B1 English Grammar — 65 Topics & Common Mistakes

Present Perfect vs Past Simple

The past simple ('I went', 'she worked') and the present perfect ('I have gone', 'she has worked') both talk about the past, but they see it differently. Use the past simple for a finished action at a finished time. The time is often stated: 'yesterday', 'last week', 'two days ago', 'in 2015'. Example: 'I went to Rome last year.' Use the present perfect ('have/has' + past participle, the form used after 'have', such as 'been', 'seen', 'worked') when no finished time is given and the past is connected to now: a life experience ('I've been to Rome.'), a recent action with a result now ('I've lost my keys.' = I don't have them now), a time period that is not finished yet ('today', 'this week'), or a situation that started in the past and is still true, with 'for' or 'since' ('I've lived here for five years.'). When you say when something happened, use the past simple: 'I saw her yesterday', not 'I have seen her yesterday'.

Present Perfect Continuous (have/has been + -ing)

The present perfect continuous is 'have/has been' + the -ing form: 'I have been working', 'she has been waiting'. Use it for an activity that started in the past and is still going on now, especially to say how long. Use 'for' with a length of time, 'since' with a starting point, or ask 'How long…?': 'I've been learning English for three years.' 'She has been working here since 2018.' You can also use it for an activity that has just stopped and left a result you can see or feel now: 'I'm tired because I've been running.' Stative verbs (verbs for states, not actions, such as 'know', 'believe' or 'own') are not normally used in the continuous: say 'I've known him for years', not 'I've been knowing him for years'.

Present Perfect Simple vs Continuous

Both tenses connect the past to now, but they focus on different things. The present perfect simple ('have/has' + past participle) focuses on the result: what is finished, or how many or how much: 'I've read three books this month.' The present perfect continuous ('have/has been' + -ing) focuses on the activity itself and how long it has lasted, and the activity may not be finished: 'I've been reading this book for two hours.' Use the simple to say or ask how many things are finished ('How many books have you read?'), and normally with stative verbs (verbs for states, such as 'know'): 'I've known her for years.' Use the continuous with 'How long…?' for an activity, and to explain something you can see now: 'My clothes are covered in paint because I've been painting the kitchen.'

Past Perfect (had + past participle)

The past perfect is 'had' + past participle: 'had eaten', 'had gone', 'had seen'. 'Had' is the same for all persons: 'I had', 'she had', 'they had' (short forms: 'I'd', 'she'd', 'they'd'). Use it when you are already talking about the past and want to go back to something that happened earlier: 'When I arrived, she had already left.' (She left first, then I arrived.) The later event is in the past simple ('arrived'). The past perfect is common with 'by the time', 'already' and 'never … before', and after verbs like 'realised' or 'said': 'I realised I had forgotten my keys.' When you simply tell events in the order they happened, the past simple is enough: 'I ate breakfast and then I went to work.'

Past Perfect Continuous (had been + -ing)

The past perfect continuous is 'had been' + the -ing form: 'I had been waiting', 'she had been working'. It is the same for all persons. Use it for an activity that went on for some time up to a moment in the past, often with 'for', 'since' or 'How long…?': 'I had been waiting for two hours when he finally arrived.' You can also use it for an activity that had just stopped and explains a situation in the past: 'He was tired because he had been running.' Stative verbs (verbs for states, such as 'know') normally take the past perfect simple instead: 'I had known him for years.' For a finished amount, use the past perfect simple: 'I had run 10 km.'

Future Continuous (will be + -ing)

The future continuous is 'will be' + -ing form: 'I'll be working', 'she'll be sleeping'. It is the same for all persons. Use it for an action that will be in progress at a moment in the future: the action starts before that moment and continues after it. 'This time tomorrow, I'll be flying to Paris.' 'Don't call at 8. We'll be having dinner.' Compare: 'At 8, I'll watch the match.' means I will start watching at 8, but 'At 8, I'll be watching the match.' means I will be in the middle of it at 8. Negative: 'won't be' + -ing. Question: 'Will you be working tomorrow?' You can also use it for something that is already planned or that will happen as part of a normal routine: 'I'll be seeing Maria at work tomorrow.' Because it talks about what is already planned, it is also a polite way to ask about someone's plans: 'Will you be using the car tonight?' Stative verbs (verbs for states, such as 'know' and 'like') normally use 'will' + base form: 'I'll know tomorrow.'

Future Perfect (will have + past participle)

The future perfect is 'will have' + past participle: 'I'll have finished', 'she'll have left'. It is the same for all persons. Use it to look back from a point in the future and say that an action will already be complete at that point: 'By 8 p.m., we'll have eaten dinner.' (At 8, dinner will be over.) It usually comes with a time expression such as 'by Friday', 'by next year' or 'by the time you arrive'. 'By' means 'at or before'. Compare: 'When you get home, I'll go to bed.' (after you arrive) and 'When you get home, I'll have gone to bed.' (before you arrive). Negative: 'won't have' + past participle.

Future in the Past (was going to / would)

'Future in the past' means looking forward from a moment in the past: the event was still in the future at that time. English uses the past forms of the future structures. Use 'was/were going to' + base form for a past plan, often one that did not happen: 'I was going to call you, but I forgot.' Use 'would' + base form after past verbs such as 'said', 'knew' and 'thought': 'She said she would help me.' 'I knew it would rain.' Use 'was/were about to' + base form for something that was going to happen very soon: 'We were about to leave when the phone rang.' Do not use 'will' for a future that is now past: 'I knew it would rain', not 'I knew it will rain'.

`going to` vs `will` - Nuance

'Will' and 'be going to' can both talk about the future, and often both are correct. The choice shows how you see the future event. Use 'be going to' (am/is/are going to + base form) for a plan you made before speaking ('I'm going to study tonight.') and for a prediction based on something you can see now ('Look at those clouds! It's going to rain.'). Use 'will' + base form for a decision you make at the moment of speaking ('The phone's ringing. I'll answer it.'), for offers and promises ('I'll help you.'), and for predictions based on your opinion ('I think she'll love the present.'). Do not use the present simple for decisions, offers or promises: say 'I'll answer it', not 'I answer it'.

Narrative Tenses - Introduction

To tell a story about the past, English combines three tenses. The past simple tells the main events, one after another: 'I opened the door and walked in.' The past continuous (was/were + -ing) describes background actions, or a longer action that was in progress when something else happened: 'It was raining.' 'I was reading when the phone rang.' Verbs for states, such as 'be' and 'know', normally stay in the past simple: 'It was cold, and I didn't know anyone.' The past perfect (had + past participle) goes back to something that happened before the main events: 'I had forgotten my umbrella.' Together: 'It was raining when I left the office. I had forgotten my umbrella, so I got very wet.'

Stative vs Dynamic Verbs - Advanced

Stative verbs describe states, not actions: thinking and knowing ('know', 'believe', 'understand'), feelings and wants ('like', 'love', 'want', 'need'), possession ('have', 'own', 'belong') and the senses ('see', 'hear'). They are normally not used in continuous forms, even when you mean 'now': 'I know the answer', not 'I am knowing the answer'. Verbs for actions ('run', 'cook', 'write') are called dynamic verbs, and they can be continuous. Some verbs have a stative meaning and a dynamic meaning. With the dynamic meaning, the continuous is fine: 'I have a car.' (own) but 'I'm having lunch.' (eat); 'I think it's good.' (opinion) but 'I'm thinking about it.' (consider); 'I see what you mean.' (understand) but 'I'm seeing the doctor tomorrow.' (meet).

`could` vs `was/were able to`

Use 'could' + base form (the verb without 'to') for a general ability in the past, something you could do over a period of time: 'When I was five, I could swim.' For one specific success on one occasion, use 'was/were able to' or 'managed to', not 'could': 'The traffic was terrible, but we managed to catch the train.' In negative sentences, 'couldn't' is fine for both: 'I couldn't find my keys this morning.' With verbs of the senses, such as 'see' and 'hear', 'could' is also normal for one occasion: 'When I woke up, I could see the sea from my room.'

`had to` - Past Obligation

'had to' + base form is the past of both 'must' and 'have to'. It is the same for every person: 'I had to work late yesterday.' 'She had to call the doctor.' 'must' has no past form for obligation, so do not say 'Yesterday I must…'. Questions and negatives use 'did' + 'have to': 'Did you have to wait?' 'I didn't have to pay.' 'didn't have to' means it was not necessary. For something that was forbidden, use 'wasn't/weren't allowed to': 'We weren't allowed to use our phones.'

`must` vs `have to` - Internal vs External

'must' and 'have to' both say that something is necessary, and in positive sentences both are often correct. 'must' often shows that the speaker or writer makes the rule, for example a personal decision ('I must call my mother.') or a written notice ('Passengers must wear a seatbelt.'). 'have to' often shows that the obligation comes from someone or something else, such as a law, a boss, or the situation: 'I have to wear a uniform at work.' In everyday speech, 'have to' is more common. The negatives are very different: 'mustn't' means it is forbidden ('You mustn't smoke here.'), and 'don't have to' means it is not necessary ('You don't have to come.').

`need to / needn't` - Necessity and Absence of Necessity

'need to' + base form (the simple verb, like 'go') means that something is necessary: 'I need to buy some milk.' It works like a normal verb: 'She needs to rest.' 'I needed to leave early.' In the present simple and the past simple, negatives and questions use 'do', 'does', or 'did': 'You don't need to worry.' 'Do you need to go now?' 'don't need to' means it is not necessary. 'needn't' + base form (with no 'to') means the same, but it is less common and a little more formal: 'You needn't worry.' Use 'needn't' for the present or the future; for the past, use 'didn't need to': 'I didn't need to wait.' Be careful: 'needn't' (not necessary) is very different from 'mustn't' (forbidden).

Phrasal Verbs - Separable vs Inseparable

A phrasal verb is a verb + a small word (a particle), such as 'turn on' or 'look after'. When a phrasal verb has an object, there are two types. With separable phrasal verbs, a noun object can go before or after the particle ('turn on the light' or 'turn the light on'), but a pronoun (it, him, them) must go in the middle: 'turn it on', not 'turn on it'. With inseparable phrasal verbs, the object always goes after the particle, even a pronoun: 'look after the baby', 'look after her', not 'look her after'. Common inseparable verbs: look after, look for, wait for, listen to, get on (a bus), come across.

Causative `have / get` something done

Use 'have' or 'get' + object + past participle when someone else does a job for you, usually a service you pay for. 'I had my hair cut.' means a hairdresser cut it; 'She got her car repaired.' means a mechanic repaired it. The object comes before the past participle: 'had my car repaired', not 'had repaired my car'. Only 'have' or 'get' changes for tense: 'We're having the house painted.' 'I'll get my eyes tested.' 'get' is a little more informal than 'have'. Compare: 'She repaired her car.' means that she did it herself. The same structure can also describe something bad that someone did to you or your things: 'He had his wallet stolen.'

`used to` vs `would` vs `be/get used to`

These structures look similar but mean different things. 'used to' + base form: a past habit or state that is not true now: 'I used to smoke.' 'She used to live in Paris.' 'would' + base form: an action you repeated in the past, often in memories: 'Every summer, we would go to the beach.' For past states, such as 'live', 'have' or 'like', use 'used to', not 'would': 'We used to have a dog.' 'be used to' + noun or -ing form: something is normal and familiar for you: 'I'm used to getting up early.' 'get used to' + noun or -ing form: something is slowly becoming normal for you: 'I'm getting used to the weather.'

`get`-Passive - Introduction

In everyday speech, English often makes the passive with 'get' + past participle instead of 'be' + past participle: 'I got invited to the party.' (= I was invited.) 'My bike got stolen.' It is common for events and changes that happen to someone, especially unexpected or unpleasant ones ('got hurt', 'got fired'), and for life events ('got married', 'got promoted'). 'get' changes for tense like a normal verb. In the present simple and past simple, questions and negatives use do/does/did, not 'be': 'Did you get paid?' 'We didn't get lost.' In formal writing, use 'be': 'He was promoted.'

Verb + Gerund or Infinitive - Introduction

When a verb such as 'enjoy' or 'want' is followed by another verb, the second verb is either a gerund (the -ing form used like a noun: 'reading') or a to-infinitive ('to read'). (Modal verbs such as 'can' and 'must' are different: they take the base form, as in 'I can swim'.) The first verb decides which one: 'I enjoy reading.' but 'I want to read.' Learn each verb with its pattern. Common verbs + -ing: enjoy, finish, avoid, mind, suggest, keep, practise, imagine. Common verbs + to-infinitive: want, decide, hope, plan, agree, offer, promise, learn. After a preposition, always use -ing: 'I'm good at cooking.'

Verb Patterns: Gerund-only vs Infinitive-only Verbs

Some verbs are followed only by a gerund (the -ing form used like a noun), and others only by a to-infinitive (to + base form). Using the wrong form is a very common mistake, so learn the verbs in groups. Only -ing: enjoy, don't mind, avoid, finish, suggest, admit, deny, consider, imagine, miss, practise, keep, give up, put off, risk ('I don't mind waiting.'). Only to-infinitive: decide, hope, plan, want, offer, promise, agree, refuse, manage, afford, fail, pretend, seem, learn ('He managed to finish on time.').

Zero Conditional - Full

The zero conditional talks about things that are always true: facts, rules, and habits. A conditional sentence has two parts: the if-clause (the condition) and the main clause (the result). In the zero conditional, both parts use the present simple: 'If you heat ice, it melts.' / 'If plants don't get water, they die.' The main clause can also use 'can', or give an instruction: 'If I drink coffee at night, I can't sleep.' / 'If you feel cold, turn on the heater.' The meaning is 'every time this happens, this is the result', so you can often use 'when' instead of 'if': 'When you heat ice, it melts.' Do not use 'will' in the if-clause: 'If you heat ice', not 'If you will heat ice'. When the if-clause comes first, we usually put a comma after it.

First Conditional - Full

The first conditional talks about a real possibility in the future and its result. Form: 'if' + present simple, 'will' + base form: 'If it rains tomorrow, I'll stay at home.' / 'If you study hard, you'll pass the exam.' The if-clause uses the present simple, even though it talks about the future: 'If it rains', not 'If it will rain'. Instead of 'will', the main clause can use 'can', 'might' or 'should', or give an instruction: 'If you finish early, you can go home.' / 'If you see Tom, tell him to call me.' When the if-clause comes first, we usually put a comma after it.

Second Conditional - Full

The second conditional talks about imagined situations: things that are not true now, or that you think are unlikely in the future. Form: 'if' + past simple, 'would' + base form: 'If I won the lottery, I would travel the world.' (I probably won't win.) / 'If she knew the answer, she would tell us.' (She doesn't know it.) The past form here does not mean past time; it shows that the situation is imagined. Do not use 'would' in the if-clause: 'If she knew', not 'If she would know'. With 'be', you can use 'were' for all persons: 'If I were you, I would apologise.' In everyday speech, 'was' is also common after 'I', 'he', 'she' and 'it': 'If I was you, …'. 'I would' is often shortened to 'I'd'.

`wish / if only` + Past Simple - Present Regret/Desire

Use 'wish' or 'if only' when you want the present to be different from how it really is. After 'wish' and 'if only', use a past form, even though you are talking about now: 'I wish I had more time.' (I don't have enough time.) / 'If only I knew the answer!' (I don't know it.) With 'be', you can use 'were' for all persons: 'I wish I were taller.' In everyday speech, 'was' is also common after 'I', 'he', 'she' and 'it': 'I wish I was taller.' For an ability you don't have, use 'could': 'I wish I could swim.' 'If only' means the same as 'I wish' but is stronger and more emotional. Do not use the present or 'will' after 'wish': 'I wish I had', not 'I wish I have'. For a future that is possible, use 'hope': 'I hope you pass.'

`unless` - Introduction

'Unless' means 'except if' and can usually replace 'if … not': 'I'll go to the park unless it rains.' = 'I'll go to the park if it doesn't rain.' / 'Unless you hurry, you'll be late.' = 'If you don't hurry, you'll be late.' The 'not' is already inside 'unless', so when you change 'if … not' into 'unless', drop the 'not': 'unless it rains', not 'unless it doesn't rain'. After 'unless', use the same tenses as after 'if': the present simple for the future ('unless it rains', not 'unless it will rain') and the past simple in the second conditional ('I wouldn't go unless she came.').

Passive - Present Simple and Continuous

In an active sentence, the subject is the person or thing that does the action: 'People speak English in many countries.' In a passive sentence, the subject is the person or thing that the action happens to: 'English is spoken in many countries.' The passive is made with the verb 'be' + a past participle (the verb form in 'made', 'cleaned', 'spoken', 'written'). Present simple passive: 'am/is/are' + past participle, for facts, habits, and things that happen regularly: 'These cars are made in Germany.' Present continuous passive: 'am/is/are' + 'being' + past participle, for an action in progress now: 'The house is being painted at the moment.' Use the passive when the doer is unknown, obvious, or not important. To say who does the action, add 'by': 'The museum is visited by thousands of tourists.' Negatives and questions use 'am/is/are', not 'do/does': 'Dogs aren't allowed here.' / 'Is English spoken here?'

Passive - Past Simple and Continuous

The past passive talks about past actions when the subject is the person or thing that receives the action. Past simple passive: 'was/were' + past participle, for a finished action: 'This bridge was built in 1890.' / 'My bike was stolen last week.' Use 'was' with 'I', 'he', 'she', 'it' and singular nouns, and 'were' with 'you', 'we', 'they' and plural nouns. Past continuous passive: 'was/were' + 'being' + past participle, for an action that was in progress at a moment in the past: 'The car was being repaired when I arrived.' For negatives and questions, use 'was/were', not 'did': 'The letter wasn't sent.' / 'When was this house built?' Add 'by' + the doer only when it is important: 'The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo da Vinci.' To talk about your birth, use the past passive too: 'I was born in 1998.'

Passive with Modals

To make a passive with a modal verb ('can', 'could', 'must', 'should', 'may', 'might', 'will', 'would'), use modal + 'be' + past participle: 'This problem can be solved.' / 'The form must be signed.' / 'The results will be announced tomorrow.' The modal keeps its usual meaning (possibility, obligation, advice, the future). 'Be' always stays in its base form, and there is no 'to' after the modal: 'must be done', not 'must is done' or 'must to be done'. The same pattern works with 'have to', 'need to', and 'ought to', where 'to' is part of the verb: 'The rent has to be paid every month.' For the negative, put 'not' between the modal and 'be': 'Phones mustn't be used in the exam.' With 'have to' and 'need to', use 'don't/doesn't': 'The form doesn't have to be signed.' For a question, put the modal before the subject: 'Can this be fixed?'

Passive - Present Perfect

The present perfect passive is the passive form of the present perfect: 'have/has' + 'been' + past participle. 'The letter has been sent.' / 'The windows have been cleaned.' Use 'has' with 'he', 'she', 'it', and singular nouns, and 'have' with 'I', 'you', 'we', 'they', and plural nouns. Like the active present perfect, it talks about a past action that matters now, usually without saying when it happened. It often comes with 'just', 'already', 'yet', 'ever', 'never', or 'recently': 'The road has just been repaired.' With 'for' or 'since', it describes a situation that started in the past and is still true now: 'This company has been run by the same family for 50 years.' Do not forget 'been': 'I have been invited' means someone invited me, but 'I have invited' means I invited someone. With a finished time such as 'yesterday' or 'last week', use the past simple passive: 'The letter was sent yesterday.'

Defining Relative Clauses (who, which, that)

A defining relative clause comes right after a noun and tells us which person or thing we mean: 'The man who called is my uncle.' (Which man? The one who called.) Without the clause, the sentence is unclear. The clause starts with a relative pronoun: 'who' for people, 'which' for things and animals, and 'that' for people, things, and animals ('the car that I sold'). Do not put commas around a defining clause. Keep the relative pronoun when it is the subject of the clause, that is, when the verb of the clause comes right after it ('the man who called', 'the bike that was stolen'). You can leave it out when it is the object, that is, when the clause has its own subject: 'the book (that) I bought' = 'the book I bought'.

Non-defining Relative Clauses - Introduction

A non-defining relative clause adds extra information about a person or thing that is already clear. You could leave the clause out and the sentence would still make sense: 'My brother, who lives in Paris, is a doctor.' (I have one brother; where he lives is extra information.) In writing, put a comma before and after the clause, or only before it when it ends the sentence: 'I called Anna, who lives in Rome.' Use 'who' for people, 'which' for things and animals, and 'whose' for possession. Do not use 'that', and do not leave out the relative pronoun.

Relative `whose`

'Whose' is the relative pronoun for possession. It links two ideas and takes the place of 'his', 'her', 'its', or 'their': 'I know a man. His car was stolen.' becomes 'I know a man whose car was stolen.' Do not put 'the' or 'a' after 'whose': 'whose car', not 'whose the car'. Use 'whose' for people, and also for animals and things: 'a house whose windows are broken'. It works with and without commas: 'My neighbour, whose dog barks all night, is moving away.' Do not confuse it with 'who's', which means 'who is' or 'who has'.

Relative `where / when / why`

'Where', 'when', and 'why' can start a relative clause. Use 'where' after a place ('the hotel where we stayed'), 'when' after a time ('the day when we met'), and 'why' after 'the reason' ('the reason why I called'). Each one already includes a preposition ('where' = 'at/in which', 'when' = 'on/in which', 'why' = 'for which'), so do not add 'at', 'in', or 'on' at the end: 'the hotel where we stayed', not 'the hotel where we stayed at'. 'Which' alone is wrong here ('the hotel which we stayed'); with 'which' or 'that', keep the preposition: 'the hotel (that) we stayed at'. But if the place is the subject or the object of the verb, use 'that' or 'which', not 'where': 'a hotel that has a pool', 'a city that I love'.

Omitting the Relative Pronoun (object)

In a defining relative clause, you can often leave out 'who', 'which', or 'that'. You can do this when the relative pronoun is the object of the clause, that is, when the clause has its own subject right after it: 'The book (that) I read was great.' ('I' is the subject of 'read'.) You cannot leave it out when it is the subject, that is, when the verb of the clause comes right after it: 'The man who called me is my uncle.' ('Who' called me.) Do not say 'The man called me is my uncle.' If the verb has a preposition, it stays at the end: 'the woman (who) I work with'. Never leave the pronoun out of a non-defining clause (with commas).

Reported Speech - Tense Backshift

Reported speech tells someone what another person said, without using their exact words. When the reporting verb (the verb that introduces the report, such as 'said' or 'told') is in the past, the verb in the reported part usually moves one step back into the past. This is called backshift: 'I'm tired.' → 'She said she was tired.' The main changes are: present → past ('am' → 'was', 'live' → 'lived'), present perfect and past simple → past perfect ('have seen' and 'saw' → 'had seen'), 'will' → 'would', 'can' → 'could', 'may' → 'might', and 'must' → 'had to'. Two of these changes are optional: in everyday speech, the past simple often stays when the order of events is clear ('He said he saw her on Monday.'), and 'must' can stay ('She said I must leave.'). 'Would', 'could', 'should' and 'might' do not change, and the past form in an imagined situation such as 'if I had more money' usually stays the same too. Change the pronouns ('I' → 'she') and the time words ('tomorrow' → 'the next day') to fit the new situation. There is no backshift after a present reporting verb ('She says she's tired.'), and you can keep the present when the statement is still true ('He said he lives in Rome.').

Reported Questions

A reported question tells someone what another person asked. It is not a real question any more, so it uses statement word order (subject + verb) and ends with a full stop. For a yes/no question, add 'if' or 'whether': 'Are you ready?' → 'He asked if I was ready.' For a wh-question (with 'where', 'what', 'why' and so on), keep the question word: 'Where do you live?' → 'She asked where I lived.' Leave out the helper verb 'do', 'does', or 'did' (the main verb takes the tense instead), and change the tenses, pronouns, and time words as in reported statements.

Reported Commands and Requests

To report a command or a request, use a reporting verb (a verb such as 'tell' or 'ask') + the person + a to-infinitive ('to' + the base form of the verb). Command: 'Sit down!' → 'She told me to sit down.' Request: 'Can you help me, please?' → 'He asked me to help him.' For a negative, put 'not' before 'to': 'Don't be late.' → 'She told me not to be late.' Other verbs with this pattern are 'advise', 'warn', 'remind', 'order', 'invite', 'encourage', and 'persuade'. The to-infinitive has no tense, so it does not move back into the past (no backshift), but pronouns and time words still change to fit the new situation ('me' → 'him'; if you report it on a later day, 'tomorrow' → 'the next day'). 'Say' and 'suggest' don't use this pattern. Use 'tell' instead of 'say': 'She told me to go', not 'She said me to go'. After 'suggest', use -ing or 'that' + subject + verb: 'He suggested going' or 'He suggested that I should go', not 'He suggested me to go'.

`say` vs `tell`

'Say' and 'tell' both report what someone said, but they follow different patterns. 'Say' focuses on the words. You don't have to mention the listener: 'She said (that) she was tired.' If you do, use 'to': 'What did she say to you?' 'Tell' focuses on the listener. When 'tell' reports what someone said, put the person straight after it, with no 'to': 'She told me (that) she was tired.' 'Tell' is also used for instructions: 'She told me to wait.' An easy rule: you 'say' something (to someone), but you 'tell' someone something. Some words have their own verb: 'say hello', 'say goodbye', 'say sorry', but 'tell a story', 'tell a joke', 'tell the truth', 'tell a lie'.

Reporting Verbs with `that`-Clause

Many verbs can be followed by a that-clause: 'that' + a subject + a verb, as in 'I think that she is right.' Verbs for speaking: 'say', 'tell' + person, 'explain', 'mention', 'admit', 'promise', 'agree'. Verbs for thinking and feeling: 'think', 'believe', 'know', 'hope', 'realise', 'feel', and 'be glad/sorry/sure'. In everyday English you can often leave out 'that': 'I think she's right.' Don't use 'what' instead of 'that' (not 'I think what she is right'), and don't put a comma before 'that'. After a past verb, you usually backshift, as in reported speech: 'He admitted that he had lied.'

Common Verb + Preposition Combinations

Many English verbs need a fixed preposition before their object (the person or thing after the verb). You often can't guess the preposition from the meaning, so learn each verb together with its preposition: 'listen to music', 'wait for the bus', 'look at a picture', 'depend on the weather', 'belong to me', 'ask for help', 'pay for the tickets', 'apologise for the mistake'. If a verb comes after the preposition, use the -ing form: 'Thank you for helping me.' In a question, the preposition stays after the verb, often at the end: 'Who are you waiting for?' With no object, there is no preposition: 'Listen!', 'Please wait.' Some verbs take their object directly, with no preposition, although many languages use one there: 'discuss the plan' (not 'discuss about the plan'), 'enter the room', 'marry someone', 'answer the question'.

Adjective + Preposition

Many adjectives need a fixed preposition before a noun or pronoun: 'afraid of spiders', 'interested in history', 'good at tennis', 'proud of you', 'worried about the exam', 'responsible for the team', 'famous for its food', 'similar to mine', 'married to a doctor'. The preposition is often different in your language, so learn each adjective together with its preposition. A few adjectives change the preposition when the meaning changes: 'good at tennis', but 'good for your health'. If a verb follows the preposition, use the -ing form: 'I'm good at cooking.', 'She's tired of waiting.' In a question, the preposition usually goes to the end: 'What are you afraid of?' With no object, there is no preposition: 'Don't be afraid.'

Noun + Preposition

Many nouns are followed by a fixed preposition: 'the reason for the delay', 'the cause of the fire', 'the answer to the question', 'the key to success', 'a problem with my phone', 'the difference between two things', 'an effect on your health', 'a need for more nurses', 'an interest in music'. Learn each noun with its preposition, because it is often different in your language. When 'increase', 'decrease', 'rise', and 'fall' describe a change in a number or level, use 'in' before the thing that changes and 'of' before the amount: 'an increase in prices', 'an increase of 10%'. If a verb follows the preposition, use the -ing form: 'the reason for leaving'. Be careful: a noun can need a preposition when its verb does not: 'answer the question', but 'the answer to the question'.

Phrasal Prepositions

A phrasal preposition (also called a complex preposition) is a group of two or more words that works like one preposition: 'because of', 'instead of', 'in front of', 'in spite of', 'according to', 'in addition to', 'apart from', 'next to', 'on top of'. Keep all the words, in the same order: 'in front of the house', not 'front of the house'. After it, use a noun, a pronoun, or an -ing form: 'because of the rain', 'instead of driving'. It can't come directly before a subject and verb: say 'because it rained', but 'because of the rain'. 'Despite' means the same as 'in spite of', but it has no 'of': 'despite the rain'.

Time: `by / until / within / throughout`

These four prepositions show how an action fits a time. 'By' + a point in time means 'not later than': the action happens once, at or before that time. 'Please finish the report by Friday.' 'Until' (informal: 'till') + a point in time means the action or situation continues up to that time and then stops: 'I'll wait until five.' In a negative sentence, 'not ... until' means 'not before': 'The shop doesn't open until ten.' 'Within' + a length of time means 'before the end of that period': 'Please reply within 24 hours.' 'Throughout' + a period means 'for the whole period, from start to end': 'It rained throughout the night.' To choose between 'by' and 'until', ask: does the action continue up to that time ('until'), or does it only need to happen at or before that time ('by')?

Dependent Prepositions with Meaning Shift

With some verbs, the preposition changes the meaning. 'Agree with' a person or an opinion = have the same opinion: 'I agree with you.' 'Agree on' something = decide it together: 'We agreed on a price.' 'Agree to' a plan or request = say yes to it: 'My boss agreed to my request.' 'Think about' = have something in your mind, consider it: 'I'm thinking about my future.' 'Think of' = have an opinion ('What do you think of it?') or have an idea ('I can't think of a name.'). Often both are possible: 'What do you think about it?' also asks for an opinion. 'Care about' = feel that something is important; 'care for' = look after someone. 'Shout at' someone = shout angrily; 'shout to' someone = shout so they can hear you from far away. 'Look at' = direct your eyes to, 'look for' = try to find, 'look after' = take care of.

`although / though / even though` (Concession)

Use 'although', 'though' or 'even though' to join two facts when one fact makes the other surprising: 'Although it was raining, we went out.' After these words you need a full clause, which means a subject and a verb ('it was raining'). Before a noun on its own, use 'despite' instead: 'Despite the rain, we went out.' 'Even though' is stronger than 'although', and 'though' is a little more informal. 'Though' can also go at the end of a sentence, where it means 'however': 'It's expensive. It's worth it, though.' Do not add 'but' to the other clause. Say 'Although it was cold, we went out.' or 'It was cold, but we went out.'

`despite / in spite of` + Noun / -ing

'Despite' and 'in spite of' mean the same as 'although'. The difference is the grammar: they work like prepositions (words such as 'with' or 'without'), so they are followed by a noun, a pronoun or an -ing form, not by a full clause: 'Despite the rain, we went out.' 'In spite of being tired, I kept working.' 'Despite' is one word and has no 'of'; 'in spite of' is three words and always has 'of'. To follow them with a subject and a verb, add 'the fact that': 'Despite the fact that it was raining, we went out.'

`however / nevertheless` (Sentence Adverbials)

'However' and 'nevertheless' show a contrast, as 'but' does. Unlike 'but', they are adverbs, not joining words (conjunctions). They usually start the second sentence and have a comma after them: 'It was expensive. However, I bought it.' 'Nevertheless' is more formal and means 'in spite of this': 'She was tired. Nevertheless, she kept working.' The first sentence must end with a full stop or a semicolon (;), not a comma: 'It was late; however, we stayed.' 'However' can also come after the subject, between commas: 'Most people liked the plan. Anna, however, was against it.'

`whereas / while` - Contrast

Use 'whereas' or 'while' to compare two different facts side by side: 'She likes coffee, whereas I prefer tea.' 'While I love winter, my sister prefers summer.' Both are followed by a full clause (a subject and a verb), and a comma usually separates the two clauses. 'Whereas' is more formal and only shows contrast. 'While' is more common, but it can also mean 'during the time that' ('While I was cooking, the phone rang.'), so the context tells you which meaning it has. If one fact is surprising after the other, use 'although', not 'whereas': 'Although it was raining, we went out.'

`as soon as / until / by the time`

These connectors link two events in time. They start a time clause (the part of the sentence that says when something happens). 'As soon as' means 'immediately after': 'As soon as I get home, I'll call you.' 'Until' means 'up to the time when' something happens: 'I'll wait here until you come back.' 'By the time' means 'at or before the time when', so the other action is already finished at that moment: 'By the time we arrived, the film had started.' When the time clause talks about the future, use the present simple after these connectors, not 'will': say 'as soon as I arrive', not 'as soon as I will arrive'.

`as / because / since` - Cause

'Because', 'since', and 'as' all give a reason, and all three are followed by a full clause (a subject and a verb). 'Because' is the most common, and it puts the focus on the reason: 'I stayed at home because I was ill.' Of the three, only 'because' can answer the question 'Why?' on its own: 'Why were you late? — Because the bus didn't come.' 'Since' and 'as' often give a reason that the listener already knows, and they often start the sentence: 'Since you're here, let's start.' 'As it was raining, we took a taxi.' Before a noun on its own, use 'because of': 'because of the rain'. Do not add 'so' to the other clause: say 'As it was late, we went home.', not 'As it was late, so we went home.'

`so that / in order to / in order that` - Purpose

To say why someone does something (the purpose), use 'to' + the base form of the verb: 'I went to the shop to buy some milk.' 'In order to' and 'so as to' + base form mean the same but are more formal: 'I study every evening in order to pass the exam.' Use 'so that' + a full clause (subject + verb) when the purpose has a different subject, or when you want 'can' or 'will': 'I'll speak slowly so that you can understand.' After a past verb, you usually use 'could' or 'would': 'He whispered so that nobody would hear him.' 'In order that' + a clause means the same as 'so that', but it is very formal and rare. For a negative purpose, use 'so as not to', 'in order not to', or 'so that' + a negative clause: 'She left early so as not to miss the train.' Do not use 'for' + base form: say 'to buy', not 'for buy' or 'for to buy'.

`both ... and / neither ... nor / either ... or` (Correlative)

`both ... and / neither ... nor / either ... or`

Some connectors come in pairs and join two words or phrases of the same kind. 'Both ... and' means the first and the second: 'Both Anna and Tom came.' 'Either ... or' means one or the other: 'You can have either tea or coffee.' 'Neither ... nor' means not the first and not the second: 'Neither Anna nor Tom came.' 'Neither ... nor' is already negative, so do not add 'not': say 'I eat neither meat nor fish.' or 'I don't eat meat or fish.' Two subjects joined by 'both ... and' take a plural verb ('Both Anna and Tom are here.'). With 'either ... or' and 'neither ... nor', the verb agrees with the nearer subject: 'Either Peter or his parents are coming.'

Order of Multiple Adjectives

When two or more adjectives come before a noun, they usually follow a fixed order. Opinion adjectives (what you think, such as 'lovely' or 'beautiful') come first. Fact adjectives come after them, usually in this order: size, age, shape, colour, origin (where it comes from), material (what it is made of), and purpose (what it is used for). Then comes the noun: 'a lovely old hotel', 'a big black dog', 'a red Italian car', 'a black leather jacket'. You only use the types you need. Words like 'a', 'the', 'my', and 'this', and numbers, come before all the adjectives: 'my two small wooden tables'. In everyday English, people rarely use more than three adjectives before a noun.

Adverb Placement

An adverb tells you how, when, where, or how often something happens. English adverbs have three main positions. Adverbs of frequency ('always', 'usually', 'often', 'never') and words like 'probably' and 'also' normally go in the middle: before the main verb ('She often reads.'), but after 'be' ('He is always late.') and after the first auxiliary (helper) verb ('I have never been there.'). With a negative auxiliary such as 'won't', 'probably' goes before it: 'He probably won't come.' Adverbs of manner (how), place (where), and time (when) usually go at the end: 'She speaks English well.' If there are several, the usual order is manner, place, time: 'We worked hard at home yesterday.' At the front you can put time words and some others, such as 'sometimes' and 'usually': 'Yesterday we went to the beach.' 'Sometimes I walk to work.' An adverb does not normally go between a verb and its object: say 'I like coffee very much.', not 'I like very much coffee.'

Subject-Verb Agreement - Complex Cases

A singular subject takes a singular verb ('is', 'has', 'lives'), and a plural subject takes a plural verb ('are', 'have', 'live'). Some subjects are tricky. 'Everyone', 'somebody', 'nobody', and 'everything' are singular: 'Everyone is here.' In 'one of my friends' or 'the price of these shoes', the verb agrees with the main word at the start ('one', 'price'), not with the noun just before the verb: 'One of my friends lives in Paris.' After 'there', the verb agrees with the noun that follows: 'There is a book.' / 'There are three books.' Amount words are different: after 'a lot of', 'a number of', 'most of', and 'half of', the verb agrees with the noun after 'of' ('A lot of people are here.' 'A number of students are absent.' 'Most of the work is done.'). But 'the number of' takes a singular verb ('The number of students is growing.'). 'News' is singular ('The news is good.'), while 'people' and 'police' are plural ('People are friendly here.').

Question Words with Prepositions

Many verbs go with a preposition: 'talk to', 'look at', 'wait for', 'think about', 'come from'. In a question with 'who', 'what', 'which', or 'where', the preposition normally goes at the end: 'Who are you talking to?' 'What are you looking at?' 'Where are you from?' This is correct, normal English in speech and in most writing. In very formal English, the preposition can go at the front, followed by 'whom' for people or 'which': 'To whom did you send the letter?' Do not leave the preposition out: say 'What are you waiting for?', not 'What are you waiting?'

Commas with Subordinate Clauses

A subordinate clause is a part of a sentence that starts with a word such as 'when', 'if', 'because', 'although', 'before', 'after', 'while', 'until', or 'unless'. It cannot stand alone as a sentence. The main clause is the part that can stand alone. When the subordinate clause comes first, put a comma after it, before the main clause: 'When I got home, I made dinner.' 'If you need any help, please call me.' When the main clause comes first, you normally use no comma: 'I made dinner when I got home.' 'Please call me if you need any help.' Clauses of contrast with 'although', 'even though', or 'whereas' often take a comma in both positions: 'We went out, although it was raining.' Relative clauses have their own rule: extra information with 'who' or 'which' goes between commas ('My brother, who lives in Paris, is a doctor.'), but a clause that tells you which person or thing you mean has no commas ('The man who called is my uncle.').

`its` vs `it's` (possessive vs contraction)

'Its' and 'it's' sound the same, but they are different words. 'Its' (no apostrophe) is a possessive adjective, like 'his', 'her', and 'their'. It means 'belonging to it': 'The dog wagged its tail.' 'The company changed its name.' 'It's' (with an apostrophe) is the short form of 'it is' or 'it has'. The apostrophe shows that letters are missing. 'It's cold today.' means 'It is cold today.' 'It's been a long day.' means 'It has been a long day.' 'It's' stands for 'it has' only before a past participle such as 'been' or 'got'. When 'has' is the main verb, write it in full: 'It has a big garden.' The test: if you can say 'it is' or 'it has' instead, write 'it's'. If you can't, write 'its'.

Hyphenation of Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is two or more words that work together as one adjective. Before a noun, join the words with hyphens: 'a well-known actor', 'a part-time job', 'a ten-minute walk', 'a five-year-old girl'. In compounds with a number, the noun stays singular: 'a ten-minute walk', not 'a ten-minutes walk'. After the noun, for example after 'be', compounds with 'well' are usually written as two words ('The actor is well known.'), and an age has no hyphens ('She is five years old.'). Many other compounds, such as 'good-looking' and 'part-time', keep the hyphen in every position: 'He is very good-looking.' Never put a hyphen after 'very' or after an adverb that ends in -ly: 'a very good film', 'a highly paid job', 'a beautifully written book'.

British vs American Vocabulary - Introduction

British English and American English use different words for some everyday things, and both are correct. In these pairs, the British word comes first: 'flat' / 'apartment', 'lift' / 'elevator', 'holiday' / 'vacation', 'film' / 'movie', 'biscuit' / 'cookie', 'petrol' / 'gas', 'chemist's' / 'pharmacy', 'car park' / 'parking lot', 'queue' / 'line', 'mobile' / 'cell phone'. Some words exist in both varieties but mean different things. In British English, 'chips' are long pieces of fried potato; in American English, 'chips' are thin, crispy potato slices from a bag, which British English calls 'crisps'. 'Pants' are trousers in American English but underwear in British English. Floors are counted differently too: the street level is the 'ground floor' in British English but the 'first floor' in American English, so the British 'first floor' is the American 'second floor'. Most speakers understand both words in a pair, but it is best to use one variety in the same text.

Common English Collocations

A collocation is a group of words that English speakers naturally use together, such as 'make a mistake' or 'take a photo'. Often another verb would make sense, but English speakers don't use it, so it sounds wrong: we say 'make a mistake', not 'do a mistake'. Many learners mix up 'make' and 'do'. As a general guide, 'make' is for creating or producing something ('make a cake', 'make a plan'), and 'do' is for tasks, work, and activities ('do your homework', 'do the shopping', 'do some exercise'). Many phrases just have to be learnt, for example 'make a decision' and 'make a phone call'. Other common verbs have their own partners: 'take a break', 'take a photo', 'have breakfast', 'pay attention', 'give advice', 'tell a lie', 'catch a cold'. Learn these as whole phrases, not as single words.

Word Formation: Common Suffixes

A suffix is an ending that you add to a word to make a new word. It often changes the word class, for example from a verb to a noun or from a noun to an adjective. (The four main word classes are noun, verb, adjective, and adverb.) Nouns: '-tion' or '-ation' ('educate' → 'education', 'inform' → 'information'), '-ment' ('develop' → 'development'), '-ness' ('kind' → 'kindness'), '-ity' ('active' → 'activity'). People: '-er', '-or', '-ist' ('teach' → 'teacher', 'act' → 'actor', 'art' → 'artist'). Adjectives: '-ful' (with: 'useful'), '-less' (without: 'useless'), '-ous' ('danger' → 'dangerous'), '-able' ('enjoy' → 'enjoyable'). Adverbs: '-ly' ('quick' → 'quickly'). The spelling sometimes changes: 'happy' → 'happiness', 'fame' → 'famous'. Use the word class that the sentence needs: 'This road is dangerous.', not 'This road is danger.' Suffixes also help you guess the meaning of new words: 'homeless' means 'without a home'.

Compound Nouns

A compound noun is two or more words used together as one noun, such as 'bus stop' or 'toothbrush'. Usually the last word is the main noun, and the word before it tells you what kind: a 'bus stop' is a stop for buses, and a 'shoe shop' is a shop that sells shoes. The first word is usually singular: 'a shoe shop', not 'a shoes shop'. Compound nouns are written in three ways, and you have to learn each one: as two words ('bus stop', 'living room'), with hyphens ('mother-in-law', 'check-in'), or as one word ('toothbrush', 'football'). To make the plural, add -s to the main noun: 'bus stops', 'toothbrushes'. In 'mother-in-law', the main noun comes first, so the plural is 'mothers-in-law'. In speech, the stress is usually on the first word: in 'bus stop', you stress 'bus'.