5 = 'two point five'. After the point, say each digit: 3.14 = 'three point one four'. Fractions use ordinal numbers (third, fifth): 1/3 = 'a third', 1/5 = 'a fifth', and they add -s when the first number is more than one: 2/3 = 'two thirds'. Also, 1/2 = 'a half' and 1/4 = 'a quarter'. Percentages: 20% = 'twenty per cent' ('percent' in American English), with no -s.

Dates in British vs American English

British English writes the day first: '3 May 2024' or '3rd May 2024'. American English writes the month first and puts a comma before the year: 'May 3, 2024'. Both are correct. When you say a date, use an ordinal number for the day (first, second, third): 'the third of May' in British English, 'May third' in American English. Dates written only in numbers are read differently: 5/3/2024 is 5 March in British English but May 3 in American English, so write the month as a word when your reader may be from another country. Say most years in two pairs of digits: 1999 = 'nineteen ninety-nine', 2024 = 'twenty twenty-four' (or 'two thousand and twenty-four'). But say 2000 to 2009 with 'two thousand': 2008 = 'two thousand and eight' ('two thousand eight' in American English). Use 'on' with dates ('on 3 May') and 'in' with months and years ('in May', 'in 2024').