B2 English Grammar — 70 Topics & Common Mistakes

Examples

• When she retired, she had been teaching for 35 years.
  When she retired, she was teaching for 35 years.

  The 35 years of teaching lead up to a past moment (her retirement), so use 'had been teaching'. The past continuous 'was teaching' only shows an activity in progress at one moment and cannot measure a duration up to it.

• When he came in for lunch yesterday, his shoes were muddy because he had been gardening.
  When he came in for lunch yesterday, his shoes were muddy because he has been gardening.

  The gardening had just stopped and explains the muddy shoes at a past moment (when he came in yesterday), so use 'had been gardening'. 'Has been gardening' looks back from now and cannot describe a situation that belongs to yesterday.

• When the meeting started, I had been reading the report, but I hadn't finished it.
  When the meeting started, I had read the report, but I hadn't finished it.

  The continuous shows an activity that was not necessarily finished, so it fits 'but I hadn't finished it'. 'Had read the report' means the reading was complete, which contradicts the rest of the sentence.

Examples

• By next year, I will have been living here for 10 years.

  Imagine next year, then look back at the ten years of living here up to that point. With 'live', the future perfect simple is also correct and means almost the same: 'By next year, I will have lived here for 10 years.' The continuous stresses the ongoing situation.

• By the time she arrives, we will have been waiting for 3 hours.
  By the time she will arrive, we will have been waiting for 3 hours.

  After 'by the time', use the present simple for a future event: 'By the time she arrives'. 'Will' belongs only in the main clause.

• In 10 years, I will have been teaching for 30 years.
  In 10 years, I will have teaching for 30 years.

  The tense needs all four parts: 'will' + 'have' + 'been' + -ing. Without 'been', the verb form is incomplete.

Examples

• I'm about to leave.
  I'm about to leaving.

  'About to' is followed by the base form of the verb: 'about to leave'. Here 'to' is part of the infinitive ('to leave'), not a preposition like the 'to' in 'look forward to seeing you', so the -ing form is wrong.

• She was on the verge of crying.
  She was on the verge to cry.

  The expression is 'on the verge of', and 'of' is a preposition, so the verb after it takes the -ing form: 'on the verge of crying'. A noun is also possible: 'on the verge of tears'.

• He's on the point of resigning.
  He's on the point of resign.

  After the preposition 'of', use the -ing form: 'on the point of resigning', not the base form 'resign'.

Examples

• The train is due to arrive at 6 p.m.
  The train is due arrive at 6 p.m.

  Before a verb, the expression is 'be due to' + base form: 'due to arrive'. A verb cannot follow 'due' without 'to'.

• She is due to give birth next month.
  She is due to giving birth next month.

  In this structure, 'to' is part of the infinitive ('to give'), so it is followed by the base form: 'due to give'. Learners sometimes use -ing because 'due to' meaning 'because of' is followed by a noun: 'The delay was due to bad weather.'

• The baby is due in May.

  Without a verb, use 'be due' + a time: 'due in May', with no 'to'. In the same way, 'The rent is due on the 1st' means it must be paid then.

Examples

• He will always complain about the food.

  Here 'will' + 'always' describes a typical habit, not the future: complaining about the food is typical of him, and the speaker may find it annoying. 'He always complains about the food.' means almost the same. After 'will', use the base form: 'complain', not 'complains'.

• When I was a child, my grandma would tell me stories.
  When I was a child, my grandma would told me stories.

  'Would' for a past habit is followed by the base form ('tell'), not the past simple ('told'). The past meaning comes from 'would' and the time phrase.

• Most evenings, she'll spend hours on the phone.

  Here 'will' does not refer to the future: 'most evenings' shows that this is a habit. 'Most evenings, she spends hours on the phone' means almost the same, but 'she'll spend hours…' presents it as typical of her, often with a slightly critical tone.

Examples

• So I'm walking down the street, and suddenly this man comes up to me.

  This is the historical present: present tenses for a past event make an anecdote feel live. Speakers often start in the past and switch at the exciting moment: 'I was walking down the street, and suddenly this man comes up to me.' Both versions are natural in informal speech.

• Little did she know, her life would change forever that day.
  Little did she know, her life will change forever that day.

  The story is in the past ('did she know'), so a flash-forward uses 'would', the past form of 'will'. 'Will' looks forward from now and does not fit a past story.

• He looked at the photo. He had been so happy then.
  He looked at the photo. He has been so happy then.

  The past perfect takes the reader back to an earlier time in a past story. The present perfect connects to now, so it cannot go with 'then' meaning 'at that time'. ('He was so happy then' is also possible, because 'then' already shows the earlier time.)

Examples

• When I saw Tom last week, he said he was tired, so he went home early.
  When I saw Tom last week, he said he is tired, so he went home early.

  The tiredness belongs to last week and is over now, so the present tense 'is' is wrong. After the past verb 'said', use the past: 'he was tired'.

• When I called her yesterday at noon, she said she had just woken up.
  When I called her yesterday at noon, she said she has just woken up.

  Her words were 'I've just woken up', but that 'just' refers to yesterday at noon, not to now. After 'said', the present perfect becomes the past perfect: 'had just woken up'.

• He said water boils at 100°C.

  A general fact that is still true can stay in the present after a past verb. 'He said water boiled at 100°C.' is also correct; the present simply stresses that it is still true.

Examples

• When she arrived, everyone had left.
  When she arrived, everyone left. (intended: they were already gone)

  'Everyone had left' shows that they left before she arrived, so the room was empty. 'When she arrived, everyone left' means that they left after she arrived, perhaps because of her.

• I have been a teacher for 20 years and have never seen this.
  I was a teacher for 20 years and never saw this. (intended: I am still a teacher)

  The present perfect links the narrator's whole career up to now: I am still a teacher. 'I was a teacher for 20 years' means that this period is over and I no longer teach.

• By 2030, she will have written ten books.
  By 2030, she writes ten books.

  'By' + a future time looks back from that point, so use the future perfect: 'will have written'. The present simple cannot express a result completed before a future moment.

Examples

• I remember locking the door last night.
  I remember to lock the door last night.

  'remember' + -ing is about the memory of something you did earlier. 'last night' shows that the locking is already in the past, so 'remember to lock' does not fit here.

• Remember to lock the door when you leave.
  Remember locking the door when you leave.

  'remember' + to-infinitive is about a task: first you remember, then you do it. The locking has not happened yet, so use 'to lock'.

• I stopped smoking five years ago.
  I stopped to smoke five years ago. (intended: I gave up smoking five years ago)

  'stop' + -ing means that you no longer do something. 'I stopped to smoke' is correct English, but it means that you paused another activity so that you could smoke.

Examples

• I want you to come to the party.
  I want that you come to the party.

  'want' is followed by an object and a to-infinitive: 'want you to come'. English does not use a that-clause after 'want', even though many other languages do.

• She asked me to help her.
  She asked me help her.

  After 'ask' + object, you need 'to' before the base form: 'asked me to help'.

• He told us not to leave.
  He told us don't leave.

  To report a negative instruction, put 'not' before 'to': 'told us not to leave'. Do not use 'don't' after the object.

Examples

• She made me laugh.
  She made me to laugh.

  'make' + object is followed by the base form without 'to': 'made me laugh'.

• My parents let me go to the party.
  My parents let me to go to the party.

  'let' (allow) + object is followed by the base form without 'to': 'let me go'.

• I had the plumber fix the sink.
  I had the plumber to fix the sink.

  Causative 'have' means that you arranged for someone to do a job. It takes object + base form without 'to': 'had the plumber fix'.

Examples

• She helped me cook dinner.
  She helped me cooking dinner.

  After 'help' + object, use the base form ('cook') or the to-infinitive ('to cook'), not an -ing form.

• She helped me to cook dinner.
  She helped me for cooking dinner.

  'to' is optional after 'help me', so the base form 'cook' is also correct: 'She helped me cook dinner.' Do not use 'for' before the verb: 'helped me for cooking' is wrong.

• This will help reduce stress.
  This will help to reducing stress.

  Without an object, 'help' is followed by the base form ('help reduce') or the to-infinitive ('help to reduce'). In 'help to reducing', 'to' is part of the infinitive, not a preposition, so it must be followed by the base form, not an -ing form.

Examples

• I prefer tea to coffee.
  I prefer tea than coffee.

  When 'prefer' compares two nouns, the second noun follows 'to', not 'than': 'prefer tea to coffee'.

• I prefer cooking to cleaning.
  I prefer cooking than cleaning.

  When 'prefer' compares two -ing forms, the second one follows 'to', not 'than': 'prefer cooking to cleaning'. With a to-infinitive, use 'rather than' instead: 'I prefer to cook rather than clean.'

• I'd prefer to go home.
  I'd prefer go home.

  'would prefer' is followed by a to-infinitive: 'I'd prefer to go'. Of the two, only 'would rather' takes the base form: 'I'd rather go home.'

Examples

• She told me not to worry.
  She told me don't worry.

  To report a negative instruction, use object + 'not to' + base form. 'don't' cannot follow the object here.

• I decided not to go.
  I decided to don't go.

  An infinitive is made negative with 'not' before 'to': 'not to go'. 'don't' is never used inside an infinitive.

• I regret not studying more.
  I regret don't studying more.

  A gerund is made negative with 'not' before the -ing form: 'not studying'.

Examples

• She seems to have forgotten her keys.
  She seems that she has forgotten her keys.

  When 'seem' has a person as its subject, it is followed by a to-infinitive. The forgetting happened before now, so use the perfect infinitive 'to have forgotten'. With a that-clause, the subject must be 'it': 'It seems that she has forgotten her keys.'

• She is proud to have won the prize last year.
  She is proud to win the prize last year.

  The winning happened last year, before the pride she feels now, so use the perfect infinitive 'to have won'. 'to win' would refer to the same time as 'is proud' or to the future.

• You should have told me earlier.
  You should had told me earlier.

  After a modal verb, use 'have' + past participle. 'have' does not change to 'had' here.

Examples

• I want to be promoted next year.
  I want to promote next year.

  You do not promote anyone here; your company promotes you. You receive the action, so use the passive infinitive: 'to be' + past participle.

• She hopes to be chosen for the team.
  She hopes to be choose for the team.

  After 'to be', use the past participle: 'chosen', not the base form 'choose'.

• It's nice to be invited.
  It's nice to be inviting. (intended: it's nice when other people invite you)

  When other people invite you, you receive the action, so use the past participle: 'to be invited'. 'to be inviting' uses the -ing adjective 'inviting' (attractive, welcoming), which is a different meaning.

Examples

• I regret having said that.
  I regret having say that.

  After 'having', use the past participle: 'said', not the base form 'say'.

• After having finished our work, we went out.
  After having finish our work, we went out.

  After 'having', use the past participle 'finished'. 'After finishing our work' is also correct and more common.

• Thanks for having invited me.
  Thanks for to have invited me.

  After a preposition such as 'for', use a gerund, not a to-infinitive. 'Thanks for inviting me.' is also correct and more common in speech.

Examples

• If I had known, I would have helped.
  If I would have known, I would have helped.

  The if-clause takes the past perfect 'had known'; 'would have' belongs only in the main clause. 'If I would have known' is heard in informal speech, but it is not standard English.

• If she had studied, she would have passed.
  If she studied, she would have passed. (intended: she didn't study, so she didn't pass)

  To imagine the opposite of a past fact, the if-clause needs the past perfect 'had studied'. With the past simple 'studied', the sentence sounds like a guess about what really happened ('if she did study, she probably passed'), not an imagined past.

• If I had been there, I could have helped.
  If I had been there, I could help. (intended: I wasn't there, so I wasn't able to help)

  The result is in the past too, so the main clause needs 'could have' + past participle: 'could have helped' means 'would have been able to help'. 'I could help' refers to the present: the incorrect sentence means 'I would be able to help now', which does not fit a situation that is already over.

Examples

• If I had taken that job, I would live in London now.
  If I had taken that job, I would have lived in London now.

  The condition is past (I didn't take the job), but the result is now (I don't live in London). A present result needs 'would' + base form. 'Would have lived' refers to the past and cannot go with 'now'.

• If I were taller, I would have become a basketball player.

  Not being tall is a present fact (I am still not tall), so the if-clause uses the past simple 'were', while the result is in the past (I didn't become a player). 'If I had been taller, …' is also correct: it is a third conditional that looks only at the past.

• If she hadn't moved abroad last year, she would still live next door.
  If she didn't move abroad last year, she would still live next door. (intended: she moved abroad, so she doesn't live next door now)

  The move happened last year, so the condition needs the past perfect 'hadn't moved'. The result is now ('would still live'), so this is a past condition with a present result. With 'didn't move', the sentence sounds like a guess about what really happened ('if she didn't move, she probably still lives next door'), not an imagined past.

Examples

• Had I known, I would have helped.
  If had I known, I would have helped.

  In an inverted conditional, 'had' takes the place of 'if', so 'if' disappears. Say 'Had I known' or 'If I had known', not a mix of both.

• Were I rich, I would travel the world.
  Was I rich, I would travel the world.

  Inverted conditionals always use 'were', for every person. 'If I was rich' is fine in everyday English, but 'Was I rich…' is not used as a condition; it sounds like a question.

• Were I to fail, I would try again.
  Were I to fail, I will try again.

  'Were I to fail' means 'If I were to fail', an imagined future, so the main clause needs 'would' (or 'could' or 'might'), not 'will'. For a real possibility, use 'should' and 'will': 'Should I fail, I will try again.'

Examples

• I'll help you provided that you finish by Friday.
  I'll help you provided that you will finish by Friday.

  'Provided that' means 'only if'. Like 'if', it takes the present simple for a future condition: 'provided that you finish', not 'will finish'.

• You can stay as long as you're quiet.
  You can stay as long as you will be quiet.

  Here 'as long as' means 'only if'. Like 'if', it takes the present simple for a future condition: 'as long as you're quiet'.

• Take an umbrella in case it rains.
  Take an umbrella in case it will rain.

  'In case' means 'because it might rain': you take the umbrella now, as a precaution. Like 'if', it takes the present simple, not 'will', for the future.

Examples

• I wish I had studied harder when I was at school.
  I wish I studied harder when I was at school.

  The regret is about the past ('when I was at school'), so 'wish' needs the past perfect 'had studied'. 'Wish' + past simple is about the present: 'I wish I studied more' means that you don't study much now.

• I wish you would stop smoking.
  I wish you will stop smoking.

  To say you want another person to change their behaviour, use 'wish' + 'would' + base form. 'Will' is not used after 'wish'.

• I wish I could travel more.
  I wish I would travel more.

  'Wish … would' is not normally used about your own actions ('I wish I would…'), because you can control them. Use 'could' for an ability or chance you don't have, or the past simple: 'I wish I travelled more.'

Examples

• She's not at her desk. She must have left already.
  She's not at her desk. She must left already.

  The empty desk is the evidence, and 'must have left' is the conclusion about the past. A past deduction needs 'have' + past participle after 'must'; 'must left' leaves out 'have'.

• You must have been tired after the trip.
  You must have being tired after the trip.

  This is a deduction about a past state: I'm almost sure you were tired. After 'must have', use the past participle 'been', not the -ing form 'being'.

• He must have forgotten to call.
  He must of forgotten to call.

  In fast speech, 'must have' sounds like 'must of', but 'of' is never correct here. Write 'must have' or the short form 'must've'.

Examples

• He can't have said that; he's far too polite.
  He can't said that; he's far too polite.

  You are sure he did not say it, because he is too polite. A past deduction needs 'have' + past participle after 'can't'; 'can't said' leaves out 'have'.

• She couldn't have stolen it; she was with me all evening.
  She couldn't has stolen it; she was with me all evening.

  'couldn't have stolen' means 'I'm sure she didn't steal it'. After a modal verb, 'have' stays in its base form, even after 'she'.

• That can't have been easy.
  That can't of been easy.

  This shows sympathy: I'm sure it was difficult for you. 'can't have' can sound like 'can't of' in speech, but the written form is always 'have'.

Examples

• She's late. She might have missed the bus.
  She's late. She might missed the bus.

  Her lateness makes you guess about the past, so use 'might have' + past participle. 'might missed' leaves out 'have'.

• He may have forgotten about the meeting.
  He may forgot about the meeting.

  'may have forgotten' means 'perhaps he forgot'. After 'may', you need 'have' + the past participle 'forgotten', not the past simple 'forgot'.

• Their car isn't outside. They could have left early.
  Their car isn't outside. They could of left early.

  The missing car is the clue, so 'could have left' means 'perhaps they left early'. In speech it can sound like 'could of', but the written form is always 'could have' or 'could've'.

Examples

• I should have studied more for the exam.
  I should studied more for the exam.

  I didn't study enough, and I regret it. Regret about the past needs 'should' + 'have' + past participle; 'should studied' leaves out 'have'.

• You shouldn't have said that to her.
  You shouldn't had said that to her.

  You said it, and it was a mistake. After 'shouldn't', use 'have' + past participle, not 'had'.

• We ordered it two weeks ago. The parcel should have arrived by now.
  We ordered it two weeks ago. The parcel should arrive by now.

  'by now' looks at something that ought to be complete at this moment, so the action 'arrive' needs 'should have arrived'. 'should arrive' looks ahead to the future and does not fit with 'by now'. With 'be', you can also say 'It should be here by now.'

Examples

• If I had known, I would have helped.
  If I would have known, I would have helped.

  In the third conditional, the if-clause uses the past perfect ('had known') and the main clause uses 'would have' + past participle. Standard English does not use 'would have' in the if-clause.

• I would have come, but I was busy.
  I would of come, but I was busy.

  I didn't come because I was busy. 'would've' sounds like 'would of' in speech, but the written form is 'would have' or 'would've'.

• She would have won if she had trained harder.
  She would have win if she had trained harder.

  She didn't train harder, so she didn't win. After 'would have', use the past participle 'won', not the base form 'win'.

Examples

• You needn't have brought flowers, but they're lovely. Thank you!
  You needn't bring flowers, but they're lovely. Thank you! (intended: it wasn't necessary to bring these flowers)

  The guest has already brought the flowers, so use 'needn't have' + past participle. 'needn't bring' is about the present or future, as in 'You needn't bring anything next time.'

• I didn't need to get up early, so I slept until ten.
  I needn't have got up early, so I slept until ten.

  I slept until ten, so I did not get up early, and 'didn't need to' fits. 'I needn't have got up early' would mean that I did get up early, which contradicts the rest of the sentence.

• You needn't have bothered. I've already eaten.
  You needn't have bother. I've already eaten.

  Someone made an effort, for example by cooking, that turned out to be unnecessary. After 'needn't have', use the past participle 'bothered', not the base form 'bother'.

Examples

• I'd rather stay at home tonight.
  I'd rather to stay at home tonight.

  'would rather' works like a modal verb, so it is followed by the base form without 'to'.

• I'd rather you came tomorrow.
  I'd rather you to come tomorrow.

  For another person's action, use 'would rather' + subject + past simple. The past form 'came' has a future meaning here. The pattern with 'to' belongs to 'prefer': 'I'd prefer you to come tomorrow.'

• You had better hurry, or you'll miss the train.
  You had better to hurry, or you'll miss the train.

  'had better' is followed by the base form without 'to'. The second part of the sentence shows the warning: something bad will happen if you don't hurry.

Examples

• Shall I help you with those bags?
  I help you with those bags?

  Here 'Shall I…?' makes an offer and means 'Do you want me to…?' Some languages can make an offer with 'I' + a present tense verb, but in English 'I help you with those bags?' is wrong, even with a question mark.

• Shall we go to the cinema tonight?
  Do we go to the cinema tonight? (intended: I suggest going to the cinema)

  'Shall we…?' suggests doing something together. 'Do we go to the cinema tonight?' asks about a plan that already exists, so it does not make a suggestion.

• I've missed the last train. What shall I do?
  I've missed the last train. What I shall do?

  Here 'shall' asks for advice. In a question, 'shall' comes before the subject: 'What shall I do?'

Examples

• You ought to try this restaurant.
  You ought try this restaurant.

  Unlike modal verbs such as 'should' and 'must', 'ought' is followed by 'to' + base form. This is advice, like 'You should try this restaurant.'

• We ought to help people in need.

  This is about a moral duty, a context where 'ought to' is often used. 'We should help people in need.' is also correct and means the same; many speakers feel that 'ought to' sounds slightly more like a duty.

• The train ought to arrive soon.
  The train oughts to arrive soon.

  Here 'ought to' expresses an expectation: the train will probably arrive soon. 'ought' never changes, so there is no -s after 'he', 'she' or 'it'.

Examples

• She isn't answering. She must be working late.
  She isn't answering. She must working late.

  This is a deduction about an action in progress now, so use modal + 'be' + -ing. Without 'be', the verb phrase is incomplete.

• She must have worked late yesterday.
  She must have working late yesterday.

  For a completed action in the past, use modal + 'have' + past participle: 'have worked', not 'have working'.

• Her eyes were red. She must have been crying.
  Her eyes were red. She must be crying.

  The deduction is about an action that was in progress in the past, so use modal + 'have been' + -ing. 'must be crying' is about now and does not fit the past situation.

Examples

• It is said that she is a great actress.
  Is said that she is a great actress.

  Pattern 1 starts with the empty subject 'It'. English needs a subject here, so the sentence cannot begin with 'Is said'.

• He is said to be a genius.
  He is said that he is a genius.

  When a person is the subject, 'is said' is followed by a to-infinitive: 'to be'. A that-clause is only possible after 'It': 'It is said that he is a genius.'

• She is believed to have left the country last week.
  She is believed to leave the country last week.

  The leaving happened last week, before the time of the report, so use the perfect infinitive 'to have left'. 'to leave' cannot refer to a finished past time like 'last week'.

Examples

• I got invited to the party.
  I got invite to the party.

  After 'get', use the past participle 'invited', not the base form 'invite'.

• Did she get promoted last month?
  Was she got promoted last month?

  'get' is a normal verb, so the question uses 'did' + 'get'. Do not combine 'be' and 'got'. With the 'be'-passive, the question is 'Was she promoted last month?'

• They have been married for ten years.
  They have got married for ten years.

  'get married' is the event (the wedding), so it cannot last 'for ten years'. For the state, use 'be married'. For the event, say 'They got married ten years ago.'

Examples

• The house was being built when we arrived.
  The house was been built when we arrived.

  The building work was in progress when we arrived, so use the past continuous passive: 'was' + 'being' + past participle. 'been' is used only after a form of 'have'.

• The thief has been arrested.
  The thief has arrested.

  The police arrested the thief, so the verb must be passive: 'has been arrested'. Without 'been', 'has arrested' is an active form and needs an object.

• The letter had been sent before I arrived.
  The letter has been sent before I arrived.

  The sending happened before another past event (my arrival), so use the past perfect passive 'had been sent'. The present perfect cannot be used with a finished past time like 'before I arrived'.

Examples

• The meeting was called off.
  The meeting was called. (intended: the meeting was cancelled)

  'call off' means cancel, and the particle 'off' must stay in the passive. 'The meeting was called' means that someone organised the meeting.

• The cat is being looked after by my neighbour.
  The cat is being looked by my neighbour after.

  The particle 'after' comes right after the past participle 'looked', and 'by' + agent comes after the particle.

• Our house was broken into last week.
  Our house was broken in last week.

  When 'break in' means 'enter a building by force', it has no object ('Burglars broke in.'), so it has no passive. The verb with an object is 'break into': 'Someone broke into our house.' → 'Our house was broken into.'

Examples

• I had my hair cut.
  I had cut my hair. (intended: a hairdresser cut it)

  In the causative, the object comes before the past participle: 'had my hair cut'. 'I had cut my hair' is the past perfect and means that you cut it yourself, before another past event.

• I got my car repaired.
  I got my car repair.

  After 'get' + object, use the past participle 'repaired', not the base form 'repair'. A mechanic did the repair, not you.

• I had my assistant call the client.
  I had my assistant to call the client.

  'have' + person is followed by the base form without 'to': 'had my assistant call'.

Examples

• The man standing there is my uncle.
  The man is standing there is my uncle.

  The full clause is 'who is standing there'. The man does the action, so the short form starts with the -ing form 'standing': leave out both 'who' and 'is'. If you keep 'is', 'The man is standing there.' is already a complete sentence, and 'is my uncle' is left without a subject.

• The book written by her is famous.
  The book writing by her is famous.

  The book was written by her: the action was done to the book, so the meaning is passive. Use the past participle 'written', not the -ing form.

• The people living here are friendly.
  The people lived here are friendly.

  The full clause is 'who live here'. The people do the action, so use the -ing form 'living'. 'lived' does not work: a past simple verb needs its subject 'who', and a past participle would give a passive meaning.

Examples

• The person to whom I spoke was very helpful.
  The person to who I spoke was very helpful.

  When the preposition comes before the relative pronoun, standard English uses 'whom' for a person. 'to who' is sometimes heard in speech, but it is not standard. The everyday version is 'The person I spoke to was very helpful.'

• The person I spoke to was very helpful.
  The person to I spoke was very helpful.

  In everyday English, the preposition goes at the end of the clause and the pronoun is often left out. If you move 'to' to the front, you must add 'whom': 'the person to whom I spoke'.

• The chair on which he sat broke.
  The chair on that he sat broke.

  'that' cannot follow a preposition. For a thing, use 'which' after the preposition, or put the preposition at the end: 'the chair (that) he sat on'.

Examples

• What she said is true.
  That she said is true.

  'What she said' means 'the thing that she said' and is the subject of the sentence. 'That' cannot mean 'the thing that' on its own; it needs a noun before it: 'The thing that she said is true.'

• Everything she told me was true.
  Everything what she told me was true.

  'what' already contains 'the thing', so it cannot describe a noun or 'everything' before it. After 'everything', use 'that', or leave the pronoun out when it is the object, as here: 'Everything (that) she told me was true.'

• Do whatever you want.
  Do whatever that you want.

  'whatever' already means 'anything that', so do not add 'that' after it.

Examples

• He arrived late, which annoyed everyone.
  He arrived late, what annoyed everyone.

  Here 'which' refers to the whole clause: the fact that he arrived late annoyed everyone. 'what' cannot refer back to a clause like this; it means 'the thing that'.

• She smiled at me, which made me happy.
  She smiled at me, it made me happy.

  'it' starts a new sentence, and two sentences cannot be joined with only a comma. 'which' joins the comment to the first clause. You could also write two sentences: 'She smiled at me. It made me happy.'

• He lied to me, which I found unforgivable.
  He lied to me, which I found it unforgivable.

  'which' is the object of 'found' here (I found the fact that he lied unforgivable), so do not add 'it' as well.

Examples

• Tom's on the phone. He says he's at the station now.
  Tom's on the phone. He says he was at the station now.

  Tom is speaking now, and 'says' is a present reporting verb, so his words 'I'm at the station now.' keep their tense. Backshift happens only after a past reporting verb such as 'said'. The past 'was' does not fit with 'now'.

• Our teacher explained that light travels faster than sound.

  This is a general fact that is still true, so the present can stay after the past verb 'explained'. Backshift is also correct: 'Our teacher explained that light travelled faster than sound.' The present makes it clear that the fact is still true.

• Last year Maria told me she was single, but she got married in June.
  Last year Maria told me she is single, but she got married in June.

  Maria's words were 'I'm single.' She is married now, so the statement is no longer true and the present is wrong. Keep the present only for things that are still true when you report them.

Examples

• He accused me of lying.
  He accused me for lying.

  His words were 'You lied!' 'Accuse' takes the person + 'of' + -ing. 'For' is the preposition of 'blame' and 'criticise', not of 'accuse'.

• She blamed me for being late.
  She blamed me of being late.

  'Blame' takes the person + 'for' + -ing or a noun ('She blamed me for the delay.'). 'Of' is the preposition of 'accuse', not of 'blame'. The other pattern is 'blame something on someone': 'She blamed the delay on me.'

• They warned us against going there.
  They warned us not going there.

  To tell someone not to do something, 'warn' takes the person + 'against' + -ing, or the person + 'not to' + base form ('They warned us not to go there.'). 'Not going' without 'against' mixes the two patterns.

Examples

• Anna looked at the clock again. It was nearly midnight. Where was he?
  Anna looked at the clock again. It was nearly midnight. Where he was?

  The last sentence is Anna's thought 'Where is he?' in free indirect speech. The tense follows the story ('was'), but the question keeps question word order. Statement order ('where he was') belongs in a question inside another sentence, such as the reported question 'She wondered where he was.'

• Tom read the email twice. Why had she lied to him?
  Tom read the email twice. Why had she lied to me? (intended: Tom's own question)

  Tom's thought was 'Why did she lie to me?' In free indirect speech the pronoun follows the story: Tom is 'he', so 'me' becomes 'him'. The tense follows the story too: 'did she lie' becomes 'had she lied'. With 'me', the question seems to come from the narrator, not from Tom.

• She read the results again. She had passed! After all that work, she had passed!

  Her thought was 'I've passed! After all that work, I've passed!' Her own exclamations and repetition show her joy, but the narrator uses 'she' and the past perfect, because the story is told in the third person and in the past. There is no 'she thought'.

Examples

• The CEO said the company was growing. "We plan to expand further," she added. Her confidence was evident.
  The CEO said the company was growing. "We planned to expand further," she added. Her confidence was evident. (intended: her words were 'We plan to expand further.')

  The first sentence is reported speech, so 'is growing' moves back to 'was growing'. The second sentence gives her exact words, so nothing changes inside the quotation marks. 'We planned' would mean that the plan belonged to the past. The last sentence is the writer's comment.

• "I don't agree," he replied. He sounded firm. He said he would not change his mind.
  "I don't agree." he replied. He sounded firm. He said he would not change his mind.

  When the reporting clause ('he replied') comes after the quote, a quoted statement ends with a comma inside the quotation marks, not a full stop. The passage then mixes in a description ('He sounded firm.') and reported speech with backshift ('would not').

• He looked confused. "Where are we going?" he asked.
  He looked confused. "Where are we going?", he asked.

  A quoted question ends with a question mark inside the quotation marks. The question mark takes the place of the comma, so no comma follows it. The first sentence is the narrator's description.

Examples

• A fire broke out in the kitchen last night.
  A fire was broken out in the kitchen last night.

  'break out' (= start suddenly) has no object, so it has no passive. Use the active form: 'A fire broke out.'

• She dropped out of university in her second year.
  She dropped out university in her second year.

  'drop out' (= leave a course before the end) cannot take a direct object. Add the school or course with 'of': 'drop out of university'.

• The plane took off at 8.

  Here 'take off' has no object and means 'leave the ground'. With an object, it often means 'remove': 'She took off her coat.' The subject and the missing object show which meaning is meant.

Examples

• I look forward to meeting you.
  I look forward to meet you.

  In 'look forward to', 'to' is a preposition, not part of an infinitive. After a preposition, a verb takes the -ing form: 'to meeting'.

• I can't put up with the noise.
  I can't put the noise up with.

  'put up with' (= tolerate) cannot be separated. The object goes after all three words.

• We ran out of milk.
  We ran out milk.

  'run out of' (= have no more of) needs 'of' before the object. Without an object, you can say 'We've run out.'

Examples

• The plane took off at 8 a.m.

  Without an object, 'take off' here means 'leave the ground'. The subject, a plane, makes the meaning clear.

• Please take off your shoes.
  Please take out your shoes. (intended: remove them from your feet)

  With clothes or shoes as the object, 'take off' means 'remove from your body'. 'Take out' means 'remove from inside something', so the wrong sentence asks you to get your shoes out of a bag or a cupboard.

• Her career really took off after her first film.

  Here 'take off' has no object and means 'suddenly become successful'. The subject, a career, shows that this is not about a plane.

Examples

• The meeting has been postponed until next Friday.

  'postpone' is the formal equivalent of 'put off', and it suits an official notice like this one. To a colleague, you could say 'We've put off the meeting until next Friday.' Both are correct English.

• Hey, I'll find out what time the party starts and text you.
  Hey, I'll ascertain what time the party starts and text you.

  In a casual message, 'ascertain' sounds far too formal. Friends say 'find out'. 'Ascertain' belongs in formal reports: 'The committee must ascertain the facts.'

• The company carried out a survey of 500 customers.

  'carry out' is a neutral phrasal verb, and it is fine in formal writing. 'The company conducted a survey' is slightly more formal. Not every phrasal verb needs a formal replacement.

Examples

• Don't forget to switch everything off.

  Words such as 'everything', 'something', and 'all of them' behave like nouns, not like personal pronouns, so both orders are correct: 'switch everything off' and 'switch off everything'.

• Please turn it on.
  Please turn on it.

  'turn on' is separable, so a personal pronoun such as 'it' must go between the verb and the particle.

• I'm looking after my niece.
  I'm looking my niece after.

  'look after' (= take care of) is inseparable: the object never goes between 'look' and 'after'.

Examples

• It was John who called me.
  Was John who called me.

  An English statement needs a subject, so an it-cleft statement starts with 'It'. 'It was John' puts the focus on John, and 'who called me' is the rest of the sentence. In a question, 'was' goes before 'it', but 'it' is still needed: 'Was it John who called you?'

• It was Paris that we visited last year.
  It was Paris who we visited last year.

  Paris is a place, not a person, so use 'that'. 'who' is for people, not for places or things.

• It was yesterday that she arrived.
  It is yesterday that she arrived.

  The focus is a past time, 'yesterday', so the first part must be in the past too: 'It was'.

Examples

• What I need is a break.
  What I need, it is a break.

  The what-clause 'What I need' is already the subject of 'is', so do not add 'it'.

• What she did was leave.
  What she did was left.

  After 'What … did was', use the base form 'leave' (or 'to leave'). The past is already shown by 'did' and 'was'.

• All I want is a quiet evening.
  All what I want is a quiet evening.

  'All I want' means 'the only thing I want'. Use 'all' or 'all that', not 'all what'.

Examples

• Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.
  Never I have seen such a beautiful sunset.

  'Never' is at the start, so the auxiliary 'have' comes before the subject 'I'. In normal word order, you would say 'I have never seen …'.

• Rarely does he visit us.
  Rarely he visits us.

  The present simple has no auxiliary, so add 'does' before the subject and use the base form 'visit'.

• No sooner had I sat down than the phone rang.
  No sooner had I sat down when the phone rang.

  'No sooner' goes with 'than', not 'when'. The past perfect 'had … sat' shows the first event, and the second one follows at once.

Examples

• Had I known, I would have helped.
  If had I known, I would have helped.

  'Had' takes the place of 'if'. Once the auxiliary moves before the subject, 'if' must go.

• Were I in your position, I would accept the offer.
  Was I in your position, I would accept the offer.

  Inverted conditionals use 'were' with every subject, including 'I'. 'If I was …' is fine in informal English, but the inverted form is always 'Were I …'.

• Were the plan to fail, we would lose everything.
  Were the plan fail, we would lose everything.

  For an unlikely future event, use 'Were' + subject + to-infinitive. 'to' is needed before 'fail'.

Examples

• I was so tired that I fell asleep on the sofa.
  I was such tired that I fell asleep on the sofa.

  'tired' is an adjective with no noun after it, so use 'so'. 'such' always needs a noun.

• It was such a cold day that we stayed inside.
  It was so cold day that we stayed inside.

  'a cold day' is a noun phrase with 'a', so use 'such a'. Use 'so' when the adjective has no noun after it: 'The day was so cold that …'.

• We had such good weather that we ate outside every day.
  We had such a good weather that we ate outside every day.

  'weather' is uncountable in English, so there is no 'a': 'such good weather'.

Examples

• I do understand how you feel.
  I do understood how you feel.

  'do' already carries the tense, so the main verb stays in the base form: 'understand'. For the past, say 'I did understand'.

• She does care about you.
  She does cares about you.

  'does' already shows that the subject is 'she', so the main verb has no -s: 'does care'.

• I did call you yesterday, but you didn't answer.
  I did called you yesterday, but you didn't answer.

  'did' shows the past, so the main verb is in the base form: 'did call'. The speaker insists because the other person doubts it.

Examples

• On the table lay an old letter.

  A place phrase at the start is followed by the verb 'lay' and then the subject 'an old letter'. This literary order shows the place first and keeps the new information for the end. The normal order is also correct: 'An old letter lay on the table.'

• In the morning, I drink coffee.
  In the morning drink I coffee.

  An ordinary time phrase such as 'In the morning' at the start of a sentence does not change the order of subject and verb: 'I drink'. Putting the verb second is a typical mistake for speakers of German or Dutch.

• Her I trust, but him I don't.
  Her I trust, but he I don't.

  'him' is still the object of 'trust' ('I don't trust him'), so it keeps the object form even at the front. Fronting both objects shows the contrast between the two people.

Examples

• I can swim, but she can't.
  I can swim, but she not.

  The second clause keeps the auxiliary 'can' in its negative form, 'can't', and leaves out 'swim'. 'not' alone cannot replace the verb.

• She loves pizza, and so do I.
  She loves pizza, and I love too.

  To agree with a positive statement, use 'so' + auxiliary + subject ('so do I') or 'I do too'. 'I love too' uses the main verb instead of 'do' and leaves 'love' without its object.

• He doesn't smoke, and neither do I.
  He doesn't smoke, and neither I do.

  After 'neither', the auxiliary comes before the subject: 'neither do I'. Another correct option is 'and I don't either'.

Examples

• Walking down the street, I saw a cat.
  Walking down the street, a cat appeared. (intended: while I was walking down the street)

  A participle clause takes the subject of the main clause. In the wrong version that subject is 'a cat', so the sentence says the cat was walking down the street. Make 'I' the subject: 'I saw a cat'.

• Exhausted by the journey, she slept.
  Exhausting by the journey, she slept.

  She was exhausted by the journey, which is a passive meaning, so use the past participle 'exhausted'.

• Having finished the task, he left.
  Having finish the task, he left.

  'having' is followed by a past participle: 'having finished'. It shows that he finished the task before he left.

Examples

• The evidence was weak. Nevertheless, the jury found him guilty.
  The evidence was weak, nevertheless, the jury found him guilty.

  'Nevertheless' is an adverb, not a joining word, so it cannot link two sentences with only commas (a comma splice). End the first sentence with a full stop, or use a semicolon: 'The evidence was weak; nevertheless, the jury found him guilty.'

• The weather was terrible; nonetheless, the match went ahead.
  Nonetheless the weather was terrible, the match went ahead.

  'Nonetheless' refers back to a fact you have already stated. It cannot introduce a clause the way 'although' does. Say 'The weather was terrible; nonetheless, the match went ahead.' or 'Although the weather was terrible, the match went ahead.'

• The task was very difficult. Even so, she finished it on time.
  The task was very difficult. Even though, she finished it on time.

  'Even so' means 'in spite of this' and can stand alone at the start of a sentence. 'Even though' is a joining word that must be followed by a clause: 'Even though the task was very difficult, she finished it on time.'

Examples

• Sales fell sharply. Consequently, we had to cut staff.
  Sales fell sharply, consequently, we had to cut staff.

  'Consequently' is an adverb, not a joining word, so it cannot link two sentences with only commas (a comma splice). End the first sentence with a full stop or a semicolon.

• He didn't prepare for the interview; therefore, he didn't get the job.
  He didn't prepare for the interview therefore he didn't get the job.

  Unlike 'so', 'therefore' cannot join two clauses on its own. Put a semicolon or a full stop before it, or use 'and': 'He didn't prepare for the interview, and therefore he didn't get the job.'

• The roads were flooded; as a result, many schools closed.
  The roads were flooded; as result, many schools closed.

  The fixed phrase is 'as a result', with 'a'.

Examples

• The project was delayed. Moreover, it went over budget.
  The project was delayed, moreover, it went over budget.

  'Moreover' is an adverb, not a joining word, so it cannot link two sentences with only commas (a comma splice). End the first sentence with a full stop or a semicolon.

• In addition to the high price, the hotel was far from the beach.
  Additionally to the high price, the hotel was far from the beach.

  Before a noun, the preposition is 'in addition to'. 'Additionally' is an adverb and is not followed by 'to'; it stands alone: 'Additionally, the hotel was far from the beach.'

• In addition to being expensive, the hotel was very noisy.
  In addition to be expensive, the hotel was very noisy.

  In 'in addition to', 'to' is a preposition, not part of an infinitive, so it is followed by an -ing form ('being'), not the base form ('be').

Examples

• He isn't lazy. On the contrary, he works harder than anyone.
  He isn't lazy. On the other hand, he works harder than anyone.

  The second sentence rejects the idea that he is lazy and says that the opposite is true, so use 'on the contrary'. 'On the other hand' introduces a contrasting point, but working hard does not contrast with not being lazy.

• Living in the city is exciting. On the other hand, it can be very stressful.
  Living in the city is exciting. On the contrary, it can be very stressful.

  Both statements are true: they are two sides of city life, so use 'on the other hand'. 'On the contrary' would mean that city life is not exciting at all.

• The north of the country is dry. In contrast, the south gets a lot of rain.
  The north of the country is dry. On the contrary, the south gets a lot of rain.

  The sentence compares two different regions, and both facts are true, so use 'in contrast' (or 'by contrast'). 'On the contrary' is only used to reject a statement.

Examples

• Firstly, I would like to thank you all for coming.
  At first, I would like to thank you all for coming.

  'Firstly' (or 'First of all') introduces the first point. 'At first' means 'in the beginning, before something changed': 'At first I was nervous, but then I relaxed.'

• There are two problems with this flat. First, it is too small. Second, the rent is too high.

  'First, second, third' and 'firstly, secondly, thirdly' are both correct; 'firstly, secondly' is a little more formal. Choose one set and use it through the whole text.

• Finally, I would like to thank everyone who helped.
  At last, I would like to thank everyone who helped. (intended: as my last point)

  'Finally' (or 'Lastly') introduces the last point. 'At last' means 'after a long wait', so this sentence sounds as if the speaker has been waiting a long time to thank people.

Examples

• Dear Sir or Madam, I regret that I will be unable to attend the interview on Friday.
  Dear Sir or Madam, I can't make it to the interview on Friday, sorry!

  'Dear Sir or Madam' opens a formal letter to someone you do not know, so the rest of the letter must be formal too. 'can't make it' and 'sorry!' with an exclamation mark belong in a message to a friend. The formal version says 'I will be unable to attend', with no contractions, and adds the polite phrase 'I regret that'.

• Hey Sam, I'll try to come to your party, but I might be a bit late.
  Hey Sam, I shall endeavour to attend your party, but I might be a bit late.

  'Hey Sam' and 'your party' show a message to a friend. 'I shall endeavour to attend' is language for a formal letter, so here it sounds cold or even funny. With friends, use everyday words and contractions: 'I'll try to come'.

• Dear Sir or Madam, I am writing to complain about the items I received from your company last week.
  Dear Sir or Madam, I am writing to complain about the stuff I got from your company last week.

  'Dear Sir or Madam' and 'I am writing to complain' show a formal letter. 'stuff' is a very informal, vague word, and 'got' is less formal than 'received'. A formal letter uses precise words: 'the items I received'.

Examples

• I've got two sisters and a brother.
  I've gotten two sisters and a brother.

  'have got' for possession is very common in British English, especially in speech, and it is also used in informal American English. American English more often says 'I have two sisters and a brother.' Both are correct. 'gotten' is never used for possession, so 'I've gotten two sisters' is wrong in both varieties.

• The team are playing really well this season.

  British English can use a plural verb after a group noun such as 'team', 'family', or 'government' when you think of the people in the group. American English usually uses a singular verb: 'The team is playing really well this season.' Both are correct, and British English often uses the singular too.

• I've just eaten lunch.
  I've just ate lunch.

  With 'just', 'already', and 'yet', British English normally uses the present perfect. American English often uses the past simple: 'I just ate lunch.' Both are correct. 'I've just ate' mixes the two: after 'have', you need the past participle 'eaten'.

Examples

• In this essay, I argue that online learning can be as effective as classroom teaching.

  Many academic texts use 'I' or 'we' to say what the writer does: 'I argue', 'I will show', 'we measured'. What academic writing avoids is an opinion without evidence, such as 'I think online learning is great.' The claim here is careful ('can be') and will be supported in the essay.

• It is widely accepted that regular exercise can improve mood (Brown, 2019).
  Everyone knows that regular exercise can improve mood (Brown, 2019).

  The reference in brackets shows that this is academic writing. 'Everyone knows' is an unsupported generalisation and sounds like conversation. 'It is widely accepted that' is an impersonal, careful way to present a common view.

• The analysis of the interviews revealed three main themes.

  Here the action is expressed as a noun, 'the analysis of the interviews' (nominalisation), and it becomes the subject of the sentence. This is typical of academic writing. The verb version, 'When we analysed the interviews, we found three main themes.', is also correct academic English. Nominalisation is a tool, not a rule.

Examples

• There was heavy rain all night, so some roads were flooded.
  There was strong rain all night, so some roads were flooded.

  In English, rain, snow, and traffic are 'heavy'. 'strong' goes with 'wind', 'coffee', and 'tea', but not with 'rain'. Many languages say 'strong rain', so this is a common mistake.

• We need to make a decision by Friday.
  We need to do a decision by Friday.

  'decision' goes with 'make', like 'a mistake', 'an effort', and 'progress'. British English also says 'take a decision', but 'do a decision' is wrong.

• She's doing research on climate change.
  She's making research on climate change.

  'research' goes with 'do' (or, more formally, 'carry out' or 'conduct'). In French and Spanish, one verb ('faire', 'hacer') means both 'make' and 'do', so learners often choose the wrong one.

Examples

• The report contains sensitive information, so it must not be shared.
  The report contains sensible information, so it must not be shared. (intended: confidential)

  'sensitive information' is information that must be protected because it is private or could cause problems. 'sensible information' would mean 'reasonable, practical information', which does not fit here. French and Spanish 'sensible' and German 'sensibel' mean 'sensitive'.

• The current version of the app still has a few bugs.
  The actual version of the app still has a few bugs. (intended: the latest)

  'current' means 'existing now' or 'the latest'. 'actual' means 'real' ('The actual cost was higher than we expected.'), so 'the actual version' sounds like 'the real version'. German 'aktuell', French 'actuel', and Spanish 'actual' mean 'current'.

• Please tell us about any possible delays as soon as you can.
  Please tell us about any eventual delays as soon as you can. (intended: possible)

  'eventual' means 'happening at the end of a process' ('the eventual winner'). For something that may or may not happen, use 'possible', or just 'any delays'. French 'éventuel', Spanish 'eventual', and German 'eventuell' mean 'possible'.

Examples

• The decision to close the factory surprised everyone.
  The decidement to close the factory surprised everyone.

  The noun from 'decide' is 'decision': the d changes to s, and the ending is '-sion'. 'decidement' does not exist. Nouns from verbs have different endings, so learn each noun together with its verb.

• Her explanation of the problem was very clear.
  Her explaination of the problem was very clear.

  The noun from 'explain' is 'explanation': the i of 'explain' disappears. 'explaination' is a very common spelling mistake.

• The rapid development of technology has changed our lives.
  The rapidly development of technology has changed our lives.

  A noun is described by an adjective, not an adverb. In the verb sentence 'Technology has developed rapidly.', 'rapidly' is an adverb; in the noun phrase, it becomes the adjective 'rapid'.