Lenguia | B2 English Grammar: 70 Topics & Examples

PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS = had been + -ing. At B2, master the subtle nuances: (1) DURATION up to a past reference point, emphasising the ongoing activity: 'When she retired, she HAD BEEN WORKING for 40 years.' (2) INTERRUPTED past activity: 'I HAD BEEN READING for an hour when the phone rang.' (3) CAUSE of a past state (visible result): 'Her eyes were red because she HAD BEEN CRYING.' Contrast with past perfect simple (completion/result) vs continuous (process/duration/evidence).

Key rule

had + been + -ing = ongoing past activity up to a past point. Emphasises DURATION, PROCESS, or VISIBLE CAUSE. Not with stative verbs. Contrast with simple (result/completion).

Examples

When she retired, she had been teaching for 35 years.
When she retired, she was teaching for 35 years.
Duration up to past point → PP continuous, not past continuous.
His shoes were muddy because he had been gardening.
His shoes were muddy because he gardened.
Past activity with visible result → PP continuous.
I had been reading for an hour when the phone rang.
I have been reading for an hour when the phone rang.
Past context → past perfect (had), not present perfect (have).

Common mistakes

Stative verbs in continuous
I had been knowing him for years.
I had known him for years.
Stative → simple.
Missing 'been'
I had waiting for hours.
I had been waiting for hours.
Continuous needs been + -ing.

B2Verb tenses

Future Perfect Continuous

FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS = will have been + -ing. We use it to describe an ongoing activity that WILL CONTINUE UP TO a specific point in the future, with emphasis on DURATION. 'By next year, I WILL HAVE BEEN LIVING here for 10 years.' (living will have been going on for 10 years by next year). 'By the end of the meeting, we WILL HAVE BEEN TALKING for 3 hours.' Often with 'by', 'by the time', 'in X years'.

Key rule

will + have + been + -ing = ongoing activity up to a future point, emphasising DURATION. Used with 'by + future time' or 'by the time + clause'. Not with stative verbs.

Examples

By next year, I will have been living here for 10 years.
By next year, I will have lived here for 10 years. (OK but continuous stresses ongoing)
Continuous emphasises ongoing engagement.
By the time she arrives, we will have been waiting for 3 hours.
By the time she will arrive, we will have been waiting for 3 hours.
Present simple in 'by the time' clause.
In 10 years, I will have been teaching for 30 years.
In 10 years, I will have teaching for 30 years.
Need 'been'.

Common mistakes

Missing 'been'
I will have working by then.
I will have been working by then.
Continuous needs 'been + -ing'.
Missing 'have'
I will been working by 5 hours.
I will have been working for 5 hours.
Need 'have' + 'been'.

B2Verb usage

`be about to / be on the verge of / be on the point of`

These three structures all mean 'going to happen very soon' (imminent future). BE ABOUT TO + base form: 'I AM ABOUT TO LEAVE.' (= I'll leave in a moment). BE ON THE VERGE OF + -ing / noun: 'She IS ON THE VERGE OF CRYING.' BE ON THE POINT OF + -ing / noun: 'He IS ON THE POINT OF RESIGNING.' 'Be about to' is the most common and neutral; 'verge of' and 'point of' are more formal or emotional.

Key rule

be about to + BASE form (neutral). be on the verge of / on the point of + -ing or NOUN (formal/emotional). All mean 'imminent future'.

Examples

I'm about to leave.
I'm about to leaving.
About to + base form.
She's on the verge of tears.
She's on the verge to cry.
Verge of + noun/-ing.
He's on the point of resigning.
He's on the point of to resign.
Point of + -ing.

Common mistakes

'About to + -ing'
I'm about to leaving.
I'm about to leave.
About to + base.
'Verge of + to-inf'
She's on the verge of to cry.
She's on the verge of crying. / She's on the verge of tears.
Verge of + -ing/noun.

B2Verb usage

`be due to / be to + inf` (Scheduled / Formal Future)

'BE DUE TO' + base form = SCHEDULED, expected to happen at a specific time: 'The train IS DUE TO arrive at 5 p.m.' 'The baby IS DUE next month.' 'BE TO' + base form = FORMAL / OFFICIAL plans or orders (common in news, notices): 'The President IS TO visit Paris tomorrow.' 'You ARE TO report at 9 a.m.' Both express scheduled/formal future, different from 'will' (prediction) or 'going to' (intention).

Key rule

be due to + base = scheduled at specific time. be to + base = formal/official arrangement or order. Both different from 'will' (prediction) and 'going to' (intention).

Examples

The train is due to arrive at 6 p.m.
The train is due arrive at 6 p.m.
Need 'to' before base form.
She is due to give birth next month.
She is due give birth next month.
Due to + base.
The baby is due in May.
The baby is due to in May.
'Due' + time (no 'to' without verb).

Common mistakes

Missing 'to'
The train is due arrive. / You are report at 9.
The train is due to arrive. / You are to report at 9.
Need 'to' before base form.
Confusing 'due to' (cause) with 'due to' (schedule)
The delay was due to arrive. (if meant cause)
The delay was due to bad weather. (cause) / The train was due to arrive at 6. (schedule)
Different meanings.

B2Verb usage

`will / would` for Habitual Behaviour

WILL and WOULD can describe TYPICAL or HABITUAL behaviour, often with a sense of annoyance or character. WILL = present typical behaviour: 'He WILL always complain about the weather.' (it's typical of him, often annoying). WOULD = past habit (repeated action only, not states): 'When I was a child, she WOULD sit in her chair and read for hours.' Emphasis on 'always / usually / typically'. Formal or literary register.

Key rule

Will + base = present typical/habitual behaviour (often annoying). Would + base = past habit (ACTION verbs only; not states). Stronger/more literary than present/past simple.

Examples

He will always complain about the food.
He will complain tomorrow about the food. (different meaning: prediction)
Habitual behaviour with 'always'.
When I was a child, my grandma would tell me stories.
When I was a child, my grandma would have a big dog. (state — wrong)
Would = past action habit; not state.
She'll spend hours on the phone.
She spends hours on the phone. (neutral — OK but less vivid)
Will + always stresses characteristic.

Common mistakes

'Would' with stative verb
When I was young, I would have a dog.
When I was young, I used to have a dog.
Would doesn't work with states.
Confusing habitual 'will' with prediction
He will be tired. (habitual intended)
He will always be tired after work. (habit) / He will be tired tomorrow. (prediction)
Context/adverb clarifies.

B2Verb tenses

Narrative Tense Mix for Stylistic Effect

In storytelling, writers sometimes MIX tenses for stylistic effect. HISTORICAL PRESENT: using present tense for past events, making them vivid: 'So there I am, walking home, when suddenly I SEE a man...' FLASH-FORWARD: using future or 'was going to' to hint at future events: 'Little did I know, this day WOULD CHANGE my life.' Skilled writers shift tenses to create rhythm, drama, or foreshadowing. Use carefully — keep context clear.

Key rule

Narrative tense mix = stylistic choice. Historical present (immediacy), flash-forward with 'would' (foreshadowing), past perfect (backstory). Use for effect, not arbitrarily. Stick to one main tense in formal writing.

Examples

So I'm walking down the street, and suddenly this man comes up to me. (historical present)
So I was walking down the street, and suddenly this man comes up to me. (inconsistent mix)
Either all historical present or all past.
Little did she know, her life would change forever that day. (flash-forward)
Little did she know, her life changes forever that day. (inconsistent)
Past narrative with flash-forward 'would'.
He looked at the photo. He had been so happy then.
He looked at the photo. He was so happy then. (less clear on time shift)
Past perfect for flashback within past.

Common mistakes

Random tense mixing
I went to the shop. I buy some bread. I came home.
I went to the shop. I bought some bread. I came home.
Stay consistent unless stylistically justified.
Historical present in formal essay
Napoleon invades Russia in 1812... (academic essay)
Napoleon invaded Russia in 1812...
Academic writing prefers past for historical events.

B2Verb tenses

Sequence of Tenses in Subordinate Clauses

When the MAIN CLAUSE is in the PAST, the SUBORDINATE clause often 'shifts back' (backshift). 'He SAID he WAS tired.' (not 'is'). 'She THOUGHT I HAD LEFT.' (past before past). 'He PROMISED he WOULD come.' (will → would). But: if the subordinate clause describes a GENERAL TRUTH (still true), no backshift needed: 'She said water BOILS at 100°C.'

Key rule

Past main clause → backshift in subordinate (usually). Present → past, past → past perfect, will → would, can → could. Exception: general truths (optional). Already-past modals (should, could, might) stay.

Examples

He said he was tired.
He said he is tired. (acceptable informally, but backshift standard)
Past reporting → backshift.
She told me she had finished.
She told me she has finished.
Present perfect → past perfect.
He said water boils at 100°C.
He said water boiled at 100°C. (unnecessary backshift)
General truth → no backshift needed.

Common mistakes

Missing backshift
He said he is tired.
He said he was tired.
Past reporting usually requires backshift.
Over-backshifting general truths
The teacher said the sun rose in the east.
The teacher said the sun rises in the east.
General truth → no backshift.

B2Verb tenses

Perfect Aspect in Storytelling

In storytelling, PERFECT ASPECT (has/had/will have + past participle) layers TIMES to create rich narrative. PAST PERFECT: earlier past events. PRESENT PERFECT: relevance to the narrator's current moment. FUTURE PERFECT: completion by a future point. By using these, you can reveal backstory, show consequences, and foreshadow. 'When she arrived, everyone HAD LEFT. She HAS NEVER forgotten that moment. Next year, they WILL HAVE BEEN APART for a decade.'

Key rule

Perfect aspect = layers times in narrative. Past perfect for backstory, present perfect for current relevance, future perfect for foreshadowing. Use for clarity and depth.

Examples

When she arrived, everyone had left.
When she arrived, everyone left. (ambiguous sequence)
Past perfect shows earlier action.
I have been a teacher for 20 years and have never seen this.
I was a teacher for 20 years and never saw this. (if still teaching)
Present perfect for ongoing relevance.
By 2030, she will have written ten books.
By 2030, she writes ten books.
Future perfect for achievement by future time.

Common mistakes

Over-using past perfect in sequential narrative
I had woken up. I had eaten breakfast. I had gone to work.
I woke up. I ate breakfast. I went to work.
Simple past for sequential events.
Missing past perfect for earlier action
When I arrived, they left.
When I arrived, they had left.
For earlier action, past perfect.

B2Verb usage

Gerund vs Infinitive with Meaning Change

Some verbs take BOTH gerund and infinitive — but with DIFFERENT MEANINGS. REMEMBER + -ing = recall a past action ('I remember LOCKING the door.'); REMEMBER + to-inf = don't forget ('Remember TO LOCK the door.'). FORGET, STOP, TRY, REGRET, MEAN, GO ON also have this dual behaviour. Choose carefully — the wrong form changes the meaning!

Key rule

Some verbs take both -ing (past/ongoing action) and to-inf (future/intent/purpose) with DIFFERENT meanings. Remember, forget, stop, try, regret, mean, go on, need. Choose based on meaning.

Examples

I remember locking the door (past recollection).
I remember to lock the door. (= future task — different meaning)
Remember + -ing = past recall.
Remember to lock the door! (future task)
Remember locking the door! (= past recall, different meaning)
Remember + to-inf = don't forget.
I stopped smoking 5 years ago. (= quit)
I stopped to smoke 5 years ago. (= paused to smoke once)
Stop + -ing = quit.

Common mistakes

Using wrong form
I remember to call her yesterday.
I remember calling her yesterday.
Past recall → -ing.
'Stop to' for 'quit'
I stopped to smoke 10 years ago.
I stopped smoking 10 years ago.
Quit → -ing.

B2Verb usage

Verb + Object + to-Infinitive

Many verbs take the pattern: VERB + OBJECT + TO-INFINITIVE. The object is the person who does the action. WANT: 'I want YOU TO COME.' EXPECT: 'We expect HIM TO ARRIVE.' ASK: 'She asked ME TO HELP.' TELL: 'He told US TO LEAVE.' ADVISE: 'I advise YOU TO WAIT.' WARN: 'They warned ME NOT TO GO.' The object + to-inf structure shows who does what.

Key rule

Verb + OBJECT + to + base form. Common with want, ask, tell, advise, warn, allow, expect, invite, teach. Negative: not + to + base. NOT with suggest (uses -ing or that-clause).

Examples

I want you to come to the party.
I want you come to the party.
Need 'to' before base form.
She asked me to help her.
She asked me help her.
Need 'to'.
He told us not to leave.
He told us don't leave.
Not + to + base.

Common mistakes

Missing 'to'
I want you go.
I want you to go.
Need 'to'.
'Suggest + object + to-inf'
I suggest you to come.
I suggest (that) you come. / I suggest coming.
Suggest uses that-clause or -ing.

B2Verb usage

Causative Advanced: `make / let / have` + Bare Infinitive

Three causative verbs take BARE INFINITIVE (base form, NO 'to'): MAKE + object + base = force / cause. 'She MADE me LAUGH.' LET + object + base = allow / permit. 'My parents LET me GO.' HAVE + object + base = arrange / get someone to. 'I HAD the plumber FIX the sink.' These are different from 'get + object + to-inf' (which DOES take 'to'). Bare infinitive with make/let/have is key.

Key rule

Make / Let / Have + OBJECT + BASE FORM (NO 'to'). Make = force; Let = allow; Have = arrange. Passive of 'make' adds 'to': 'I was made to work'.

Examples

She made me laugh.
She made me to laugh.
Make + obj + bare inf.
My parents let me go to the party.
My parents let me to go to the party.
Let + obj + bare inf.
I had the plumber fix the sink.
I had the plumber to fix the sink.
Have + obj + bare inf.

Common mistakes

Adding 'to' to make/let/have
She made me to laugh.
She made me laugh.
Bare infinitive.
Using 'let' + -ing
Let me going.
Let me go.
Base form.

B2Verb usage

`help` + (to-)Infinitive / Bare Infinitive

'HELP' is special: you can use it with either BARE INFINITIVE (no 'to') or TO-INFINITIVE. Both are correct! 'She helped me COOK dinner.' = 'She helped me TO COOK dinner.' Modern/informal English prefers bare infinitive. Also 'help + object + base / to-inf': 'I helped HIM carry the bags.' Without object: 'This will help (to) save time.' Bare form is more common in AmE; 'to-inf' slightly more formal.

Key rule

help + (object) + (to) + base form. Both with and without 'to' are correct. 'Can't help + -ing' is a different idiom meaning 'cannot stop'.

Examples

She helped me cook dinner.
She helped me cooking dinner.
Bare inf or to-inf, not -ing.
She helped me to cook dinner.
She helped me for cooking dinner.
'To' is optional; 'for' is wrong.
This will help reduce stress.
This will help to reducing stress.
Base form after 'to', not -ing.

Common mistakes

'Help + -ing' (except idiom)
She helped me cooking.
She helped me cook. / She helped me to cook.
Help takes (to-)infinitive, not -ing (except 'can't help').
Adding 'for'
Help me for cook.
Help me cook. / Help me to cook.
No 'for'.

B2Verb usage

`prefer / would prefer / would rather` - Comparison Structures

Three ways to express preference — with different structures. PREFER (general): 'I prefer tea TO coffee.' / 'I prefer COOKING to washing up.' WOULD PREFER (specific): 'I'd prefer TEA RATHER THAN coffee.' / 'I'd prefer to COOK.' WOULD RATHER (specific, + base form): 'I'd rather STAY home.' Past: 'I'd rather she CAME tomorrow.' (past tense for present/future preference of another person).

Key rule

prefer + N to N / -ing to -ing / to-inf. would prefer + to-inf / N. would rather + BASE form (no 'to') / + subject + past simple (other's preference).

Examples

I prefer tea to coffee.
I prefer tea than coffee.
Prefer + N + to + N.
I prefer cooking to cleaning.
I prefer cooking than cleaning.
Prefer + -ing + to + -ing.
I'd prefer to go home.
I'd prefer go home.
Would prefer + to-inf.

Common mistakes

'Prefer + than'
I prefer tea than coffee.
I prefer tea to coffee.
Prefer + to (not than).
'Would rather + to-inf'
I'd rather to stay.
I'd rather stay.
Base form, no 'to'.

B2Verb usage

Negative Infinitive and Negative Gerund

To make an infinitive or gerund NEGATIVE, place NOT BEFORE the verb form. NOT + to-inf: 'She told me NOT TO WORRY.' 'I decided NOT TO GO.' NOT + -ing: 'She insisted on NOT PAYING.' 'I regret NOT STUDYING more.' 'NOT' comes directly before 'to' or before the -ing form. Don't use 'don't' or 'do not' here.

Key rule

Negative infinitive = NOT + to + base form. Negative gerund = NOT + -ing. Place 'not' directly before the verb form. Don't use 'don't' with inf/gerund.

Examples

She told me not to worry.
She told me don't worry.
Infinitive: not + to + base.
I decided not to go.
I decided to don't go.
Not + to + base.
I regret not studying more.
I regret don't studying more.
Gerund: not + -ing.

Common mistakes

'Don't' with inf/gerund
She told me don't come.
She told me not to come.
Use 'not', not 'don't'.
'No' instead of 'not'
Thanks for no calling.
Thanks for not calling.
'Not' negates verb; 'no' = adj before noun.

B2Verb usage

Perfect Infinitive (to have done)

PERFECT INFINITIVE = to have + past participle. Used to show an action BEFORE the main verb's time. 'I seem TO HAVE LOST my keys.' (I lost them in the past — the seeming is now). 'It's good TO HAVE SEEN you.' 'She appears TO HAVE GONE.' Common after: seem, appear, pretend, be glad, be sorry, would like. Also with modals: 'You should HAVE TOLD me.' 'He must HAVE FORGOTTEN.' Shows retrospective meaning.

Key rule

to have + past participle = action BEFORE the main verb time. Used after seem/appear, would like (past regret), modals (should have, must have, could have), emotions (glad to have met).

Examples

She seems to have forgotten her keys.
She seems to forgetting her keys.
Perfect inf: to have + pp.
I'm glad to have met you.
I'm glad to meeting you. / I'm glad to meet you. (if 'met' before)
Perfect inf for past meeting.
You should have told me earlier.
You should had told me earlier.
Should HAVE + pp.

Common mistakes

Simple inf for past meaning
I'm glad to meet you. (if meeting was in past)
I'm glad to have met you.
Past meaning → perfect inf.
'Should had'
You should had told me.
You should have told me.
Modal + have + pp.

B2Verb usage

Passive Infinitive

PASSIVE INFINITIVE = to be + past participle. 'It's nice TO BE INVITED.' 'I want TO BE PROMOTED.' 'The room needs TO BE CLEANED.' The subject receives the action (passive), not performs it. Forms: simple passive inf = to be + pp ('to be done'); continuous passive inf = to be being + pp ('to be being observed') — rare; perfect passive inf = to have been + pp ('to have been chosen') — used for past events.

Key rule

Passive infinitive = to be + past participle. Perfect passive = to have been + pp. Used when the subject receives the action. Common after want/hope/need + passive inf.

Examples

I want to be promoted.
I want to promote. (if meaning passive)
Passive: to be + pp.
She hopes to be chosen for the team.
She hopes to be choose for the team.
Past participle 'chosen'.
It's nice to be invited.
It's nice to be inviting.
Past participle, not -ing.

Common mistakes

Missing 'be'
I want to invited.
I want to be invited.
Passive needs 'be' + pp.
Missing 'to'
I hope be chosen.
I hope to be chosen.
Need 'to'.

B2Verb usage

Perfect Gerund

PERFECT GERUND = having + past participle. Used to show an action BEFORE the main verb's time (in gerund form). 'I regret HAVING SAID that.' (I said it in the past). 'After HAVING FINISHED, she left.' 'I don't remember HAVING MET him.' (no past memory). Passive perfect gerund: HAVING BEEN + past participle. 'I remember HAVING BEEN TOLD.' More formal than simple gerund; used for clarity about past timing.

Key rule

Perfect gerund = having + past participle. Passive = having been + pp. Shows action BEFORE main verb time. Formal; often optional (simple gerund OK). Use after prepositions for clarity.

Examples

I regret having said that.
I regret having say that.
Past participle 'said'.
After having finished, we went out.
After having finish, we went out.
Past participle 'finished'.
Thanks for having invited me.
Thanks for to have invited me.
After preposition: gerund, not to-inf.

Common mistakes

'Having + base'
Having see him.
Having seen him.
Past participle (V3).
'To have + pp' after prep
Thanks for to have invited me.
Thanks for having invited me. / Thanks for inviting me.
Prep → gerund.

B2Connectors

Third Conditional

Third Conditional describes IMAGINARY PAST situations — things that DIDN'T happen. STRUCTURE: IF + PAST PERFECT, + WOULD HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE. 'If I HAD KNOWN, I WOULD HAVE HELPED.' (I didn't know, so I didn't help.) 'If she HAD STUDIED, she WOULD HAVE PASSED.' (She didn't study; she didn't pass.) Used for past regret, criticism, or imagining different outcomes. Also: 'might have / could have / should have' in main clause for different nuances.

Key rule

Third conditional = if + past perfect, would have + past participle. For impossible past situations. NEVER 'would have' in if-clause. Alternatives in main: might have, could have, wouldn't have.

Examples

If I had known, I would have helped.
If I would have known, I would have helped.
No 'would have' in if-clause.
If she had studied, she would have passed.
If she studied, she would have passed.
Past perfect in if-clause.
If I had been there, I could have helped.
If I had been there, I could help.
Need 'have + pp' with could.

Common mistakes

'Would have' in if-clause
If I would have known, I would have helped.
If I had known, I would have helped.
Past perfect only in if-clause.
Past simple in if-clause
If I knew, I would have helped.
If I had known, I would have helped.
Past perfect for past unreal.

B2Connectors

Mixed Conditionals

MIXED CONDITIONALS combine different time references. TYPE 1 — Past condition → Present result: 'If I HAD STUDIED harder, I WOULD BE a doctor NOW.' (past action missing; present state different.) TYPE 2 — Present condition → Past result: 'If I WERE richer, I WOULD HAVE BOUGHT that house.' (present state → past decision.) Mixed conditionals link a past action to a current situation or a current state to a past event.

Key rule

Mixed conditional links past and present. Past cond → Present result: if + past perfect, would + base. Present cond → Past result: if + past simple, would have + pp. Use time markers for clarity.

Examples

If I had studied harder, I would be a doctor now.
If I had studied harder, I would have been a doctor now.
Present state → would + base (not would have).
If I were taller, I would have become a basketball player.
If I had been taller, I would have become a basketball player.
Present condition (am not tall now) → past simple; past result → would have + pp.
If she hadn't moved, she would still live here.
If she didn't move, she would still live here.
Past action → past perfect in if-clause.

Common mistakes

'Would have' in present-result main clause
If I had studied, I would have been a doctor now.
If I had studied, I would be a doctor now.
Present result → would + base.
'Would' instead of 'would have' for past result
If I were rich, I would buy that house yesterday.
If I were rich, I would have bought that house yesterday.
Past result → would have + pp.

B2Connectors

Inverted Conditionals

In FORMAL English, we can INVERT conditionals by dropping 'if' and putting the auxiliary FIRST. HAD + subject (3rd conditional): 'HAD I KNOWN, I would have helped.' (= If I had known...) WERE + subject (2nd conditional with 'be'): 'WERE I rich, I would travel.' (= If I were rich...) SHOULD + subject (1st/future): 'SHOULD you need help, call me.' (= If you need help...) Used in formal writing and formal speech.

Key rule

Inverted conditionals: drop 'if', invert auxiliary + subject. Had + subject + pp (3rd); Were + subject (2nd, be); Were + subject + to-inf (2nd hypothetical); Should + subject + base (1st formal). Formal register.

Examples

Had I known, I would have helped.
If had I known, I would have helped.
Drop 'if' when inverting.
Were I rich, I would travel the world.
Were I am rich, I would travel.
Just 'Were I', no 'am'.
Were I to fail, I would try again.
Were I to fail, I try again.
Main clause needs 'would'.

Common mistakes

Keeping 'if' with inversion
If had I known, I would have helped.
Had I known, I would have helped.
Inversion replaces 'if'.
Wrong auxiliary
Did I know, I would have said.
Had I known, I would have said.
Only had/were/should in inversion.

B2Connectors

Conditional Connectors

Beyond 'if', English has many conditional connectors: UNLESS = if not (neg condition). PROVIDED / PROVIDING THAT = only if (strict condition). AS LONG AS = if (condition accepted). ON CONDITION THAT = formal, strict condition. IN CASE = in the event that (precaution): 'Take an umbrella IN CASE it rains.' (= because it might). SUPPOSING / SUPPOSE = imagine (hypothetical). Each has a specific nuance.

Key rule

Unless = if not. Provided/Providing that = only if (strict). As long as = if (condition). In case = precaution (not 'if'!). Supposing = imagine (hypothetical). Same tense rules as 'if'.

Examples

I'll help you provided that you finish by Friday.
I'll help you provided that you will finish by Friday.
No 'will' in condition clause.
You can stay as long as you're quiet.
You can stay as long as you will be quiet.
Present simple.
Take an umbrella in case it rains.
Take an umbrella in case it will rain.
No 'will' after 'in case'.

Common mistakes

'In case' + will
In case he will call, tell him.
In case he calls, tell him.
Same as if: no will.
Confusing 'in case' with 'if'
I'll call you in case I need help. (meaning 'when I need help')
I'll call you if I need help.
In case = preventive; if = reactive.

B2Connectors

`wish / if only` - Past Regret / Future Wish

At B1 you learned 'wish + past simple' for PRESENT regret. B2 adds: WISH + PAST PERFECT = PAST regret ('I wish I HAD STUDIED more'). WISH + WOULD = annoyance or wish for future change ('I wish you WOULD STOP smoking'). 'If only' works the same way. Don't use 'wish + would' for your own actions — use 'could' instead: 'I wish I COULD travel more.'

Key rule

wish + past simple = present regret. wish + past perfect = PAST regret. wish + would = future annoyance/change (not for own actions). wish + could = wishing for ability.

Examples

I wish I had studied harder. (past regret)
I wish I studied harder. (if meaning past)
Past regret → past perfect.
I wish you would stop smoking.
I wish you will stop smoking.
Would, not will.
I wish I could travel more.
I wish I would travel more.
Own action → could, not would.

Common mistakes

'Wish + would' for own action
I wish I would study more.
I wish I studied more. / I wish I could study more.
Own actions: past simple or 'could', not 'would'.
'Wish + will'
I wish he will come.
I wish he would come. / I hope he'll come.
Would for future wish.

B2Verb usage

`must have + past participle` - Past Deduction

'MUST HAVE + past participle' expresses STRONG PAST DEDUCTION (logical conclusion based on evidence). 'She's not here. She MUST HAVE LEFT already.' (I'm almost certain.) 'You MUST HAVE BEEN tired last night.' (evidence suggests so). Strong confidence — nearly certain. Not for obligation (use 'had to' for past obligation).

Key rule

must + have + past participle = strong past deduction (nearly certain). Based on evidence. NEVER for past obligation (use 'had to'). Negative: can't / couldn't have + pp.

Examples

She's not here. She must have left already.
She's not here. She must left already.
Need 'have'.
You must have been tired after the trip.
You must have being tired after the trip.
Past participle 'been'.
He must have forgotten to call.
He must of forgotten to call.
'Must of' — non-standard; 'must have'.

Common mistakes

'Must of' (non-standard)
He must of left.
He must have left. / He must've left.
Always 'have' in writing.
For past obligation
Yesterday I must have worked.
Yesterday I had to work.
Must have = deduction only.

B2Verb usage

`can't / couldn't have + pp` - Negative Past Deduction

'CAN'T HAVE' and 'COULDN'T HAVE + past participle' express STRONG NEGATIVE PAST DEDUCTION (near certainty that something DIDN'T happen). 'He CAN'T HAVE SAID that — he's too polite.' (I'm almost sure he didn't.) 'She COULDN'T HAVE STOLEN it; she was with me.' Both forms are close in meaning. 'Couldn't have' sometimes slightly more past-focused. Use for contradicting a claim or rejecting a possibility.

Key rule

can't have / couldn't have + past participle = strong NEGATIVE past deduction (near certainty that it didn't happen). Not 'mustn't have'. For contradicting claims or rejecting possibilities.

Examples

He can't have said that; he's too polite.
He mustn't have said that.
Negative deduction: can't have.
She couldn't have stolen it; she was with me.
She couldn't stole it.
Need 'have + pp'.
That can't have been easy.
That can't of been easy.
'Have', not 'of'.

Common mistakes

'Mustn't have' for negative deduction
She mustn't have come.
She can't have come. / She couldn't have come.
Negative deduction: can't / couldn't.
'Can't of' (non-standard)
He can't of done it.
He can't have done it.
'Have' in writing.

B2Verb usage

`might / may / could + have + pp` - Past Possibility

'MIGHT HAVE / MAY HAVE / COULD HAVE + past participle' express PAST POSSIBILITY (something possibly happened, not certain). 'She's late. She MIGHT HAVE MISSED the bus.' 'He's not here. He MAY HAVE FORGOTTEN.' 'They COULD HAVE LEFT early.' About 30-50% certainty. 'Might' and 'may' are nearly interchangeable (may slightly more formal). 'Could have' often interchangeable too. Negative: 'might not have / may not have' (= possibly not).

Key rule

might / may / could + have + past participle = past possibility (30-50% certain). Negative possibility: might not / may not have + pp. 'Could not have' = different (negative deduction or unfulfilled).

Examples

She's late. She might have missed the bus.
She's late. She might missed the bus.
Need 'have'.
He may have forgotten.
He may forgot.
Need 'have'.
They could have left early.
They could of left early.
'Have', not 'of'.

Common mistakes

'Might of' (non-standard)
She might of left.
She might have left.
'Have' in writing.
Missing 'have'
She might left.
She might have left.
Need 'have'.

B2Verb usage

`should have / shouldn't have + pp` - Regret / Unfulfilled Expectation

'SHOULD HAVE + past participle' expresses REGRET or UNFULFILLED EXPECTATION about the past. 'I SHOULD HAVE STUDIED more.' (I didn't — I regret it.) 'SHOULDN'T HAVE' = past action that shouldn't have happened. 'You SHOULDN'T HAVE SAID that.' (but you did.) Also used for expectations: 'The train SHOULD HAVE ARRIVED by now.' (expected but hasn't). Criticism or regret tone.

Key rule

should have / shouldn't have + past participle = past regret, criticism, or unfulfilled expectation. Past tense modal. Contraction: should've. Negative: shouldn't have.

Examples

I should have studied more.
I should studied more.
Need 'have'.
You shouldn't have said that.
You shouldn't said that.
Need 'have'.
The package should have arrived by now.
The package should have arriving by now.
Past participle.

Common mistakes

'Should of' (non-standard)
I should of studied.
I should have studied.
'Have' in writing.
Missing 'have'
I should studied more.
I should have studied more.
Need 'have'.

B2Verb usage

`would have + past participle` - Counterfactual

'WOULD HAVE + past participle' expresses COUNTERFACTUAL past — something that DIDN'T happen but was possible. Often in 3rd conditional: 'If I had known, I WOULD HAVE HELPED.' (I didn't know, so didn't help.) Also standalone: 'I WOULD HAVE COME, but I was busy.' Expresses unrealised possibilities, past unreal actions.

Key rule

would have + past participle = counterfactual past (didn't happen). Third conditional: If + past perfect, would have + pp. Standalone: 'I would have come, but...' Negative: wouldn't have.

Examples

If I had known, I would have helped.
If I would have known, I would have helped.
No 'would have' in if-clause.
I would have come, but I was busy.
I would of come, but I was busy.
'Have', not 'of'.
She would have won if she had trained harder.
She would of won.
'Have'.

Common mistakes

'Would of'
I would of helped.
I would have helped. / I'd have helped.
'Have'.
Missing 'have'
I would helped.
I would have helped.
Need 'have'.

B2Verb usage

`needn't have done` vs `didn't need to do`

Two forms with DIFFERENT meanings. NEEDN'T HAVE + pp = action DID happen, but WASN'T NECESSARY. 'You NEEDN'T HAVE BROUGHT flowers — we already have some.' (but you did.) DIDN'T NEED TO + base = action WASN'T NECESSARY, and usually DIDN'T happen. 'I DIDN'T NEED TO WAKE up early, so I slept in.' (didn't wake up). Small difference = big meaning difference!

Key rule

needn't have + pp = action HAPPENED but was unnecessary. didn't need to + base = wasn't necessary (usually didn't happen). Different meanings!

Examples

You needn't have brought flowers — we have plenty. (but you did)
You didn't need to bring flowers — we have plenty. (ambiguous; maybe you didn't bring)
'Needn't have' = action happened.
I didn't need to wake up early, so I slept in.
I needn't have woken up early, so I slept in.
If you DIDN'T wake up, use 'didn't need to'.
You needn't have bothered.
You needn't have bother.
Past participle.

Common mistakes

Confusing meaning
I needn't have gone to the meeting. (if meaning: I didn't go)
I didn't need to go to the meeting.
'Needn't have' = did go; 'didn't need to' = possibly didn't go.
'Needn't had'
You needn't had come.
You needn't have come.
Need 'have', not 'had'.

B2Verb usage

`would rather / had better / it's (high) time`

Three important structures. WOULD RATHER = preference. 'I'd rather stay home.' (+ base form). WOULD RATHER + subject + past = preference for another person's action: 'I'd rather you CAME tomorrow.' (subject + past). HAD BETTER = strong advice / warning. 'You HAD BETTER hurry.' (+ base form). IT'S TIME / IT'S HIGH TIME = something should have happened / is overdue. 'It's time you WENT to bed.' (+ subject + past). Note past form for subject.

Key rule

would rather + base (own action) / + subject + past (other's action, present meaning). had better + base = strong advice. it's (high) time + subject + past = overdue criticism.

Examples

I'd rather stay home tonight.
I'd rather to stay home.
'Would rather' + base (no 'to').
I'd rather you came tomorrow. (present meaning)
I'd rather you come tomorrow.
Subject + past for present/future meaning.
You had better hurry!
You had better to hurry!
'Had better' + base.

Common mistakes

'Would rather + to + base'
I'd rather to go.
I'd rather go.
No 'to'.
'Had better + to + base'
You had better to go.
You had better go.
No 'to'.

B2Verb usage

`shall` in Questions and Offers

'SHALL' is used mostly in QUESTIONS and OFFERS with I / WE in British English. (1) OFFERS: 'SHALL I help you?' (= Do you want me to help?) (2) SUGGESTIONS: 'SHALL we go?' (= Let's go — shall we?) (3) ASKING for advice: 'What SHALL I do?' (= What should I do?) Formal / old-fashioned in other uses (prediction). Not used in American English — use 'should' or 'will' instead. Always with I / we for modern uses.

Key rule

shall = modern BrE usage mostly in questions/offers with I/we. 'Shall I help?' (offer). 'Shall we go?' (suggestion). 'What shall I do?' (advice). AmE uses 'should' / 'will' / 'do you want me to'.

Examples

Shall I help you with that?
Shall he help you with that?
Modern use: I / we only.
Shall we begin?
Shall you begin?
With 'we' for suggestions.
What shall I do?
What shall I doing?
Base form.

Common mistakes

'Shall' with 3rd person subject
Shall he help?
Should he help? / Will he help?
Modern 'shall' = I/we only.
'Shall' for modern prediction
I shall go tomorrow (casual).
I will go tomorrow. / I'm going tomorrow.
Archaic; modern = will / going to.

B2Verb usage

`ought to` vs `should` - Nuance and Register

'OUGHT TO' and 'SHOULD' have SIMILAR meanings (advice, expectation, obligation) but 'ought to' is slightly MORE FORMAL and suggests a STRONGER moral duty. 'You SHOULD study.' (general advice) vs 'You OUGHT TO help the poor.' (moral). Structure: 'ought' + TO + base form (unlike most modals). Negative: 'ought not to' or 'oughtn't to'. Past: 'ought to have + pp'.

Key rule

ought to + BASE form = advice/moral obligation/expectation. Similar to 'should' but slightly more formal / moral. Negative: ought not to. Past: ought to have + pp.

Examples

You ought to try this restaurant.
You ought try this restaurant.
Need 'to'.
We ought to help the poor. (moral)
We should help the poor. (OK, but 'ought to' stronger moral)
Both OK, ought to slightly moral.
The train ought to arrive soon.
The train oughts to arrive soon.
'Ought' invariant.

Common mistakes

Missing 'to'
You ought go.
You ought to go.
'Ought + to + base'.
Do-support
Does he ought to go?
Ought he to go? (archaic) / Should he go? (modern)
Modal inversion, no 'do'.

B2Verb usage

Passive with Reporting Verbs

Formal news and writing use passive reporting structures. Two patterns: (1) IT IS SAID / BELIEVED / REPORTED + THAT clause: 'IT IS SAID that the economy is improving.' (2) SUBJECT + IS SAID / BELIEVED / REPORTED + TO-INF: 'He IS SAID TO BE very rich.' 'She IS BELIEVED TO HAVE LEFT.' These avoid naming a source. Common verbs: say, believe, think, report, claim, expect, allege, know, assume.

Key rule

Passive reporting: (1) It + is/was + pp + that-clause. (2) Subject + is/was + pp + to-inf (same time) / to have + pp (earlier time). Verbs: say, believe, think, report, claim, expect.

Examples

It is said that she is a great actress.
It said that she is a great actress.
Need 'is' before said.
He is said to be a genius.
He is said to is a genius.
To + base form, not 'to is'.
She is believed to have left the country.
She is believed to left the country.
Past event → to have + pp.

Common mistakes

Missing 'is/was' (auxiliary)
It said that he is rich.
It is said that he is rich.
Passive needs be + pp.
'To + finite verb'
He is said to is rich.
He is said to be rich.
To + base form, not finite.

B2Verb usage

`get`-Passive - Full Use

At B1 you met get-passive. At B2, use it fluently across tenses and contexts. FORMATION: get/got/getting + past participle. 'I GOT INVITED.' 'She GOT PROMOTED.' 'The window GOT BROKEN.' Common in INFORMAL English, especially for UNEXPECTED events, changes of state, and actions with implied AGENCY. Past: 'got + pp.' Present continuous: 'am getting + pp.' Perfect: 'have gotten + pp' (AmE) / 'have got + pp' (BrE).

Key rule

get + pp = informal passive. Used across all tenses. For unexpected events, changes of state, implied agency. Not for stative verbs or formal writing. AmE 'gotten', BrE 'got' in perfect.

Examples

I got invited to the party.
I got invite to the party.
Past participle.
She got promoted last month.
She was getting promoted last month. (continuous — different nuance)
Simple past passive.
They got married in Italy.
They got marrying in Italy.
Past participle.

Common mistakes

Wrong participle
I got invite.
I got invited.
Need past participle.
Stative verbs
I got known.
I was known.
Get-passive avoids stative.

B2Verb usage

Passive - Perfect and Continuous

Master complex passive forms with perfect and continuous aspects. PAST CONTINUOUS PASSIVE: was/were being + pp. 'The house WAS BEING BUILT when I visited.' PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE: has/have been + pp. 'The report HAS BEEN FINISHED.' PAST PERFECT PASSIVE: had been + pp. 'The letter HAD BEEN SENT before I arrived.' FUTURE PERFECT PASSIVE: will have been + pp. 'The project WILL HAVE BEEN COMPLETED by Friday.'

Key rule

All passives = be-form + past participle. Continuous passives add 'being'. Perfect passives add 'been'. Match to tense. Avoid perfect continuous passives (awkward).

Examples

The house was being built when we arrived.
The house was built when we arrived. (different meaning)
Past continuous passive: was + being + pp.
The report has been finished.
The report has finished.
Passive needs 'been' + pp.
The letter had been sent before I arrived.
The letter was sent before I arrived. (OK but less clear sequence)
Past perfect passive for earlier past.

Common mistakes

Missing 'been' in perfect passive
The report has finished. (if meaning passive)
The report has been finished.
Passive needs been + pp.
Missing 'being' in continuous passive
The house was built when we visited. (if meaning ongoing)
The house was being built when we visited.
Continuous needs being.

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B2Verb usage

Passive of Phrasal Verbs

Transitive phrasal verbs can be used in PASSIVE voice. Key rule: the particle stays WITH the verb, even in passive. 'They called off the meeting.' → 'The meeting WAS CALLED OFF.' 'She looked after the cat.' → 'The cat WAS LOOKED AFTER.' (by her). The particle (off, after, up, etc.) goes after the verb: was + pp + particle (+ by agent). Don't split the verb and particle.

Key rule

Passive phrasal verb = be + past participle + PARTICLE (+ by agent). Particle stays attached. Only transitive phrasal verbs can be passive.

Examples

The meeting was called off.
The meeting was called. (different meaning)
Keep particle.
The cat is being looked after by my neighbour.
The cat is being looked by my neighbour after.
Particle after pp, then agent.
Our house was broken into last week.
Our house was broken last week. (different meaning)
Keep 'into'.

Common mistakes

Dropping the particle
The meeting was called. (if meaning cancelled)
The meeting was called off.
Particle changes meaning.
Wrong order (agent before particle)
The cat was looked by her after.
The cat was looked after by her.
Particle first, then by agent.

B2Verb usage

Causative Variations

English has multiple CAUSATIVE structures. (1) HAVE/GET + SOMETHING DONE (service, passive-like): 'I had my hair cut.' (hairdresser did it). 'I got my car repaired.' (2) HAVE + SOMEBODY DO (someone does for you): 'I had my brother wash the car.' (3) GET + SOMEBODY TO DO (similar, with 'to'): 'I got my brother TO wash the car.' (4) MAKE + SOMEBODY DO (force, bare inf): 'She made me laugh.' All express causation but with subtle differences.

Key rule

Causative variations: have/get + sth + pp (service); have + sb + base (arrange via authority); get + sb + to + base (persuade); make + sb + base (force); let + sb + base (allow).

Examples

I had my hair cut.
I cut my hair. (different meaning — I did it)
Service: had + pp.
I got my car repaired.
I got my car repair.
Past participle.
I had my assistant call the client.
I had my assistant to call the client.
Have + sb + BASE (no 'to').

Common mistakes

Missing 'to' in 'get + sb'
I got him help me.
I got him to help me.
Get + person + to-inf.
Adding 'to' in 'have + sb'
I had him to help.
I had him help.
Have + person + base.

B2Syntax

Reduced Relative Clauses (Participle)

We can SHORTEN relative clauses by using participles. PRESENT PARTICIPLE (-ing) for ACTIVE meaning: 'The man WHO IS STANDING there' → 'The man STANDING there.' PAST PARTICIPLE (-ed/V3) for PASSIVE meaning: 'The book WHICH WAS WRITTEN by her' → 'The book WRITTEN by her.' Both forms drop the relative pronoun (who/which/that) and the auxiliary verb. Used for concision and flow.

Key rule

Reduce relative clauses by: -ing for ACTIVE (people waiting), -ed/V3 for PASSIVE (cars made in Japan). Drop relative pronoun + auxiliary. Only when relative is SUBJECT.

Examples

The man standing there is my uncle. (= who is standing)
The man is standing there is my uncle. (awkward)
Reduce: drop 'who is'.
The book written by her is famous. (= which was written)
The book writing by her is famous.
Passive → past participle (written).
The people living here are friendly. (= who live here)
The people lived here are friendly.
Active/ongoing → -ing; past participle would imply passive.

Common mistakes

Wrong participle for active/passive
The book writing by her.
The book written by her.
Passive (book is written) → -ed.
Using past simple form instead of participle
The people lived here.
The people living here.
Active ongoing → -ing.

B2Syntax

Relative Clauses with Prepositions

When a relative clause has a preposition, you have TWO positions. FORMAL: preposition at FRONT with 'whom' (people) / 'which' (things): 'The person TO WHOM I spoke.' INFORMAL: preposition at END, often with 'that' or nothing: 'The person I spoke TO.' Both correct — choose based on register. End-position is more common in modern English.

Key rule

Two positions: FORMAL — preposition + whom/which at FRONT. INFORMAL — preposition at END (+ that/who/omitted). Both correct. End-position more common modern English.

Examples

The person to whom I spoke is my mentor. (formal)
The person to who I spoke is my mentor.
Formal: 'whom' after preposition.
The person I spoke to is my mentor. (informal)
The person to I spoke is my mentor.
End-position preposition.
The chair on which he sat broke. (formal)
The chair on that he sat broke.
'That' can't follow fronted preposition.

Common mistakes

'To who'
The man to who I spoke.
The man to whom I spoke. / The man (that/who) I spoke to.
After preposition: 'whom' (formal).
'To that'
The chair to that he sat.
The chair on which he sat. / The chair he sat on.
'That' can't follow fronted preposition.

B2Syntax

Nominal Relative Clauses

Nominal relatives use WHAT, WHATEVER, WHOEVER, WHICHEVER, WHEN, WHERE, HOW to introduce clauses that act like NOUNS (subject or object). WHAT = 'the thing(s) that' — 'WHAT SHE SAID is true.' (the thing she said.) WHATEVER = 'anything that' / 'no matter what' — 'Do WHATEVER YOU WANT.' WHOEVER = anyone who. WHICHEVER = whatever one. These clauses function as nouns — they can be subject, object, or complement.

Key rule

Nominal relatives = what/whatever/whoever/whichever/when(ever)/where(ever)/how(ever) + clause = NOUN phrase. Used as subject, object, complement. 'What' = 'the thing that'; '-ever' = 'no matter' / 'any'.

Examples

What she said is true.
That she said is true.
'What' = 'the thing that'.
I don't know what you mean.
I don't know that you mean. (different meaning)
Nominal relative as object.
Do whatever you want.
Do whatever that you want.
No 'that' after 'whatever'.

Common mistakes

'That' instead of 'what'
I believe that you said. (if meaning nominal)
I believe what you said.
'What' = 'the thing that'.
Adding 'that' after -ever
Whatever that you want.
Whatever you want.
No 'that'.

B2Syntax

Sentence-Modifying `which`

A special 'WHICH' can refer to the WHOLE PREVIOUS SENTENCE / IDEA, not just a noun. Always used with a COMMA. 'He arrived late, WHICH ANNOYED everyone.' (= 'the fact that he arrived late' annoyed them). 'She smiled at me, WHICH MADE ME HAPPY.' Use this 'which' to comment on an action or situation. Never use 'that' or 'this' for this structure.

Key rule

Sentence-modifying 'which' refers to the whole preceding clause / idea. ALWAYS with COMMA before 'which'. Only 'which' — not 'that', 'it', 'this'.

Examples

He arrived late, which annoyed everyone.
He arrived late that annoyed everyone.
Sentence-modifying → which + comma.
She smiled at me, which made me happy.
She smiled at me, it made me happy.
'Which', not 'it'.
He lied to me, which I found unforgivable.
He lied to me, this I found unforgivable.
'Which', not 'this'.

Common mistakes

'That' for sentence modifier
He was late, that annoyed me.
He was late, which annoyed me.
Sentence-modifying must use 'which'.
Missing comma
He was late which annoyed me.
He was late, which annoyed me.
Always comma before sentence-modifying which.

B2Verb usage

Reported Speech without Backshift

Usually past reporting verbs trigger backshift, BUT sometimes NO backshift is needed. (1) GENERAL TRUTHS: 'He said water BOILS at 100°C.' (always true, no change). (2) STILL-CURRENT STATEMENTS: 'She said she LIVES in Paris.' (if still lives there, OK to keep present). (3) PRESENT REPORTING VERB: 'He says he IS tired.' (no shift — main verb is present). Knowing when NOT to shift is a B2 skill.

Key rule

No backshift needed if: (1) general truth / universal fact; (2) still-true / current statement; (3) present reporting verb; (4) modals already past (could, would, should, might). Otherwise, backshift is optional or required.

Examples

He said that water boils at 100°C. (general truth, no shift)
He said that water boiled at 100°C. (over-shift, unnecessary for timeless)
General truths don't require backshift.
She said she lives in Paris. (if still lives there)
She said she lived in Paris. (also OK, implies maybe moved)
Optional — both OK; backshift implies possible change.
He says he is tired. (present reporting → no shift)
He says he was tired. (inconsistent)
Present reporting verb → no backshift.

Common mistakes

Over-backshifting universal truth
The teacher said the sun rose in the east.
The teacher said the sun rises in the east.
General truth → no shift.
Not backshifting past event
She said she is tired yesterday.
She said she was tired.
Completed past state → backshift.

B2Verb usage

Reporting Verbs with Varied Complementation

At B2, learn REPORTING VERBS with varied patterns. ACCUSE sb OF + -ing: 'He accused me OF LYING.' BLAME sb FOR + -ing: 'She blamed me FOR BEING late.' WARN sb AGAINST + -ing: 'They warned us AGAINST GOING.' INSIST ON + -ing: 'He insisted ON PAYING.' SUGGEST + -ing / that + clause: 'I suggest MEETING tomorrow.' / 'I suggest THAT WE MEET tomorrow.' DENY + -ing: 'She denied STEALING it.' ADMIT + -ing: 'He admitted BREAKING it.' Each verb has its own pattern!

Key rule

Each reporting verb has its own pattern. Key ones: accuse sb OF -ing, blame sb FOR -ing, warn sb AGAINST -ing, insist ON -ing, suggest/deny/admit + -ing (or that), agree/offer/refuse + to-inf. Memorise patterns.

Examples

He accused me of lying.
He accused me for lying.
Accuse + of.
She blamed me for being late.
She blamed me of being late.
Blame + for.
They warned us against going there.
They warned us not going there.
Warn + against + -ing. (Also: warned us not to go).

Common mistakes

'Accuse for'
He accused me for lying.
He accused me of lying.
Accuse + of.
'Suggest + obj + to-inf'
I suggest you to come.
I suggest that you come. / I suggest coming.
Suggest takes -ing or that-clause.

B2Verb usage

Free Indirect Speech - Introduction

FREE INDIRECT SPEECH (FIS) is a literary technique: reporting a character's thoughts/speech WITHOUT reporting verbs or 'that'. It keeps the backshift of indirect speech but the structure feels like direct thoughts. Example — direct: 'I'm tired,' she thought. Indirect: She thought that she was tired. Free indirect: She WAS TIRED. Oh, so tired. FIS blends narrator and character voice, common in novels.

Key rule

FIS = reported thoughts/speech with backshift but NO reporting verb, NO 'that'. Blends narrator and character voice. Literary technique, common in novels.

Examples

She was tired. How long was this day? (FIS)
She thought that she was tired and wondered how long the day was. (ordinary indirect)
FIS: no reporting verb.
Why had he said that? Why, oh why? (FIS)
She thought, 'Why has he said that?' (direct with quote)
FIS keeps backshift but no attribution.
He couldn't believe it. What a disaster! (FIS exclamation)
He said that he couldn't believe it and that it was a disaster. (indirect)
FIS preserves emotional tone.

Common mistakes

Using in formal writing
In his report, the consultant used FIS: 'Why should we proceed? The risks were too great.'
In his report, the consultant argued: 'Why should we proceed? The risks are too great.' (direct quote or ordinary indirect)
FIS is for literary prose, not reports.
Not backshifting in past narrative
She is tired. How long is this day? (in past narrative)
She was tired. How long was this day?
Past narrative → backshift.

B2Verb usage

Mixed Reporting Forms

Good writing MIXES reporting forms for variety. (1) DIRECT QUOTE: 'I love it,' she said. (2) PARAPHRASE / INDIRECT: She said she loved it. (3) EVALUATION: She was enthusiastic. Mixing these creates rhythm and keeps reader engaged. Journalists, novelists, and academics blend quotes, paraphrases, and commentary to report events clearly and vividly.

Key rule

Mix direct quotes (verbatim, in quotes), indirect speech (paraphrase, backshift), and evaluation (narrator's interpretation) for variety. Good writing balances all forms. Match form to purpose.

Examples

The CEO said the company was growing. "We plan to expand further," she added. Her confidence was evident.
The CEO said the company was growing and that she planned to expand further and that it was confidently.
Mixed forms vary the rhythm.
"I don't agree," he replied. He sounded firm. He said he would not change his mind.
He said: 'I don't agree' and he sounded firm and he said he would not change his mind.
Mixed punctuation and forms.
She said she was worried. "It's getting worse," she explained. Her eyes showed genuine concern.
She was worried and 'It's getting worse' she explained and her eyes showed concern.
Varied forms clarify perspective.

Common mistakes

Over-quoting
"I'm tired," she said. "Let's go home," she said. "I'm exhausted," she said.
"I'm tired," she said. She wanted to go home. She was exhausted.
Mix for variety.
Under-quoting / all paraphrase
She said she was tired, then said she wanted to go home, and said she was exhausted.
"I'm tired," she said. She wanted to go home. She was exhausted.
Quote for vividness.

B2Phrasal verbs

Intransitive Phrasal Verbs

INTRANSITIVE phrasal verbs have NO object — they are complete alone. 'The car BROKE DOWN.' (no object — the car is the subject). 'We GOT UP early.' 'The plane TOOK OFF at 8.' 'We SET OFF before dawn.' Common intransitives: get up, wake up, break down, take off, set off, come in, go out, stand up, sit down. They don't take 'to' or a direct object.

Key rule

Intransitive phrasal verbs = NO object. Verb + particle alone. get up, break down, take off (plane), set off, show up, go on. Don't add direct object.

Examples

The car broke down yesterday.
The car broke down the engine.
Intransitive: no object.
Please sit down.
Please sit down the chair.
Intransitive; use 'sit on the chair' if meaning on a chair.
The plane took off at 8.
The plane took off the runway.
Take off (intrans) = depart; no object.

Common mistakes

Adding object to intransitive PV
I got up my bed.
I got up. / I got out of bed.
Intransitive — no direct object.
Missing particle
The car broke.
The car broke down.
Need particle for specific meaning.

B2Phrasal verbs

Three-word (Phrasal-Prepositional) Verbs

THREE-WORD PHRASAL VERBS combine a verb + adverb + preposition. Object comes AFTER all three words. GET ALONG WITH someone: 'I get along with my colleagues.' LOOK FORWARD TO something: 'I look forward to the weekend.' PUT UP WITH something: 'I can't put up with the noise.' RUN OUT OF something: 'We ran out of milk.' Always INSEPARABLE — never split. Pronoun object also goes at the end.

Key rule

Three-word PVs: verb + adverb + preposition. Always INSEPARABLE; object at end. look forward to + -ing/noun; put up with; run out of; come up with; get along with.

Examples

I look forward to meeting you.
I look forward to meet you.
To is preposition here → -ing.
I can't put up with the noise.
I can't put the noise up with.
Inseparable; object at end.
We ran out of milk.
We ran out milk. (missing 'of')
Keep all three words.

Common mistakes

Separating 3-word PV
Put the noise up with.
Put up with the noise.
Always inseparable.
'To + base' in 'look forward to'
I look forward to meet you.
I look forward to meeting you.
To = preposition → -ing.

B2Phrasal verbs

Phrasal Verbs with Multiple Meanings

Many PHRASAL VERBS have MULTIPLE MEANINGS. Context tells you which. TAKE OFF: (1) plane departs ('The plane took off.'), (2) remove clothes ('Take off your shoes.'), (3) become successful ('Her career took off.'). PICK UP: collect, lift, learn, improve, acquire (a habit). GET OVER: recover from illness or event. MAKE UP: invent, apply cosmetics, reconcile. One PV, many uses. Context is key.

Key rule

Many PVs have multiple meanings. Context (subject, object, situation) determines meaning. take off (depart/remove/succeed); pick up (lift/collect/learn/improve); get over (recover); make up (invent/reconcile/compensate).

Examples

The plane took off at 8 a.m.
The plane took off its shoes. (nonsense)
Take off (intrans) = depart.
Please take off your shoes.
Please take off at the door.
Take off (trans) = remove.
Her career really took off.
Her career removed. (different meaning)
Take off (intrans) = become successful.

Common mistakes

Wrong meaning for context
The plane picked up at 8. (if meaning: plane departed)
The plane took off at 8.
PVs have specific meanings.
Literal translation from L1
I took off from work. (if meaning: finished work)
I finished work. / I left work. (contextually 'took off' could mean 'left quickly').
L1 meanings may not map.

B2Phrasal verbs

Phrasal Verbs - Register

Phrasal verbs are USUALLY INFORMAL. In FORMAL writing (academic, business, reports), use a LATINATE single-word equivalent. PUT OFF (informal) → POSTPONE (formal). FIND OUT (informal) → DISCOVER (formal). CARRY OUT (neutral) → CONDUCT / EXECUTE (formal). GET RID OF (informal) → ELIMINATE (formal). Choose register based on context: speaking / emails = PVs; academic / legal = Latinate.

Key rule

Informal PV → formal Latinate. put off → postpone; find out → discover; carry out → conduct; get rid of → eliminate; look into → investigate. Match register to context.

Examples

Informal: We put off the meeting. / Formal: We postponed the meeting.
Academic essay: We put off the study results.
Academic register → postpone, not put off.
Informal: I'll find out. / Formal: I will discover / ascertain.
Legal document: We need to find out the facts.
Legal → formal.
Neutral: The company carried out research. / Formal: ... conducted research.
Avoid a form that misuses Phrasal Verbs - Register.
Both acceptable; conducted slightly more formal.

Common mistakes

PVs in academic writing
The researchers looked into the issue. (in thesis)
The researchers investigated the issue.
Academic → Latinate.
Latinate in casual speech
I must ascertain the answer. (in chat)
I need to find out.
Casual → PV.

B2Phrasal verbs

Separability Rules - Advanced

Rules for separability at B2 level: (1) SEPARABLE PVs: noun can go before OR after particle, but PRONOUN MUST go between. 'Turn on the light' = 'Turn the light on.' / 'Turn it on.' (NOT 'Turn on it'). (2) INSEPARABLE PVs: everything goes after the particle. 'Look after the kids' = 'Look after them.' (NEVER 'Look them after'). (3) Three-word PVs: always inseparable. 'Put up with the noise / with it.' (4) Long noun objects: prefer after particle for rhythm: 'Turn on the beautiful old lamp we bought last year.'

Key rule

Separable: noun before/after particle, pronoun BETWEEN (turn it on). Inseparable: object always AFTER (look after him). 3-word: always inseparable. Long nouns prefer AFTER.

Examples

Please turn on the light. = Please turn the light on.
Please turn on it.
Separable: both noun positions OK.
Please turn it on.
Please turn on it.
Pronoun with separable → between.
I'm looking after my niece.
I'm looking my niece after.
Inseparable: object after particle.

Common mistakes

Pronoun after separable particle
Turn on it.
Turn it on.
Separable + pronoun → between.
Separating inseparable
Look him after.
Look after him.
Inseparable.

B2Syntax

Cleft Sentences (It + be)

Cleft sentences divide one idea into TWO CLAUSES to add EMPHASIS. Structure: IT + BE + EMPHASISED ELEMENT + WHO/THAT/WHEN/WHERE + rest. 'John called me.' → 'IT WAS JOHN WHO called me.' (emphasises John) / 'IT WAS ME that John called.' (emphasises me). Use to highlight information: who/what/when/where. Pattern: It + be + X + who/that ...

Key rule

It-cleft = IT + BE + element + WHO/THAT/WHEN/WHERE + rest. Emphasises one element (subject, object, time, place). Who for people, that for all.

Examples

It was John who called me.
It was John he called me.
No extra pronoun after 'who'.
It was Paris that we visited last year.
It was Paris who we visited last year.
Thing → that, not who.
It was yesterday that she arrived.
It was yesterday when she arrived. (acceptable but 'that' more common)
Time: 'that' most common.

Common mistakes

'Who' for non-person
It was the book who I bought.
It was the book (that) I bought.
Things → that.
Redundant pronoun
It was John he called.
It was John who called.
No extra subject.

B2Syntax

Pseudo-Cleft Sentences (What + ...)

Pseudo-cleft (WH-cleft) starts with WHAT (or other wh-words) and uses BE to EMPHASISE an element. 'WHAT I NEED is time.' (= I need time, with emphasis on 'time'.) 'WHAT SHE DID was leave.' (emphasises the action 'leave'.) 'WHAT I LIKE ABOUT HIM is his honesty.' Structure: WHAT + subject + verb + is/was + EMPHASISED ELEMENT. Used to stress information.

Key rule

Pseudo-cleft = What/Where/When/How + clause + BE + emphasised element. Puts emphasis at the end. Used for emphasis, contrast, topic shift.

Examples

What I need is a break.
Which I need is a break.
Use 'what', not 'which'.
What she did was leave.
What she did was to leaving. (or missing 'to' OK too)
Infinitive: 'leave' (base) or 'to leave' both OK.
All I want is peace.
All that I want peace.
Need 'is'.

Common mistakes

'Which' instead of 'what'
Which I need is time.
What I need is time.
Pseudo-cleft uses 'what'.
Missing 'be'
What I need time.
What I need is time.
Need 'is/was'.

B2Syntax

Inversion after Negative Adverbials

When a NEGATIVE or RESTRICTIVE ADVERBIAL comes at the START of a sentence, we INVERT the subject and auxiliary (like a question). 'NEVER HAVE I SEEN such a sight.' (not: 'Never I have seen') 'RARELY DOES he visit us.' 'NOT ONLY DID she refuse, but she also shouted.' Common adverbials: never, rarely, seldom, hardly, scarcely, not only, no sooner, only + time, little (did I know), under no circumstances.

Key rule

Negative/restrictive adverbial at START → invert aux + subject. Never have I seen. Rarely does he call. Not only did she win, but she set a record.

Examples

Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.
Never I have seen such a beautiful sunset.
Inversion required.
Rarely does he visit us.
Rarely he visits us.
Use 'does' for present simple inversion.
No sooner had I sat down than the phone rang.
No sooner had I sat down when the phone rang.
No sooner ... than (not when).

Common mistakes

No inversion after fronted negative
Never I have seen.
Never have I seen.
Inversion required.
Missing do-support
Rarely he calls.
Rarely does he call.
Use do/does/did for simple tenses.

B2Syntax

Inversion in Conditionals (Formal)

In FORMAL English, you can drop 'IF' and invert. HAD + subject + pp (3rd conditional): 'HAD I KNOWN...' = 'If I had known...' WERE + subject (2nd conditional with be): 'WERE I rich...' = 'If I were rich...' WERE + subject + to-inf: 'WERE I to fail...' = 'If I were to fail...' SHOULD + subject + base (1st formal): 'SHOULD you need help...' = 'If you need help...' No 'if' with inversion.

Key rule

Formal conditional inversion: drop 'if', invert aux + subject. HAD + S + pp (3rd cond); WERE + S (2nd cond with be); WERE + S + to-inf (hypothetical); SHOULD + S + base (1st formal). Only these three auxiliaries.

Examples

Had I known, I would have helped.
If had I known, I would have helped.
Drop 'if' with inversion.
Were I rich, I would travel.
Were I am rich, I would travel.
Just 'were I' — no 'am'.
Were I to fail, I would try again.
Were I fail, I would try again.
Need 'to' before base form.

Common mistakes

Keeping 'if' with inversion
If had I known.
Had I known.
Drop 'if'.
Wrong auxiliary
Did I know, I would help.
Had I known, I would help.
Only had/were/should.

B2Syntax

`so / such ... that` Result Clauses

Use SO / SUCH to show that a quality is INTENSE enough to cause a RESULT. SO + adjective/adverb + (that) + clause: 'It was SO COLD that I couldn't feel my fingers.' SUCH + (a/an) + adjective + noun + (that) + clause: 'It was SUCH A COLD DAY that we stayed inside.' 'That' is often optional. FORMAL variant: 'Such + be + noun + that + clause' with inversion: 'SUCH WAS her joy that...' Expresses extreme degree.

Key rule

so + adj/adv + (that) + clause. so + much/many + noun + (that). such + (a/an) + adj + noun + (that). Formal inversion: Such was + noun + that + clause.

Examples

It was so cold that I shivered.
It was such cold that I shivered.
'Such' needs a noun; use 'so' + adj alone.
It was such a cold day that we stayed inside.
It was so cold day that we stayed inside.
'So' + noun is wrong; use 'such'.
There was so much noise that I couldn't think.
There was so many noise that I couldn't think.
'Noise' uncountable → much.

Common mistakes

'So + noun'
So cold day.
Such a cold day. / So cold a day (formal, rare).
'So' doesn't precede nouns.
'Such + adj (no noun)'
Such cold that I shivered.
So cold that I shivered.
'Such' needs a noun.

B2Syntax

Emphatic `do / does / did`

Use DO / DOES / DID before the base verb for EMPHASIS in positive statements. 'I DO understand you.' (really, truly, contrary to expectation). 'She DOES care about you.' 'He DID call yesterday.' Also used in polite requests: 'DO come in!' 'DO try this cake!' Stress falls on 'do/does/did'. Used to: contradict, emphasise, reassure, insist.

Key rule

do/does/did + BASE form (not -s or past form on main). For emphasis/contradiction/polite invitation. Positive statements only. Not with 'be' or modals.

Examples

I do understand you.
I do understood you.
Base form after 'do'.
She does care about you.
She does cares about you.
No -s on main verb.
I did call yesterday.
I did called yesterday.
Base form after 'did'.

Common mistakes

Inflected main verb
She does cares.
She does care.
Base form after 'do/does/did'.
Past form after 'did'
I did called.
I did call.
Base form.

B2Syntax

Fronting for Topic or Focus

FRONTING moves an element to the BEGINNING of a sentence for emphasis or topic. Common patterns: (1) PLACE/ADVERBIAL FRONTING with inversion (for descriptive effect): 'ON THE TABLE LAY a book.' (2) OBJECT FRONTING (for contrast): 'HIM I don't like.' (3) COMPLEMENT FRONTING: 'HAPPY I am not!' (4) PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE FRONTING: 'AT THE BACK of the room stood a tall man.' Fronting adds emphasis or creates rhythm.

Key rule

Fronting moves element to START of sentence for emphasis/topic. May trigger inversion (with place adverbials + motion/be verbs, or negative adverbials). Used for emphasis, contrast, description.

Examples

On the table lay a book. (literary, with inversion)
On the table a book lay. (less standard for literary)
Inversion after place adverbial with motion/stative verb.
In the morning, I drink coffee. (no inversion)
In the morning drink I coffee.
Time adverbial fronting: no inversion.
Him I don't like.
He I don't like.
Object fronting: use object pronoun.

Common mistakes

Wrong inversion with time adverbials
Yesterday went I to work.
Yesterday I went to work. / Yesterday, I went to work.
Time adverbials don't trigger inversion.
No inversion with literary place adverbials
On the table a book lay. (literary context)
On the table lay a book.
Place + stative/motion verb → inversion.

B2Syntax

Ellipsis in Coordination

ELLIPSIS = leaving out REPEATED words when they're clear from context. In coordinated clauses (joined by AND, BUT, OR): 'I like tea and she [likes] coffee.' (omit 'likes'). 'I can come but she can't [come].' (omit 'come'). 'I wanted to go but I couldn't [go].' Ellipsis makes writing more concise. Common after auxiliary verbs (can, will, have, be) and in answers.

Key rule

Ellipsis omits repeated words in coordinated clauses. Keep auxiliary (can, will, have, be, do). Match polarity: positive + so + aux + subject; negative + neither + aux + subject.

Examples

I can swim, but she can't.
I can swim, but she can't swim. (redundant)
Omit 'swim' after 'can't'.
She loves pizza, and so do I.
She loves pizza, and I love too.
So + aux + subject for agreement.
He doesn't smoke, and neither do I.
He doesn't smoke, and I don't smoke too.
Neither + aux + subject for negative agreement.

Common mistakes

Redundant repetition
I can swim and she can swim too.
I can swim and she can too.
Ellipsis after 'can'.
Wrong 'so / neither' structure
She loves it and I do so.
She loves it and so do I.
So + aux + subject (inversion).

B2Syntax

Adverbial Participle Clauses

Participle clauses can act as ADVERBIAL modifiers, expressing TIME, REASON, or CONDITION. PRESENT PARTICIPLE (-ing) for ACTIVE: 'WALKING down the street, I saw a cat.' (= while I was walking). PAST PARTICIPLE (-ed/V3) for PASSIVE: 'EXHAUSTED by the journey, she slept.' (= because she was exhausted). PERFECT PARTICIPLE (having + pp) for EARLIER action: 'HAVING FINISHED the task, he left.' (= after he had finished). The subject is usually shared with the main clause.

Key rule

Participle clauses express time/reason/condition. -ing = active simultaneous; -ed/V3 = passive; having + pp = earlier action. Subject usually matches main clause. Avoid dangling participles.

Examples

Walking down the street, I saw a cat.
Walking down the street, a cat appeared. (dangling — cat wasn't walking).
Subject should match.
Exhausted by the journey, she slept.
Exhausting by the journey, she slept.
Passive → past participle.
Having finished the task, he left.
Having finish the task, he left.
Past participle (V3).

Common mistakes

Dangling participle
Walking home, the rain started.
Walking home, I was caught in the rain. / While I was walking home, the rain started.
Subject mismatch.
Wrong participle for passive
Exhausting by work, I rested.
Exhausted by work, I rested.
Passive → past participle.

B2Connectors

Advanced Concession

At B2, expand concession beyond although/however. NEVERTHELESS and NONETHELESS (formal) = still / even so: 'The evidence was weak. Nevertheless, the jury convicted.' ALL THE SAME / EVEN SO (informal) = nonetheless: 'It was late, but all the same we went out.' NOTWITHSTANDING (very formal) = in spite of: 'Notwithstanding the difficulties, we succeeded.' Punctuation: usually between sentences with commas, or used as a preposition + noun.

Key rule

Advanced concession: nevertheless / nonetheless (formal), all the same / even so (informal), notwithstanding (very formal). Sentence adverbs: semicolon/period before, comma after. Don't combine with 'but'.

Examples

The evidence was weak. Nevertheless, the jury convicted him.
The evidence was weak, nevertheless, the jury convicted him.
Period or semicolon before 'nevertheless' — not just a comma.
It was late. All the same, we went out.
Never the less, we went out.
One word: nevertheless.
The weather was bad; nonetheless, the event continued.
The weather was bad nonetheless the event continued.
Punctuation required.

Common mistakes

Comma splice
It was late, nevertheless, we went out.
It was late. Nevertheless, we went out. / It was late; nevertheless, we went out.
Semicolon or period required before.
'Never the less' (3 words)
Never the less, we tried.
Nevertheless, we tried.
One word.

B2Connectors

Advanced Consequence

At B2, expand 'so' with formal consequence connectors. CONSEQUENTLY / AS A RESULT = as a consequence: 'Sales fell. CONSEQUENTLY, we had to cut staff.' THEREFORE (logical consequence) = so: 'He didn't study; THEREFORE, he failed.' THUS / HENCE (very formal, logical): 'The roads were flooded; thus, traffic stopped.' ACCORDINGLY = as a result: 'Plans changed; accordingly, we adjusted.' Punctuation: period or semicolon + comma after connector.

Key rule

Advanced consequence: consequently / as a result (formal), therefore / thus / hence (very formal, logical), accordingly (formal). Period or semicolon before + comma after. No comma splices.

Examples

Sales fell. Consequently, we had to cut staff.
Sales fell, consequently, we had to cut staff.
Period/semicolon before 'consequently'.
He didn't study. Therefore, he failed.
He didn't study therefore he failed.
Need punctuation.
The roads were flooded; thus, traffic stopped.
The roads were flooded thus traffic stopped.
Semicolon/period + comma.

Common mistakes

Comma splice
It rained, therefore we stayed inside.
It rained. Therefore, we stayed inside.
Period or semicolon needed.
Missing comma after connector
Therefore we stayed inside.
Therefore, we stayed inside.
Comma follows sentence adverb.

B2Connectors

Advanced Addition

For ADDING information in formal writing, use MOREOVER, FURTHERMORE, BESIDES, IN ADDITION, ADDITIONALLY, WHAT IS MORE. 'The hotel was expensive. MOREOVER, the service was poor.' These signal 'and also' in a more sophisticated way. FURTHERMORE and MOREOVER are most formal. BESIDES is mid-formal. WHAT IS MORE is neutral/conversational. Add extra arguments, evidence, or examples.

Key rule

Advanced addition: moreover / furthermore (formal), in addition / additionally (formal), what is more (neutral), besides (mid), on top of that / plus (informal). Period/semicolon + comma after.

Examples

The project was delayed. Moreover, costs rose.
The project was delayed, moreover, costs rose.
Period/semicolon before 'moreover'.
The hotel was expensive. In addition, the service was poor.
The hotel was expensive in addition the service was poor.
Punctuation.
Furthermore, the evidence supports this view.
Furthermore the evidence supports this view.
Comma after.

Common mistakes

Comma splice
It was expensive, moreover, the service was poor.
It was expensive. Moreover, the service was poor.
Period or semicolon before.
Missing comma after connector
Moreover the service was poor.
Moreover, the service was poor.
Comma follows.

B2Connectors

Advanced Contrast

For formal CONTRAST, use: ON THE CONTRARY (emphatic contradiction: 'Not cold — on the contrary, it's warm'). CONVERSELY (opposite statement): 'Some love it; conversely, others hate it.' ON THE OTHER HAND (balanced contrast): 'Travelling is fun; on the other hand, it's expensive.' BY / IN CONTRAST (comparative contrast): 'The city is busy; by contrast, the countryside is quiet.' Each has a specific nuance.

Key rule

Advanced contrast: on the contrary = opposite is true (correction); on the other hand = balanced view; in/by contrast = direct comparison; conversely = inverse. Match nuance to context.

Examples

He's not lazy. On the contrary, he works very hard.
He's not lazy. On the other hand, he works very hard.
Contradiction → on the contrary.
Living in the city is exciting. On the other hand, it can be stressful.
Living in the city is exciting. On the contrary, it can be stressful.
Balanced view → on the other hand.
The city is noisy. In contrast, the village is peaceful.
The city is noisy. On the contrary, the village is peaceful.
Different items → in/by contrast.

Common mistakes

'On the contrary' for simple difference
Some like tea. On the contrary, others like coffee.
Some like tea. Conversely / On the other hand, others like coffee.
'On the contrary' is for contradiction/correction.
'On the other hand' for contradiction
He's not lazy. On the other hand, he's hardworking.
He's not lazy. On the contrary, he's hardworking.
Correction → on the contrary.

B2Connectors

Sequencing and Enumeration

For ORDERING points in writing, use sequencers. START: FIRSTLY, TO BEGIN WITH, FIRST OF ALL. MIDDLE: SECONDLY, THIRDLY, NEXT, THEN. EMPHASIS: ABOVE ALL, IMPORTANTLY, MOST IMPORTANTLY. END: LASTLY, FINALLY, TO SUM UP, IN CONCLUSION, IN SUMMARY, ALL IN ALL. Use these to STRUCTURE arguments, essays, reports. Always with comma after: 'Firstly, ...'

Key rule

Sequencers: firstly / first of all (start), secondly / next (continue), finally / lastly (end), in conclusion / to sum up (summary). Comma after. Use for essays, reports, instructions.

Examples

Firstly, let me thank you for coming.
Firstly let me thank you for coming.
Comma after.
Secondly, we need to consider costs.
Second let me discuss costs. Next, priorities. (mixed systems)
Keep same system.
Finally, I would like to summarise.
Finally I would like to summarise.
Comma after.

Common mistakes

Missing comma
Firstly we need to plan.
Firstly, we need to plan.
Comma after sequencer.
Mixing systems
First, ... Secondly, ... Third, ...
Firstly, ... Secondly, ... Thirdly, ... / First, ... Second, ... Third, ...
Consistency.

B2Register

Formal vs Informal Register Shift

Formal and informal English differ in several ways. INFORMAL: contractions (I'm, don't), phrasal verbs (find out), short sentences, everyday words (buy, get). FORMAL: full forms (I am, do not), Latinate verbs (discover, purchase), longer sentences, nominalisation (the decision was made). Match register to context: emails to friends = informal; academic essays = formal; business emails = neutral/semi-formal.

Key rule

Match register to context. Informal: contractions, phrasal verbs, short sentences, everyday words. Formal: full forms, Latinate verbs, long sentences, nominalisation, passive. Be consistent.

Examples

Formal: We regret to inform you that we cannot attend.
Formal: We can't make it. Sorry!
Contractions and 'can't make it' too casual for formal.
Informal: I'll find out.
Casual email: I will ascertain the information.
Too formal for casual.
Academic: The decision was made to proceed.
Academic: We decided to just go ahead.
'Just' + 'go ahead' too casual.

Common mistakes

Mixing registers
I'm really sorry but the document cannot be furnished at this juncture.
I am sorry, but the document cannot be provided at this time. (formal consistent)
Consistency required.
Too formal for casual
(To friend) I will endeavour to attend.
I'll try to come. / I'll be there.
Casual = informal.

B2Register

British vs American Grammar Differences

BrE and AmE differ in GRAMMAR too. HAVE GOT (BrE): 'I've got two sisters.' HAVE (AmE): 'I have two sisters.' COLLECTIVE NOUNS: BrE — plural verb OK ('The team are winning'). AmE — singular ('The team is winning'). PAST SIMPLE vs PRESENT PERFECT: AmE often uses past simple where BrE uses present perfect. 'I already ate' (AmE) / 'I've already eaten' (BrE). 'AT the weekend' (BrE) vs 'ON the weekend' (AmE).

Key rule

BrE/AmE grammar differs: have got (BrE) / have (AmE); collective nouns plural OK in BrE; present perfect (BrE) vs past simple (AmE) with just/already/yet; at the weekend (BrE) vs on (AmE); gotten (AmE).

Examples

BrE: I've got two sisters. / AmE: I have two sisters.
Neither is wrong — but mixing in same text.
Variety choice.
BrE: The team are winning. / AmE: The team is winning.
AmE: The team are winning. (unusual in AmE)
AmE prefers singular.
BrE: I've just eaten. / AmE: I just ate.
Mixing: I've just ate.
Past participle 'eaten' with have.

Common mistakes

Mixing 'have got' and 'have'
I have two sisters and I've got a brother.
I have two sisters and a brother. / I've got two sisters and a brother.
Consistency.
'Gotten' in BrE context
(BrE) I've gotten used to it.
I've got used to it.
BrE uses 'got'.

B2Register

Academic English - Introduction

ACADEMIC English is formal, objective, and precise. Key features: (1) HEDGING (softening claims): 'It MAY suggest that...' 'This POSSIBLY indicates...' (2) IMPERSONAL constructions: 'IT IS BELIEVED that...' / 'RESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND that...' (3) NOMINALISATION: 'the analysis of data' not 'we analysed data'. (4) AVOID: contractions, phrasal verbs, 'I think', informal vocabulary. (5) Use passive voice, Latinate vocabulary, long sentences with subordination.

Key rule

Academic English: hedge (may, might, suggest, indicate, possibly), use impersonal (it is believed, the study found), nominalise (the analysis), avoid contractions/phrasal verbs/'I think', use Latinate, long sentences.

Examples

The data suggests that pollution levels are rising.
I think pollution is getting worse.
Academic: hedge + impersonal.
It is widely accepted that climate change is accelerating.
Everyone knows climate change is happening fast.
Impersonal + evidence-based.
The analysis of the results was thorough.
We analysed the results very well.
Nominalisation for academic.

Common mistakes

'I think' in academic
I think climate change is real.
Research indicates that climate change is occurring.
Impersonal required.
Contractions
It's evident that...
It is evident that...
Write out.

B2Vocabulary usage

Advanced Collocations

Advanced COLLOCATIONS are common word partnerships. STRONG ADJ + NOUN: heavy rain (not big rain), strong coffee, bitter disappointment, deep regret. VERB + NOUN: make a decision, take responsibility, keep track of, pay attention. ADJ + PREPOSITION: keen on, aware of. These pairings are FIXED; using wrong partners sounds odd. Learn as UNITS, not separate words.

Key rule

Learn collocations as UNITS. Strong/weak adj + noun (heavy rain, bitter disappointment). Verb + noun (make a decision, take responsibility). Adj + prep (keen on). Adverb + adj (strongly agree, utterly ridiculous).

Examples

Heavy rain / heavy traffic.
Big rain / strong traffic.
'Heavy' collocates with rain/traffic.
Make a decision / make a mistake.
Do a decision / do a mistake.
'Make' with decision/mistake.
Do homework / do research.
Make homework / make research.
'Do' with homework/research.

Common mistakes

'Big rain'
It was a big rain.
It was heavy rain.
'Heavy' collocates with rain.
'Do a mistake'
I did a mistake.
I made a mistake.
'Make' a mistake.

B2Vocabulary usage

Advanced False Friends

FALSE FRIENDS are words that look similar across languages but have DIFFERENT meanings. Examples: PRESERVATIVE (English: for food) ≠ Spanish 'preservativo' (= condom!). GIFT (English: present) ≠ German 'Gift' (= poison!). SENSIBLE (English: wise) ≠ many languages 'sensitive'. EVENTUALLY (English: finally) ≠ many languages 'possibly'. ACTUALLY (English: in fact) ≠ many languages 'currently'. Heavy L1 interference — always check meaning!

Key rule

False friends look alike across languages but mean different things. Check meaning carefully. Common errors: sensible/sensitive, actually/currently, eventually/possibly, library/bookshop, gift/poison, sympathetic/nice, embarrassed/pregnant, fabric/factory.

Examples

She's very sensible — she saves money. (= wise)
She's very sensible — she cries at films. (= sensitive)
English: sensible = wise.
Actually, I'm a teacher. (= in fact)
Actually I'm at work. (if meaning: currently)
English: actually = in fact; not 'currently'.
I eventually finished the project. (= finally)
I'll eventually come. (if meaning: possibly — WRONG in English)
English: eventually = finally. Possibly = maybe.

Common mistakes

'Sensible' for 'sensitive'
She's very sensible to criticism.
She's very sensitive to criticism.
English: sensible = wise; sensitive = emotional.
'Actually' for 'currently'
Actually, I'm at work. (if meaning 'now')
Currently, I'm at work. / Right now, I'm at work.
Actually = in fact; currently = now.

B2Vocabulary usage

Nominalisation Patterns

NOMINALISATION = converting a VERB or ADJECTIVE into a NOUN. Common patterns: decide → decision. analyse → analysis. arrive → arrival. happy → happiness. rely → reliance. explain → explanation. Common suffixes: -tion/-sion, -ment, -ance/-ence, -al, -ness, -ity. Used in formal / academic writing for objectivity: 'We decided' → 'The decision was made'. 'She explained' → 'Her explanation was clear'.

Key rule

Nominalisation = verb / adj → noun. -tion, -ment, -ance, -al, -ness, -ity. decide → decision, develop → development, arrive → arrival, happy → happiness, rely → reliance. Used in formal / academic writing.

Examples

The decision was difficult.
The decide was difficult.
Verb → noun: decide → decision.
Her explanation was clear.
Her explain was clear.
Verb → noun: explain → explanation.
The development of technology is rapid.
The develop of technology is rapid.
-ment nominalisation.

Common mistakes

Wrong suffix spelling
happyness, simpleness
happiness, simplicity
Y → I; irregular forms.
Using verb where noun needed
The decide was difficult.
The decision was difficult.
Noun form.

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B2 English Grammar — 70 Topics & Common Mistakes

Past Perfect Continuous - Nuance

Future Perfect Continuous

`be about to / be on the verge of / be on the point of`

`be due to / be to + inf` (Scheduled / Formal Future)

`will / would` for Habitual Behaviour

Narrative Tense Mix for Stylistic Effect

Sequence of Tenses in Subordinate Clauses

Perfect Aspect in Storytelling

Gerund vs Infinitive with Meaning Change

Verb + Object + to-Infinitive

Causative Advanced: `make / let / have` + Bare Infinitive

`help` + (to-)Infinitive / Bare Infinitive

`prefer / would prefer / would rather` - Comparison Structures

Negative Infinitive and Negative Gerund

Perfect Infinitive (to have done)

Passive Infinitive

Perfect Gerund

Third Conditional

Mixed Conditionals

Inverted Conditionals

Conditional Connectors

`wish / if only` - Past Regret / Future Wish

`must have + past participle` - Past Deduction

`can't / couldn't have + pp` - Negative Past Deduction

`might / may / could + have + pp` - Past Possibility

`should have / shouldn't have + pp` - Regret / Unfulfilled Expectation

`would have + past participle` - Counterfactual

`needn't have done` vs `didn't need to do`

`would rather / had better / it's (high) time`

`shall` in Questions and Offers

`ought to` vs `should` - Nuance and Register

Modal + Continuous / Passive / Perfect Infinitive Combinations

Passive with Reporting Verbs

`get`-Passive - Full Use

Passive - Perfect and Continuous

Passive of Phrasal Verbs

Causative Variations

Reduced Relative Clauses (Participle)

Relative Clauses with Prepositions

Nominal Relative Clauses

Sentence-Modifying `which`

Reported Speech without Backshift

Reporting Verbs with Varied Complementation

Free Indirect Speech - Introduction

Mixed Reporting Forms

Intransitive Phrasal Verbs

Three-word (Phrasal-Prepositional) Verbs

Phrasal Verbs with Multiple Meanings

Phrasal Verbs - Register

Separability Rules - Advanced

Cleft Sentences (It + be)

Pseudo-Cleft Sentences (What + ...)

Inversion after Negative Adverbials

Inversion in Conditionals (Formal)

`so / such ... that` Result Clauses

Emphatic `do / does / did`

Fronting for Topic or Focus

Ellipsis in Coordination

Adverbial Participle Clauses

Advanced Concession

Advanced Consequence

Advanced Addition

Advanced Contrast

Sequencing and Enumeration

Formal vs Informal Register Shift

British vs American Grammar Differences

Academic English - Introduction

Advanced Collocations

Advanced False Friends

Nominalisation Patterns