B1 English Grammar — 65 Topics & Common Mistakes

Present Perfect vs Past Simple

Use PAST SIMPLE for finished actions at a specific finished time (yesterday, last week, in 2015, when I was young): 'I WENT to Rome in 2015.' Use PRESENT PERFECT for actions connected to NOW — experiences in life (without a specific time), recent actions with present result, and unfinished time periods (today, this week, this year): 'I HAVE BEEN to Rome.' (= at some point in my life). 'I HAVE LOST my keys.' (= they are lost now). 'I HAVE SEEN her today.' (today is not finished).

Present Perfect Continuous (have/has been + -ing)

Present Perfect Continuous = have/has been + -ing. We use it to talk about actions that STARTED in the past and are STILL HAPPENING now, or that recently stopped and have visible results. 'I HAVE BEEN STUDYING English for 5 years.' (still studying) 'It HAS BEEN RAINING all morning.' (recent, maybe still raining) 'She's tired because she HAS BEEN WORKING all day.' (recent activity, visible result). Often with 'for', 'since', 'all day', 'recently', 'lately'.

Present Perfect Simple vs Continuous

Both connect past to now, but emphasise different things. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE focuses on RESULT or how many (completed): 'I have read 3 books this month.' (count, result). PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS focuses on the ACTIVITY and how long (ongoing): 'I have been reading this book for 2 hours.' (process). With 'for/since': both possible, but continuous emphasises the activity. With stative verbs (know, like): always simple, never continuous. With 'how many' or completed amounts: always simple.

Past Perfect (had + past participle)

Past Perfect = had + past participle (had eaten, had gone, had seen). We use it to talk about an action that happened BEFORE another past action — showing which event came first. 'When I arrived, she HAD ALREADY LEFT.' (She left before I arrived.) 'He told me he HAD SEEN the film.' (Seeing was before telling.) Often with 'already', 'just', 'never', 'by the time', 'before', 'after'. Same form for all persons: I had, she had, they had ('d had).

Past Perfect Continuous (had been + -ing)

Past Perfect Continuous = had been + -ing. We use it to describe an activity that was HAPPENING OVER TIME before another past action, usually with DURATION ('for 2 hours', 'since morning') or VISIBLE RESULT in the past. 'He was tired because he HAD BEEN RUNNING.' (activity before being tired). 'By the time she arrived, I HAD BEEN WAITING for 2 hours.' (duration up to a past point). Don't use with stative verbs (know, like, own).

Future Continuous (will be + -ing)

Future Continuous = will be + -ing. We use it to describe an action that WILL BE HAPPENING at a specific time in the future: 'This time tomorrow, I WILL BE FLYING to Paris.' 'At 8 p.m. tonight, we WILL BE WATCHING the match.' Also for actions that will be in progress as a result of a planned schedule ('I'll be seeing her next week' = scheduled). Contracts: 'll be + -ing ('I'll be working'). Negative: won't be + -ing. Don't use with stative verbs.

Future Perfect (will have + past participle)

Future Perfect = will have + past participle. We use it to say that an action WILL BE COMPLETED by a certain time in the future. 'By next year, I WILL HAVE FINISHED my studies.' 'By 8 p.m., we WILL HAVE EATEN dinner.' 'In 10 years, technology WILL HAVE CHANGED a lot.' Always used with a future deadline: 'by + time' or 'in + time period'. Negative: will not / won't have + pp.

Future in the Past (was going to / would)

'Future in the past' describes something that was FUTURE from a past point of view. We use WAS/WERE GOING TO + base form for past intentions or predictions: 'I was going to call you yesterday, but I forgot.' WOULD + base form for past predictions in reported speech or narrative: 'He said he would help.' 'I knew it would rain.' Often expresses unfulfilled plans: 'She was going to become a doctor, but she changed her mind.'

`going to` vs `will` - Nuance

'GOING TO' and 'WILL' can both talk about the future, but they have different uses. GOING TO: (1) INTENTIONS (plans you decided before speaking): 'I'm going to study tonight.' (2) EVIDENCE-BASED PREDICTIONS (you can see something): 'Look at those clouds — it's going to rain!' WILL: (1) SPONTANEOUS DECISIONS (decided AT the moment of speaking): 'The phone is ringing — I'll answer it!' (2) PREDICTIONS BASED ON BELIEF (no evidence, just opinion): 'I think she will love the gift.' (3) PROMISES, OFFERS, THREATS: 'I will help you. / I'll do it!'

Narrative Tenses - Introduction

To tell a story in English, we combine three past tenses: PAST SIMPLE for the main events (what happened): 'I walked into the room.' PAST CONTINUOUS for background or ongoing activity: 'It was raining.' PAST PERFECT for things that happened BEFORE the main events: 'I had forgotten my umbrella.' Together: 'It was raining when I walked into the room. I had forgotten my umbrella.' Master this combination to tell clear, natural stories.

Stative vs Dynamic Verbs - Advanced

STATIVE verbs describe STATES (not actions): know, believe, like, love, hate, own, belong, want, need, mean, seem, understand, see, hear. They are normally NOT used in continuous forms: 'I know' (not 'I am knowing'). BUT some stative verbs can be used in continuous with a CHANGED MEANING: HAVE (possession = stative) vs HAVE (experience = dynamic, 'I'm having lunch'). THINK (opinion = stative) vs THINK (process = dynamic, 'I'm thinking about it'). SEE (perceive = stative) vs SEE (meet = dynamic, 'I'm seeing him tonight').

`could` vs `was/were able to`

At A2 you learned 'could' for past ability. At B1, a key refinement: use COULD for GENERAL past ability (a skill you had over a long period): 'I COULD swim when I was five.' But for a SPECIFIC past achievement (you succeeded one time), use WAS/WERE ABLE TO or MANAGED TO: 'Yesterday I WAS ABLE TO finish the report.' NOT 'Yesterday I could finish the report.' Negative 'couldn't' works for both general and specific: 'I couldn't find my keys' (either general or specific — OK).

`had to` - Past Obligation

The past form of 'must' and 'have to' is HAD TO (same for all persons). 'I HAD TO work late yesterday.' 'She HAD TO call the doctor.' 'Must' has NO past form — always use 'had to' for past obligation. Questions: 'DID you HAVE TO work?' Negative: 'I DIDN'T HAVE TO work' (= it wasn't necessary — NOT 'I was prohibited').

`must` vs `have to` - Internal vs External

Both 'must' and 'have to' express obligation, but with different nuance. MUST = internal obligation (from you, your feelings): 'I MUST call my mother — I want to!' HAVE TO = external obligation (from rules, others): 'I HAVE TO wear a uniform at work.' In modern everyday English, 'have to' is more common for both. 'Must' sounds stronger and more personal. IMPORTANT: the NEGATIVES have DIFFERENT meanings: MUSTN'T = forbidden; DON'T HAVE TO = not necessary (optional).

`need to / needn't` - Necessity and Absence of Necessity

'NEED TO' = it is necessary (similar to 'have to'): 'I NEED TO buy some milk.' 'Need to' inflects like a normal verb: I need to, she needs to, I needed to. NEEDN'T (= need not) = it isn't necessary (similar to 'don't have to'): 'You NEEDN'T come if you're busy.' 'Need to' and 'needn't' are largely interchangeable with 'have to' and 'don't have to', but 'needn't' sounds slightly more formal. Don't confuse 'needn't' with 'mustn't' — they mean different things.

Phrasal Verbs - Separable vs Inseparable

Transitive phrasal verbs are either SEPARABLE or INSEPARABLE. SEPARABLE: the object can go BETWEEN verb and particle, OR after the particle: 'turn on the light' = 'turn the light on'. BUT a PRONOUN object MUST go BETWEEN: 'turn IT on' (NOT 'turn on it'). INSEPARABLE: the object always goes AFTER the particle, even with pronouns: 'look after the child' = 'look after HIM' (NOT 'look him after'). Common inseparable: look after, look for, wait for, get on (bus), get off, come across.

Causative `have / get` something done

To say someone ELSE does something for us (we don't do it ourselves), we use: HAVE / GET + OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE. 'I HAD my hair CUT.' (A hairdresser cut my hair for me.) 'She GOT her car REPAIRED.' (A mechanic repaired it.) 'We're HAVING the house PAINTED.' Pattern: have/get + thing + past participle (done, cut, repaired, painted, cleaned). 'Get' is more informal; 'have' is more standard.

`used to` vs `would` vs `be/get used to`

Three structures that look similar but mean different things. USED TO + base form = past habit or state (no longer true): 'I USED TO smoke.' (I don't now). 'She USED TO live in Paris.' WOULD + base form = past repeated action (habits only, NOT states): 'Every summer, we WOULD visit grandma.' BE USED TO + -ing/noun = familiar with, accustomed to: 'I AM USED TO getting up early.' (It's normal for me.) GET USED TO + -ing = becoming accustomed: 'I'm GETTING USED TO the weather.'

`get`-Passive - Introduction

In informal English, we often use GET + past participle instead of BE + past participle for the passive: 'I GOT INVITED to the party.' (= I was invited.) 'The window GOT BROKEN.' 'Get'-passive is common in spoken English, often for unexpected events, changes, or problems. It sounds more informal and often emphasises the event happening to someone. Not used in very formal writing.

Verb + Gerund or Infinitive - Introduction

Some verbs are followed by GERUND (-ing): 'I enjoy READING.' 'She suggested GOING OUT.' Other verbs are followed by INFINITIVE (to + base): 'I want TO READ.' 'He decided TO GO.' You need to memorise which pattern each verb uses. Common GERUND verbs: enjoy, avoid, finish, mind, suggest, keep, practise, imagine. Common INFINITIVE verbs: want, decide, hope, plan, offer, agree, promise, learn, choose. Some verbs take both — with different meanings (next tag).

Verb Patterns: Gerund-only vs Infinitive-only Verbs

Some verbs take ONLY gerund (-ing), never infinitive. Others take ONLY infinitive, never gerund. Memorise them in groups! GERUND-ONLY: enjoy, avoid, mind, suggest, admit, deny, finish, practise, imagine, miss, consider, deny, postpone, risk, involve. INFINITIVE-ONLY: decide, hope, offer, refuse, promise, agree, manage, afford, fail, pretend, seem, tend, choose, expect, learn, plan, want, wish. Common error: using the wrong one. Memory trick: groups based on meaning help.

Zero Conditional - Full

Zero Conditional expresses GENERAL TRUTHS, scientific facts, and things that are ALWAYS true. STRUCTURE: IF + present simple, + present simple. 'If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.' 'If you don't water plants, they die.' 'If it rains, the streets get wet.' 'When' often replaces 'if' here: 'When you heat ice, it melts.' Also used for habits: 'If I drink coffee at night, I can't sleep.'

First Conditional - Full

First Conditional describes REAL, POSSIBLE future situations. STRUCTURE: IF + present simple, + WILL + base form. 'If it rains tomorrow, I'll stay home.' 'If you study hard, you'll pass the exam.' The condition is realistic — it really might happen. You can use 'will', or other modals/imperatives in the main clause: 'If you finish early, you CAN help me.' / 'If you see Tom, TELL him to call me.' Never use 'will' in the 'if' clause.

Second Conditional - Full

Second Conditional describes HYPOTHETICAL, IMAGINARY, or UNLIKELY present/future situations. STRUCTURE: IF + PAST SIMPLE, + WOULD + BASE FORM. 'If I WON the lottery, I WOULD travel the world.' (I probably won't.) 'If she KNEW the answer, she WOULD tell us.' (She doesn't know.) With 'be', traditional English uses 'were' for all persons: 'If I WERE you, I would apologise.' (Fixed phrase.) Don't confuse with first conditional (real future).

`wish / if only` + Past Simple - Present Regret/Desire

'I WISH' and 'IF ONLY' express REGRETS or DESIRES about the present. STRUCTURE: WISH / IF ONLY + PAST SIMPLE (for present regret about a state): 'I wish I KNEW the answer.' (I don't know it — I'd like to.) 'I wish I HAD more time.' (I don't have time.) 'If only I WERE younger.' (I'm not young.) With 'be', 'were' is standard for all persons in formal English. Never use 'will' — these express UNREAL present situations.

`unless` - Introduction

'UNLESS' means 'IF ... NOT' — it introduces a negative condition. 'I'll go TO THE PARK unless it rains.' = 'I'll go to the park IF it DOESN'T rain.' 'UNLESS you hurry, you'll be late.' = 'IF you DON'T hurry, you'll be late.' Use 'unless' with the same tense rules as 'if' (present simple for zero/first conditional; past simple for second). Don't use 'not' after 'unless' — that would be double negative.

Passive - Present Simple and Continuous

The PASSIVE VOICE focuses on the action or the thing it happens to, not the person doing it. PRESENT SIMPLE PASSIVE: am/is/are + past participle. 'English IS SPOKEN in many countries.' 'These cars ARE MADE in Germany.' PRESENT CONTINUOUS PASSIVE: am/is/are + BEING + past participle. 'The house IS BEING PAINTED now.' 'These questions ARE BEING DISCUSSED.' Use the passive when the doer is unknown, obvious, or unimportant. Add 'by + agent' only if needed.

Passive - Past Simple and Continuous

PAST SIMPLE PASSIVE: was/were + past participle. 'The cake WAS EATEN.' 'These houses WERE BUILT in 1920.' PAST CONTINUOUS PASSIVE: was/were + BEING + past participle. 'The car WAS BEING REPAIRED when I arrived.' Used to describe past actions where the focus is on the receiver or the action, not the doer. 'By' + agent only if important: 'The letter was written by my grandmother.'

Passive with Modals

We can use modals with the passive: MODAL + BE + past participle. 'The work MUST BE DONE today.' 'This problem CAN BE SOLVED.' 'The report SHOULD BE CHECKED.' 'The car COULD BE REPAIRED.' 'The letter WILL BE SENT tomorrow.' 'The document HAS TO BE SIGNED.' The modal stays the same; just add 'be + past participle'.

Passive - Present Perfect

PRESENT PERFECT PASSIVE: have/has + BEEN + past participle. 'The letter HAS BEEN SENT.' 'The windows HAVE BEEN CLEANED.' 'I HAVE BEEN INVITED to the party.' Use it for actions that happened at some point in the past and are relevant now (same meaning as present perfect active, but in passive voice). Common in news and formal writing: 'A new law has been passed.' 'The criminal has been arrested.'

Defining Relative Clauses (who, which, that)

DEFINING relative clauses give ESSENTIAL information about a noun — information we need to know WHICH person or thing we mean. Use WHO for people, WHICH for things/animals, and THAT for both. NO COMMAS. 'The man WHO called is my uncle.' (which man? the one who called) 'The book WHICH I bought is red.' 'The car THAT Tom sold was broken.' Without the clause, the sentence would be unclear.

Non-defining Relative Clauses - Introduction

NON-DEFINING relative clauses give EXTRA information about a noun — info we could leave out and still understand the sentence. They ALWAYS use COMMAS. 'My brother, WHO lives in Paris, is a doctor.' (I only have one brother — his location is extra info). Use WHO for people and WHICH for things. IMPORTANT: you CANNOT use 'THAT' in non-defining clauses. Also, you cannot omit the relative pronoun.

Relative `whose`

'WHOSE' is the possessive relative pronoun. It shows that something BELONGS to the noun. 'The man WHOSE CAR was stolen called the police.' (The car belongs to the man.) 'I know a woman WHOSE DOG is very clever.' (The dog belongs to the woman.) Used for both people and (sometimes) things. No commas for defining, commas for non-defining: 'My friend, WHOSE BROTHER is famous, visited me.'

Relative `where / when / why`

Instead of using 'which + preposition' for places, times, and reasons, we can use WHERE, WHEN, WHY. WHERE = in/at which (places): 'The hotel WHERE we stayed was nice.' WHEN = in/on/at which (times): 'I remember the day WHEN we met.' WHY = for which (reasons, usually after 'the reason'): 'The reason WHY I called is to say hi.' 'Where' and 'when' don't need a preposition before them — the preposition is already included in the meaning.

Omitting the Relative Pronoun (object)

In DEFINING relative clauses, when the relative pronoun is the OBJECT of the clause (not the subject), we can OMIT it. 'The book (that) I read was interesting.' = 'The book I read was interesting.' 'The man (who) I met yesterday called me.' = 'The man I met yesterday called me.' But when the pronoun is the SUBJECT, we CAN'T omit it: 'The man WHO CALLED me is my uncle.' (We can't say 'The man called me is my uncle.') Rule: omit only in DEFINING clauses, and only when it's the OBJECT.

Reported Speech - Tense Backshift

When we REPORT what someone said (with 'said', 'told'), we usually shift the tense ONE STEP BACK into the past. Direct: 'I AM tired.' Reported: She said she WAS tired. Present simple → past simple. Present continuous → past continuous. Present perfect → past perfect. Past simple → past perfect. Will → would. Can → could. May → might. Must → had to. Also change pronouns (I → she/he, we → they) and time words (today → that day, tomorrow → the next day).

Reported Questions

To report a question, use the reporting verb (asked, wondered) + STATEMENT ORDER (not question order). YES/NO QUESTIONS: use 'IF' or 'WHETHER': Direct: 'Are you ready?' → Reported: He asked IF I WAS ready. WH-QUESTIONS: use the wh-word + statement order: Direct: 'Where do you live?' → Reported: She asked WHERE I LIVED. No 'do/does/did', no question mark, and apply tense backshift just like reported statements.

Reported Commands and Requests

To report commands and requests, use a reporting verb + OBJECT + TO-INFINITIVE. COMMANDS: 'She TOLD ME TO SIT DOWN.' (Direct: 'Sit down!') REQUESTS: 'He ASKED ME TO HELP.' (Direct: 'Please help me.') Common verbs: tell, ask, order, advise, warn, beg, remind, invite, encourage + OBJECT + TO + BASE FORM. Negative: add 'NOT' before 'to': 'She told me NOT TO BE late.'

`say` vs `tell`

SAY and TELL are both reporting verbs but used differently. SAY does NOT need an object (no 'who'). You can say 'to + person' if you want: 'She SAID it was late.' 'She SAID TO ME it was late.' TELL ALWAYS needs an object (who): 'She TOLD ME it was late.' Memory rule: SAY something, TELL someone something. Common errors: 'She told it was late' (needs object) → 'She told me...'; 'She said me it was late' (no object) → 'She said it was late' or 'She said to me...'.

Reporting Verbs with `that`-Clause

Many reporting verbs take a THAT-CLAUSE. Besides 'say' and 'tell', we can use: think, believe, know, hope, feel, realise, admit, explain, claim, suggest, expect. 'I THINK (that) she is right.' 'He BELIEVES (that) it's true.' 'She EXPLAINED that she was busy.' 'That' is optional in informal English — you can drop it. Also used for opinions and knowledge: 'I know (that) you're here.'

Common Verb + Preposition Combinations

Many English verbs require a specific preposition before their object. These are FIXED combinations you must memorise. LISTEN TO music. LOOK AT a picture. WAIT FOR a bus. DEPEND ON the weather. AGREE WITH someone. TALK ABOUT something. THINK ABOUT / OF someone. BELONG TO a family. APOLOGISE FOR an error. ASK FOR help. BELIEVE IN God. Every verb has its own preposition — wrong prepositions cause common mistakes.

Adjective + Preposition

Many adjectives are followed by a specific preposition. GOOD AT something. INTERESTED IN something. AFRAID OF something. PROUD OF someone. WORRIED ABOUT something. ANGRY WITH someone. Each adjective has its 'partner' preposition. Memorise them as pairs. Common: afraid of, interested in, good at, proud of, worried about, tired of, bored with, aware of, fond of, responsible for, similar to, famous for.

Noun + Preposition

Many nouns are followed by a specific preposition. REASON FOR, DIFFERENCE BETWEEN, SOLUTION TO, PROBLEM WITH, ANSWER TO, CAUSE OF, INCREASE IN, NEED FOR. 'The reason FOR my lateness was the traffic.' 'What's the difference BETWEEN these two?' 'There's no solution TO this problem.' Every noun has its 'partner' preposition — you must memorise the combinations.

Phrasal Prepositions

Phrasal (complex) prepositions are groups of TWO OR THREE WORDS that work as one preposition. IN FRONT OF, INSTEAD OF, IN SPITE OF / DESPITE, OUT OF, BECAUSE OF, ON TOP OF, IN ADDITION TO, ACCORDING TO, AWAY FROM, NEXT TO, UP TO, DUE TO. 'IN SPITE OF the rain, we went out.' 'IN ADDITION TO English, I speak French.' Always keep all words together as one unit. Don't break them up.

Time: `by / until / within / throughout`

Four time prepositions that are often confused. BY a time = at or before (deadline): 'Finish this BY Friday.' (= at or before Friday). UNTIL = up to a point in time (continuous action): 'I'll wait UNTIL 5.' (= continuously until 5). WITHIN = inside a period: 'Reply WITHIN 3 days.' THROUGHOUT = during the whole period: 'It rained THROUGHOUT the night.' 'By' vs 'Until' is the key distinction: BY = deadline (one moment), UNTIL = continuous duration up to a moment.

Dependent Prepositions with Meaning Shift

Some verbs have DIFFERENT meanings depending on the preposition that follows. AGREE WITH someone = share their opinion. AGREE ON something = decide together. AGREE TO something = accept an offer. Other examples: THINK OF (opinion) vs THINK ABOUT (consider). CARE ABOUT (feel for) vs CARE FOR (look after). SHOUT AT (angry) vs SHOUT TO (loud voice, distance). Small preposition = big meaning change!

`although / though / even though` (Concession)

ALTHOUGH, THOUGH, and EVEN THOUGH introduce clauses with UNEXPECTED contrast — the main clause happens despite the subordinate one. 'ALTHOUGH it was raining, we went out.' 'EVEN THOUGH I was tired, I kept working.' (emphatic). All three are interchangeable in most contexts, but EVEN THOUGH is stronger. They need a full CLAUSE (subject + verb) after them — not just a noun. Don't confuse with DESPITE / IN SPITE OF (+ noun).

`despite / in spite of` + Noun / -ing

DESPITE and IN SPITE OF have the SAME meaning ('although' / 'not caring about'), but they take a NOUN or -ING form, not a full clause. 'DESPITE the rain, we went out.' 'IN SPITE OF the rain, we went out.' 'IN SPITE OF being tired, I kept working.' 'DESPITE what you think, I'm happy.' 'Despite' is ONE WORD; 'in spite of' is THREE words. NEVER say 'despite OF' (common mistake).

`however / nevertheless` (Sentence Adverbials)

HOWEVER and NEVERTHELESS are SENTENCE ADVERBS showing contrast between two sentences. They come at the START (or sometimes middle) of the SECOND sentence, followed by a COMMA. 'It was expensive. HOWEVER, I bought it.' 'She was tired. NEVERTHELESS, she kept working.' NEVERTHELESS is stronger and more formal. Use a semicolon or full stop before them: not a comma alone (that's a run-on).

`whereas / while` - Contrast

WHEREAS and WHILE connect TWO CLAUSES that show a DIRECT CONTRAST (not unexpected, just different). 'She likes coffee, WHEREAS I prefer tea.' 'WHILE I love winter, my sister loves summer.' Both need a full clause (subject + verb). 'Whereas' is more formal. 'While' also means 'during the time that' — context tells us which meaning. Usually use a comma between the two clauses.

`as soon as / until / by the time`

Time connectors for combining events. AS SOON AS = immediately when: 'AS SOON AS I arrive, I'll call you.' UNTIL = up to the time when: 'I'll wait UNTIL you come.' BY THE TIME = before a certain moment: 'BY THE TIME we arrived, the film had started.' IMPORTANT: after these connectors, use PRESENT simple for future events (not 'will'): 'AS SOON AS I finish...' NOT 'As soon as I will finish...'.

`as / because / since` - Cause

Three connectors for CAUSE/REASON, all followed by a CLAUSE. BECAUSE is the most common and direct: 'I stayed home BECAUSE I was tired.' SINCE and AS are similar but often emphasise that the cause is already known: 'SINCE you're here, let's talk.' 'AS it was raining, we stayed inside.' Be careful: 'since' also means 'from a starting point in time' (different meaning). Context decides.

`so that / in order to / in order that` - Purpose

For PURPOSE (why someone does something), we use: IN ORDER TO + base form: 'I study IN ORDER TO pass the exam.' SO THAT + clause (often with can/will): 'I study SO THAT I CAN pass the exam.' IN ORDER THAT + clause (formal): 'We save money IN ORDER THAT we can retire early.' Also simple TO + base form: 'I study TO pass.' 'In order to' = 'to' but more formal.

`both ... and / neither ... nor / either ... or` (Correlative)

`both ... and / neither ... nor / either ... or`

Correlative conjunctions connect TWO items together. BOTH ... AND = both things are true: 'BOTH Anna AND Tom came.' EITHER ... OR = one or the other: 'Choose EITHER tea OR coffee.' NEITHER ... NOR = not one, not the other: 'NEITHER Anna NOR Tom came.' After 'neither...nor' and 'either...or', the verb usually agrees with the CLOSER subject.

Order of Multiple Adjectives

When you use MULTIPLE adjectives before a noun, they follow a specific ORDER: OPINION - SIZE - AGE - SHAPE - COLOUR - ORIGIN - MATERIAL - PURPOSE - NOUN. Example: 'a BEAUTIFUL OLD RED ITALIAN LEATHER bag' (opinion + age + colour + origin + material + noun). Not all slots are filled — use what you need. Native speakers don't memorise the list but follow it intuitively.

Adverb Placement

English adverbs go in different positions depending on the TYPE. FRONT position: at start — 'YESTERDAY, I went to the cinema.' MID-position: before the main verb (but after 'be' and auxiliaries) — 'She OFTEN reads books.' / 'He is ALWAYS late.' END position: after the verb/object — 'She speaks English WELL.' / 'We live IN LONDON.' Order at END: MANNER → PLACE → TIME. 'She worked HARD AT HOME YESTERDAY.'

Subject-Verb Agreement - Complex Cases

Some subject-verb agreement cases are tricky. COLLECTIVE NOUNS (team, family, government): singular or plural depending on meaning. 'The team IS/ARE winning.' EITHER/NEITHER OF + PLURAL: usually singular ('Neither of them IS here' — formal) but plural common in speech. EVERYONE/EVERYBODY/SOMEONE: always SINGULAR. THERE IS/ARE: match the following noun ('There is a book / There are books'). A NUMBER OF + PLURAL = plural verb. THE NUMBER OF + PLURAL = singular verb.

Question Words with Prepositions

When asking about something that needs a preposition, the preposition usually goes at the END of the question in everyday English. 'Who are you talking TO?' 'What is it made OF?' 'Where are you FROM?' More FORMAL: 'To whom are you talking?' 'Of what is it made?' 'From where are you?' Informal / spoken: end position. Formal / written: front position with 'whom' for people.

Commas with Subordinate Clauses

Use a COMMA when the subordinate clause comes FIRST in a sentence. 'When I arrived, she was sleeping.' 'If it rains, we'll stay home.' 'Although I was tired, I kept working.' When the main clause comes FIRST, usually NO comma. 'She was sleeping when I arrived.' 'We'll stay home if it rains.' This applies to if/when/because/although/while/since/as clauses.

`its` vs `it's` (possessive vs contraction)

ITS (no apostrophe) = POSSESSIVE pronoun, meaning 'of it'. 'The dog wagged ITS tail.' (the tail of the dog). IT'S (with apostrophe) = CONTRACTION of 'it is' or 'it has'. 'IT'S cold today.' (= It is cold). 'IT'S been a long day.' (= It has been). TEST: if you can replace with 'it is' or 'it has', use IT'S. If it means 'of it' (possession), use ITS.

Hyphenation of Compound Adjectives

When two or more words act TOGETHER as one adjective BEFORE a noun, use a HYPHEN: 'a WELL-KNOWN actor', 'a 20-YEAR-OLD student', 'a FIVE-STAR hotel'. AFTER a noun (no hyphen usually): 'The actor is well known.' With numbers and ages: 'a 5-year-old child' (hyphens) but 'The child is 5 years old' (no hyphens).

British vs American Vocabulary - Introduction

British (BrE) and American (AmE) English use DIFFERENT WORDS for many everyday things. Common pairs: LIFT (BrE) / ELEVATOR (AmE), FLAT / APARTMENT, BISCUIT / COOKIE, LORRY / TRUCK, PETROL / GAS, CHEMIST / DRUGSTORE, HOLIDAY / VACATION, FILM / MOVIE, CINEMA / MOVIE THEATER, TROUSERS / PANTS, CRISPS / CHIPS, CHIPS / FRIES. Choose one variety and stick with it.

Common English Collocations

Collocations are words that NATURALLY go together. English has many fixed combinations you must learn as units. MAKE a decision (not 'do a decision'). TAKE a break. DO homework. PAY attention. CATCH a cold. HAVE a shower. GIVE a speech. Wrong collocations sound unnatural, even if grammatically correct. Learn them together, not as separate words.

Word Formation: Common Suffixes

Suffixes are endings that CHANGE a word's meaning or word class. Common suffixes: -TION (noun from verb: educate → education), -MENT (noun: develop → development), -NESS (noun from adj: happy → happiness), -ER (person: teach → teacher), -OUS (adj: danger → dangerous), -ABLE (adj: enjoy → enjoyable), -FUL (adj: use → useful), -LESS (adj: use → useless). Learning suffixes helps you guess unknown words.

Compound Nouns

Compound nouns are formed from two+ words that together name ONE thing. Three spelling patterns: (1) OPEN (two words): 'bus stop', 'swimming pool', 'living room'. (2) HYPHENATED (with hyphen): 'mother-in-law', 'full-time', 'check-in'. (3) SOLID / CLOSED (one word): 'toothbrush', 'notebook', 'football', 'bedroom'. STRESS usually falls on the FIRST word: 'BUSstop', 'FOOTball'. Learn compound nouns as whole units.