A2 English Grammar — 60 Topics & Common Mistakes

Past Continuous (was/were + -ing)

The Past Continuous describes an action IN PROGRESS at a specific moment in the past. Form: was/were + verb-ing. 'At 8 o'clock last night, I was watching TV.' 'While she was studying, the phone rang.' We use it for: (1) actions happening AT a specific past moment; (2) BACKGROUND in a story (while + past continuous); (3) two simultaneous past actions. Spelling of -ing follows the same rules as Present Continuous (run → running, write → writing).

Past Simple vs Past Continuous

Past Simple vs Past Continuous (interrupted actions, background)

PAST SIMPLE (I worked, I saw) = COMPLETED past action. PAST CONTINUOUS (I was working, I was watching) = action IN PROGRESS in the past. The classic combination: PAST CONTINUOUS sets the background (long action), PAST SIMPLE is the interruption or short action. 'I WAS READING a book WHEN the phone RANG.' Use WHILE + past continuous for background, WHEN + past simple for the short/interrupting event.

Present Perfect - Introduction

Present Perfect - Introduction (experience with ever/never, result with just/already/yet)

The Present Perfect (HAVE/HAS + past participle) connects the PAST with the PRESENT. We use it to talk about: (1) LIFE EXPERIENCE (ever, never): 'Have you EVER been to Japan?' 'I've NEVER tried sushi.' (2) RECENT ACTIONS WITH PRESENT RELEVANCE (just, already, yet): 'I've just eaten.' 'She's already finished.' 'Have you finished yet?' The time is NOT specific (no 'yesterday', 'last week'). For past actions at a specific time, use Past Simple. Contractions: I've, you've, he's, she's, we've, they've; negatives: haven't, hasn't.

`be going to` Future - Full Use

`be going to` Future - Full Use (intentions + predictions from evidence)

Now we use 'be going to' more fully: (1) FUTURE PLANS / INTENTIONS decided before now: 'I'm going to study medicine.' 'We're going to move house.' (2) PREDICTIONS FROM PRESENT EVIDENCE: 'Look at those clouds — it's going to rain!' 'She's pregnant; they're going to have a baby.' Compare with 'will' (predictions without evidence, spontaneous decisions, promises) — covered separately. Full forms: am/is/are + going to + base form. Negatives: isn't / aren't / 'm not + going to. Questions: invert 'be'.

`will` Future - Basic

`will` Future - Predictions, Promises, Spontaneous Decisions

'WILL' + base form of verb is another way to talk about the future. Use 'will' for: (1) PREDICTIONS (without visible evidence): 'I think it will rain tomorrow.' 'She'll be a great doctor.' (2) SPONTANEOUS DECISIONS made at the moment of speaking: 'I'm hungry. — I'll make a sandwich.' (3) PROMISES: 'I'll help you.' 'I'll never forget you.' (4) OFFERS: 'I'll carry that for you.' Form: will + base form. Same for ALL persons. Contractions: I'll, you'll, he'll, she'll, we'll, they'll. Negative: won't (= will not). NOT 'willn't'.

Present Continuous for Arranged Future

Present Continuous for Arranged Future (I'm meeting him tomorrow)

We can use the PRESENT CONTINUOUS (am/is/are + -ing) to talk about the FUTURE when we have fixed plans and arrangements — especially with other people, dates, or bookings. 'I'm meeting Anna tomorrow at 5.' 'We're flying to Paris next Monday.' 'She's getting married in June.' The future meaning is clear from the time expression (tomorrow, next week, at 7 pm). Use it when the plan is FIXED / arranged / booked, not just an intention.

Present Simple for Scheduled Future

Present Simple for Scheduled Future (The train leaves at 6.)

Use the PRESENT SIMPLE to talk about the future when you're referring to a TIMETABLE or SCHEDULE — something fixed by an organization, not a personal decision. 'The train LEAVES at 6.' 'The film STARTS at 8 pm.' 'The shops OPEN at 9.' 'The lesson ENDS at 11.' Typical verbs: leave, arrive, start, begin, end, finish, open, close, depart. Also used in subordinate clauses after WHEN, IF, AFTER, BEFORE, AS SOON AS — even though the meaning is future: 'I'll call you when I ARRIVE.' (not 'when I will arrive').

`used to` for Past Habits and States

'Used to' + base form describes PAST HABITS and STATES that are NO LONGER TRUE. 'I used to smoke, but I stopped.' 'She used to live in Paris.' 'We used to go on holiday every year.' Form: subject + USED TO + base form. Negative: didn't use to (NOT 'didn't used to'). Question: Did you use to…? Only used in the past — no present form. For present habits, use Present Simple: 'I smoke' / 'I live in Paris'.

Present Simple vs Continuous - Stative Verbs

Present Simple vs Continuous - Stative Verbs (know, believe, want, like)

STATIVE VERBS describe STATES (not actions), so they normally DO NOT use the -ing continuous form. Common stative verbs: KNOW, BELIEVE, UNDERSTAND, MEAN, REMEMBER, FORGET, THINK (= believe), LIKE, LOVE, HATE, WANT, NEED, PREFER, AGREE, SEEM, BE, HAVE (= possess), OWN, BELONG, CONTAIN, SEE, HEAR, TASTE, SMELL. Use Present Simple even for 'right now': 'I KNOW the answer' (not 'I am knowing'). 'She LOVES pizza.' 'This BELONGS to me.' Some verbs have two meanings: 'think' (believe = stative) vs 'think about' (consider = action).

`can / could` - Ability (present vs past)

'Can' talks about present ability: 'I can swim.' 'She can speak three languages.' 'Could' is the past form: 'When I was a child, I could run very fast.' Both are modal verbs, so they never change form (no -s for he/she/it) and they are followed by the base form of the verb (no 'to'). Questions and negatives do not use 'do/does/did': 'Can you swim?' / 'I can't swim.' / 'Could you swim as a child?' / 'I couldn't swim as a child.'

`should` - Advice and Recommendation

'Should' is used to give advice or say what is a good idea. 'You should drink more water.' 'You shouldn't smoke.' 'You should see a doctor.' Like all modals, 'should' is followed by the base form of the verb (no 'to'), never takes -s, and doesn't need 'do/does' in questions or negatives. 'Should I go?' / 'You shouldn't worry.' The negative is 'should not' or 'shouldn't'.

`must` - Obligation and Strong Necessity (basic)

'Must' is used to talk about something that is very important or necessary. 'You must wear a seatbelt.' 'I must finish this report today.' 'Students must arrive on time.' 'Must' is stronger than 'should' and often expresses rules, laws, or things the speaker feels very strongly about. The negative 'mustn't' means 'it is prohibited, don't do it': 'You mustn't smoke here.' Like other modals, 'must' is followed by the base form of the verb and never takes -s.

`might / may` - Possibility

'Might' and 'may' are used to say something is possible but not certain. 'It might rain later.' 'She may be at home now.' Both are modals, so they are followed by the base form of the verb (no 'to'), never take -s, and don't use do-support. 'Might' is slightly less certain than 'may', but in everyday English they are often used interchangeably. Negative: 'might not' / 'may not' (no contraction for 'mayn't' in modern English).

`have to / has to` - External Obligation

'Have to' and 'has to' are used to express obligation that comes from outside — from rules, other people, or circumstances. 'I have to wear a uniform at work.' 'She has to finish this by Friday.' Unlike modal 'must', 'have to' is a normal verb, so it changes for 3rd person (has to) and uses do-support in questions and negatives: 'Do I have to come?' 'She doesn't have to work on Sundays.' Importantly, 'don't have to' means 'it is not necessary' (optional) — NOT 'prohibited'. Past form: 'had to'.

Phrasal Verbs - Introduction

A phrasal verb is a verb + a small word (called a particle: up, down, on, off, in, out, away...). Together they often have a special meaning that is different from the verb alone. 'Get up' = leave bed in the morning. 'Turn on' = start a machine. 'Look for' = search. 'Sit down' = move to a seated position. Common A2 phrasal verbs include: wake up, get up, sit down, stand up, turn on, turn off, look for, put on, take off.

Gerund as Subject

When a verb is the subject of a sentence, use the -ing form (called a gerund): 'Swimming is fun.' 'Learning English takes time.' 'Smoking is bad for you.' The gerund acts like a noun. Do NOT use the infinitive 'To swim is fun' in everyday English — it sounds old-fashioned. Always use the -ing form as the subject. The verb that follows is singular: 'Reading books IS important' (not 'are').

Infinitive of Purpose

To explain WHY you do something (the purpose or goal), use 'to' + base form of the verb. 'I came here TO HELP you.' 'She went to the shop TO BUY milk.' 'He's learning English TO GET a better job.' This is called the infinitive of purpose. Don't use 'for + -ing' here — it's a common mistake. Use 'to + base verb'. You can also use 'in order to' or 'so as to' for a slightly more formal version: 'I came here in order to help.'

Verb + -ing after Preposition

When a verb comes after a preposition (for, before, after, without, instead of, by, at, on, in, about...), it must be in the -ing form. 'Thanks FOR COMING.' 'Wash your hands BEFORE EATING.' 'She left WITHOUT SAYING goodbye.' 'I'm good AT SWIMMING.' Never use the infinitive ('to + base') after a preposition — use the -ing form (gerund).

Countable vs Uncountable Nouns

Countable nouns are things you can count: 'one chair, two chairs, three chairs'. They have singular and plural forms. Uncountable nouns are things you cannot count directly: water, music, information, advice, furniture, bread, money. They have no plural form and do not take 'a/an'. To quantify them, use phrases like 'a piece of advice', 'a glass of water', 'a loaf of bread'. Use 'much' with uncountable, 'many' with countable.

`the` with Superlatives

Superlatives (the biggest, the most expensive, the best, the worst) always take 'the' before them. 'She is THE BEST student in the class.' 'This is THE MOST INTERESTING book I've read.' 'He is THE TALLEST person here.' For short adjectives, we use 'the + adjective + -est' (the tallest, the biggest, the oldest). For longer adjectives, we use 'the most + adjective' (the most expensive, the most beautiful). Irregular: good → the best; bad → the worst; far → the farthest/furthest.

`the` with Geographical Names vs Zero Article

With geographical names, English uses 'the' for some types and no article (zero article) for others. Use 'the' with: oceans, seas, rivers (the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, the Nile), mountain ranges (the Alps), deserts (the Sahara), groups of islands (the Maldives), and most countries with 'of' or plural names (the United States, the UK, the Netherlands). Use NO article with: continents (Europe, Asia), individual countries (France, Germany), cities (Paris, Rome), single mountains (Mount Everest), single lakes (Lake Garda), and most streets.

Zero Article with Meals, Languages, Sports

With the names of meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner), languages (English, Spanish, Chinese), and sports (football, tennis, chess), English uses NO article in general statements. 'I have breakfast at 7.' 'She speaks English.' 'They play football.' Don't say 'the breakfast', 'the English', 'the football' unless you mean something very specific. 'The breakfast was delicious' (= that particular breakfast you had).

`some / any` in Offers and Requests

The basic rule is: 'some' in positive sentences ('I have some milk'), 'any' in negatives and questions ('I don't have any milk', 'Do you have any milk?'). BUT in OFFERS and REQUESTS, we use 'some' in questions: 'Would you like SOME tea?' (offer), 'Can I have SOME water?' (request). Using 'any' in an offer sounds rude or suggests a real doubt. Use 'some' when you expect a 'yes' answer.

`a little / a few` vs `little / few`

'A little' = a small amount (positive, 'some'). 'Little' (without 'a') = not much (negative, 'almost none'). 'A few' = a small number (positive, 'some'). 'Few' (without 'a') = not many (negative, 'almost none'). Use 'a little / little' with uncountable nouns (water, time). Use 'a few / few' with countable plural nouns (books, friends). 'I have a little time' = some time. 'I have little time' = not much time at all.

`enough` with Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs

'Enough' means 'as much/many as needed'. Position is tricky: BEFORE a noun ('enough time', 'enough money', 'enough chairs'), but AFTER an adjective or adverb ('big enough', 'old enough', 'quickly enough'). Common structure: 'enough + noun + to-inf' ('enough money to buy it') and 'adj/adv + enough + to-inf' ('old enough to drive', 'quickly enough to catch the bus'). Negative: 'not enough' in all positions.

`all / every / each` - Introduction

'All' + plural/uncountable = the whole group: 'All students are here.' 'All water is wet.' 'Every' + singular = every one of a group (no exceptions): 'Every student is here.' 'Each' + singular = each one considered individually: 'Each student has a book.' Both 'every' and 'each' take singular nouns and singular verbs: 'Every student IS' / 'Each student HAS' (not 'are' or 'have').

`(an)other / the other / (the) others`

'Another' = one more / a different one (singular, indefinite): 'Would you like another cup of tea?' 'I need another pen.' 'The other' = the remaining one of two (singular, definite): 'I have two brothers. One is a doctor; the other is a teacher.' 'Others' / 'the others' = the remaining ones (plural): 'Some people love cats; others love dogs.' / 'I took my bag; the others left theirs.' Key rule: 'another' is ONE WORD ('an + other'), used with singular indefinite nouns.

Reflexive Pronouns - Full

Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the verb: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. We use them when the subject and object are the same person: 'I hurt myself.' 'She saw herself in the mirror.' 'They enjoyed themselves at the party.' Also used for emphasis: 'I did it myself.' (= nobody helped me). Note: 'yourself' (singular) vs 'yourselves' (plural). Don't use reflexives when the action is naturally done to oneself in English: 'wash', 'shave', 'dress' — just say 'I wash', not 'I wash myself'.

Reciprocal `each other / one another` - Introduction

'Each other' and 'one another' mean that two or more people do the same thing to each other mutually. 'Anna and Tom love each other' (= Anna loves Tom, and Tom loves Anna). 'The students helped each other' (= they helped one another). Both 'each other' and 'one another' mean the same thing; 'each other' is more common. Important: 'each other' is NOT the same as 'themselves' (reflexive): 'They looked at themselves' (= each one looked at his/her own reflection) vs 'They looked at each other' (= mutually, face to face).

Indefinite Compounds (someone/anything/nothing/everywhere...)

English has compound indefinite words formed by some/any/no/every + one/body/thing/where. People: someone/somebody, anyone/anybody, no one/nobody, everyone/everybody. Things: something, anything, nothing, everything. Places: somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, everywhere. Rules like some/any: 'some-' in positives ('I know someone'), 'any-' in negatives and questions ('I don't know anyone', 'Does anyone know?'). 'No-' = negative meaning with positive verb ('I know nobody' = 'I don't know anybody'). All take SINGULAR verbs: 'Everyone IS here' (not 'are').

Relative Pronouns `who / which / that` - Introduction (defining)

We use relative pronouns to give more information about a noun. Use 'who' for people: 'The man WHO called is my uncle.' Use 'which' for things or animals: 'The book WHICH I bought is interesting.' 'That' can replace 'who' or 'which' in defining clauses: 'The man THAT called / The book THAT I bought.' Don't put a comma before 'that/who/which' when the clause is essential to identify who or what we are talking about.

Possessive Adjective vs Possessive Pronoun

Possessive ADJECTIVES go BEFORE a noun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their. 'This is MY book.' 'That is HER car.' Possessive PRONOUNS stand ALONE (no noun after): mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs. 'This book is MINE.' 'That car is HERS.' The forms are mostly different (my → mine, her → hers, our → ours), except 'his' (same as possessive pronoun) and 'its' (no separate pronoun form; avoid). Never add an apostrophe: 'hers' (NOT 'her's'), 'theirs' (NOT 'their's').

`one / ones` as Substitute

When you don't want to repeat a noun, you can use 'one' (singular) or 'ones' (plural) to replace it. 'I'll take the red apple, not the green one.' 'Do you want the small cups or the big ones?' 'I like this shirt better than that one.' 'One/ones' replaces the noun only; you still need adjectives, articles, or demonstratives: 'the red one', 'a big one', 'these ones'. Don't use 'one' with uncountable nouns: 'I want some water' (not 'some water one').

`it` vs `there` - Choosing Correctly

English often needs a dummy subject because sentences can't start without one. Use 'THERE' to introduce the existence of something: 'THERE is a book on the table.' 'THERE are people waiting.' Use 'IT' for weather, time, distance, and general situations: 'IT is raining.' 'IT's 5 o'clock.' 'IT's 10 km to the city.' 'IT's difficult to learn grammar.' Quick rule: 'there' for 'something exists'; 'it' for weather/time/distance/abstract situations.

Place Prepositions - Advanced

After A1 (in, on, at), we need more precise place prepositions. BETWEEN = in the middle of two things ('between the chair and the table'). AMONG = in the middle of many ('among the trees'). BEHIND = at the back of ('behind the door'). IN FRONT OF = at the front of ('in front of the cinema'). NEXT TO / BESIDE = very close to ('next to the lamp'). OPPOSITE = facing ('opposite the school'). ABOVE = higher than ('above the clouds'). BELOW / UNDER = lower than ('under the table'). Be careful: 'in front of' is 3 words, 'opposite' has no 'of'.

Movement Prepositions

Movement prepositions describe how something moves through space. ACROSS = from one side to the other ('across the road'). THROUGH = from one end to the other inside ('through the tunnel'). ALONG = following the length of ('along the river'). INTO = entering ('into the room'). OUT OF = leaving ('out of the house'). ONTO = moving onto a surface ('onto the table'). OFF = leaving a surface ('off the chair'). TOWARDS = in the direction of ('towards the door'). PAST = moving by ('past the bank').

Time: `during / while / for / since`

These four words look similar but work differently. DURING + NOUN (time period): 'during the film', 'during the summer'. WHILE + CLAUSE (with a verb): 'while the film was on', 'while I was eating'. FOR + LENGTH of time: 'for three hours', 'for two weeks'. SINCE + POINT in time (starting): 'since Monday', 'since 2020', 'since I was young'. Remember: 'during the meal' (noun) but 'while I was eating' (verb clause).

`by` - Means and Agent Introduction

'By' has two important uses. (1) MEANS — how something is done or used: 'by car', 'by bus', 'by email', 'by hand'. 'I go to work BY bike.' 'She contacted me BY phone.' (2) AGENT (in passive sentences) — who does the action: 'This book was written BY Shakespeare.' 'The painting was painted BY Picasso.' Note: for transport, no article: 'by car' (NOT 'by the car' — except for specific vehicles). Exception: 'on foot' (not 'by foot').

`without` + Noun / + -ing

'Without' is the opposite of 'with'. It means 'not having something' or 'not doing something'. Use WITHOUT + NOUN: 'Tea without sugar.' 'I went out without my keys.' Or WITHOUT + -ING: 'She left without saying goodbye.' 'He went to work without eating breakfast.' Never use 'without to + base form' (common mistake). Always 'without + -ing' for actions.

`instead of` + Noun / + -ing

'Instead of' means 'in place of' — when you choose one thing and not another. Use INSTEAD OF + NOUN: 'Tea instead of coffee.' 'I took the bus instead of the car.' Or INSTEAD OF + -ING: 'We walked instead of driving.' 'He read a book instead of watching TV.' 'Instead' alone can start a sentence without 'of': 'I don't want coffee. Instead, I'll have tea.' But with an object, always use 'instead OF'.

`because of / due to` + Noun

'Because of' and 'due to' both express cause/reason and are followed by a NOUN or noun phrase: 'The flight was cancelled because of the fog.' 'Traffic was slow due to the accident.' Important: 'because' (without 'of') is a conjunction and takes a full clause with a verb: 'The flight was cancelled BECAUSE the weather was bad.' Remember: because + SENTENCE (with verb); because of / due to + NOUN.

`for` + -ing (Function / Purpose of a Tool)

'For + -ing' describes the FUNCTION or PURPOSE of a tool, object, or place (what it is used for). 'This knife is FOR CUTTING bread.' 'Scissors are FOR CUTTING paper.' 'A pan is FOR COOKING.' 'A dictionary is FOR LOOKING UP words.' Important: 'for + -ing' describes a thing's FUNCTION (general use); 'to + base form' (infinitive of purpose) describes why a PERSON does something ('I bought it TO CUT bread'). Don't confuse these two!

Question Tags - Introduction

Question tags are short questions added at the end of a statement to confirm it or ask for agreement. The rule: if the statement is POSITIVE, the tag is NEGATIVE: 'You're coming, AREN'T you?' If the statement is NEGATIVE, the tag is POSITIVE: 'You're not coming, ARE you?' The tag uses the same auxiliary as the main verb ('are / do / have / can'). For the present simple without auxiliary, use 'do/does': 'She likes tea, DOESN'T she?'

Negative Questions

Negative questions are yes/no questions that start with a negative auxiliary: 'Don't you like coffee?' 'Aren't you coming?' 'Can't he swim?' 'Haven't you heard?' We use them when (1) we expect a 'yes' answer but are surprised ('Don't you remember me?'), (2) we make a suggestion or invitation ('Won't you join us?'), (3) we express surprise or criticism ('Aren't you ready yet?'). The contraction (n't) goes BEFORE the subject: 'Don't you...?' (not 'Do not you...?' in everyday speech).

Indirect / Embedded Questions - Introduction

Indirect (or embedded) questions are questions inside another sentence, often used to sound more polite: 'COULD YOU TELL ME where the station is?' 'DO YOU KNOW what time it is?' Important: the word order changes — inside the indirect question, we use STATEMENT order (subject + verb), NOT question order. Compare: Direct: 'Where IS the station?' → Indirect: 'Could you tell me where the station IS?' No 'do/does/did' in the indirect part.

Exclamatives with `What` and `How`

To express strong feelings (surprise, admiration, delight) we use exclamative sentences with 'What' or 'How'. WHAT + NOUN: 'What a day!' 'What lovely weather!' 'What beautiful flowers!' (don't forget 'a/an' before singular countable nouns). HOW + ADJECTIVE/ADVERB: 'How kind (of you)!' 'How quickly he runs!' 'How beautiful!' Rule: 'What' is used with a noun (with adjectives before it); 'How' is used with an adjective or adverb alone.

Comparison of Equality: `as ... as`

To say two things are equal (the same), use 'AS + adjective/adverb + AS': 'She is AS TALL AS her brother.' 'He runs AS FAST AS a horse.' For negative (not equal), use 'NOT AS ... AS' or 'NOT SO ... AS': 'I'm NOT AS TALL AS you.' Also used with quantifiers: 'as much money as', 'as many books as'.

Comparatives (-er / more + than)

To say one thing is MORE than another, we use comparatives. For short adjectives (1 syllable, or 2 ending in -y): add -ER + than: 'tall → TALLER than', 'big → BIGGER than', 'happy → HAPPIER than'. For longer adjectives (2+ syllables): use MORE + adjective + than: 'MORE INTERESTING than', 'MORE BEAUTIFUL than'. Irregular: good → BETTER, bad → WORSE, far → FARTHER/FURTHER. 'Than' introduces the second thing being compared.

Superlatives (-est / most)

Superlatives describe the highest or lowest in a group. For short adjectives: THE + adjective + -EST: 'the TALLEST', 'the BIGGEST', 'the HAPPIEST'. For longer adjectives: THE MOST + adjective: 'the MOST INTERESTING', 'the MOST EXPENSIVE'. Irregular: good → the BEST, bad → the WORST, far → the FARTHEST. Always include 'THE' before the superlative. Common follow-ups: 'in' (a place/group), 'of' (a group), 'ever'.

`too` + adjective + to-inf / `enough` + to-inf

'Too' = more than needed (negative): 'The coffee is TOO HOT TO DRINK.' (= I can't drink it). 'Enough' = as much as needed (positive): 'She is old ENOUGH TO DRIVE.' (= she can drive). Word order: TOO + adjective (+ for someone) + to-infinitive / adjective + ENOUGH (+ for someone) + to-infinitive. 'Too' goes BEFORE the adjective; 'enough' goes AFTER the adjective.

Zero and First Conditional - Introduction

Conditionals are 'if-sentences'. ZERO conditional (general truths, facts): 'IF + present simple, present simple': 'If you HEAT water, it BOILS.' FIRST conditional (real future possibility): 'IF + present simple, will + base form': 'If it RAINS, I WILL STAY home.' Never use 'will' after 'if' in these two conditionals. The 'if' clause can come first or second: 'If it rains, I'll stay home' = 'I'll stay home if it rains.' (Use a comma only when 'if' comes first.)

Time Subordinators (when, as soon as, before, after, until)

Time subordinators link two events in time. WHEN = at the time that ('When I arrived, she was waiting.'). AS SOON AS = immediately when ('As soon as I finish, I'll call you.'). BEFORE = earlier than ('Wash your hands before you eat.'). AFTER = later than ('I called after I got home.'). UNTIL = up to the time that ('I'll wait until you come.'). KEY RULE: with future events, use present simple after these words, NOT 'will': 'When I arrive, I WILL CALL you' (NOT 'when I will arrive').

Spelling Rules (-y → -ies, consonant doubling)

Two key spelling rules: (1) -Y → -IES: words ending in consonant + y change y to i + es: 'baby → babies', 'try → tries', 'happy → happier'. If there's a VOWEL before y, just add -s: 'boy → boys', 'play → plays'. (2) CONSONANT DOUBLING: short words ending in 1 vowel + 1 consonant double the consonant before -ing, -ed, -er: 'run → running', 'stop → stopped', 'big → bigger', 'hot → hottest'. Don't double with 2 vowels ('rain → raining') or 2 consonants ('jump → jumping').

Silent Letters Awareness

Many English words have letters we write but DON'T pronounce — these are silent letters. Common examples: KNEE, KNIFE, KNOW (silent K), WRITE, WRONG (silent W), HOUR, HONEST (silent H at start), LAMB, CLIMB, COMB (silent B at end), LISTEN, CASTLE (silent T), WALK, TALK (silent L). Say: /niː/ not /kniː/. Recognising silent letters helps you pronounce English correctly.

Basic Homophones

Homophones are words that SOUND the same but have different SPELLING and MEANING. Common A2 pairs: THEIR (of them) / THERE (that place) / THEY'RE (they are). YOUR (of you) / YOU'RE (you are). TO (direction) / TOO (also, excess) / TWO (number 2). ITS (of it) / IT'S (it is). Don't confuse them — it changes the meaning completely!

British vs American Spelling

British (BrE) and American (AmE) English have different spellings for many common words. Key differences: -OUR vs -OR: colour/color, favour/favor, honour/honor. -RE vs -ER: centre/center, metre/meter, theatre/theater. -ISE vs -IZE: realise/realize, organise/organize. -LLED vs -LED: travelled/traveled, cancelled/canceled. Both are correct — just be consistent. Pick one variety and stick with it in a document.

Politeness with `could / would`

To be polite in English, use 'could' and 'would' instead of 'can' and 'will' in requests: 'COULD you help me, please?' (more polite than 'Can you help me?'). 'WOULD you like some tea?' (more polite than 'Do you want tea?'). 'I WOULD like a coffee, please.' (more polite than 'I want a coffee'). 'WOULD YOU MIND + -ing' is very polite: 'Would you mind opening the window?' Always add 'please' — it's expected in polite English.

Common False Friends

False friends are words that LOOK OR SOUND similar in your language and English but have DIFFERENT MEANINGS. For example: 'SENSIBLE' in English = reasonable, wise (not 'sensitive'). 'ACTUALLY' = in fact (not 'currently'). 'LIBRARY' = place for books (not a bookshop). 'EVENTUALLY' = finally, in the end (not 'possibly'). 'GIFT' = present (not 'poison' in German!). 'SYMPATHETIC' = showing kindness (not 'nice/friendly'). Don't trust words that look the same — check the meaning!

Large Numbers, Fractions, Percentages

LARGE NUMBERS: 100 = a/one hundred, 1,000 = a/one thousand, 1,000,000 = a/one million, 1,000,000,000 = a/one billion. Use 'and' after hundred: 101 = one hundred AND one. FRACTIONS: 1/2 = a half / one half, 1/3 = a third, 1/4 = a quarter, 3/4 = three quarters, 2/3 = two thirds (plural -s). PERCENTAGES: 20% = twenty per cent (or percent). Use singular verb with 'per cent': '20 per cent IS good.' Commas for thousands (1,000), points for decimals (3.14 = three point one four).

Dates in British vs American English

British and American English write dates DIFFERENTLY. BrE: day/month/year → 3rd May 2024 or 3/5/24. AmE: month/day/year → May 3, 2024 or 5/3/24. IMPORTANT: 5/3/24 means 5th March (BrE) or 3rd May (AmE) — very confusing! Always check the order. When writing in full, say the day as ordinal: 'the third of May' (BrE) or 'May third' (AmE). Years: say 2024 as 'twenty twenty-four' or 'two thousand (and) twenty-four'.