C1 English Grammar — 33 Topics & Common Mistakes

Examples

• If I were you, I would accept the offer.
  If I would be you, I would accept the offer.

  This is advice about an unreal situation (I am not you), so the if-clause uses 'were' for every subject. 'would' belongs in the main clause, not in this if-clause. In everyday English, 'If I was you' is also correct.

• It is essential that every member be present at the meeting.
  It is essential that every member to be present at the meeting.

  After 'It is essential that', a full clause follows: subject + base form, so 'every member be'. To use 'to be' with a subject such as 'every member', put 'for' before it: 'It is essential for every member to be present.'

• The judge ordered that the defendant not leave the country.
  The judge ordered that the defendant don't leave the country.

  The negative subjunctive is 'not' + base form, without 'do': 'that the defendant not leave'. 'the defendant don't' is never standard English. British English also says 'that the defendant should not leave'.

Examples

• I suggest that he leave immediately.
  I suggest him to leave immediately.

  'suggest' cannot take an object + to-infinitive. Use 'suggest (that)' + subject + base form: 'that he leave'. British English also says 'that he should leave' or 'that he leaves'.

• The doctor recommended that she take the medicine daily.
  The doctor recommended that she would take the medicine daily.

  After 'recommend that', use the base form 'take' for every subject, even after a main verb in the past. 'would' is not used in this kind of clause; the British alternative is 'that she should take'.

• It is essential that every employee attend the training.

  'attend' without -s is the subjunctive. British English also says 'that every employee should attend' or, less formally, 'that every employee attends'. All three are correct; the subjunctive is the most formal.

Examples

• The tenant shall pay the rent on the first day of each month.

  In a contract, 'shall' + base form states what one party must do. Modern contracts often use 'must' instead, but 'shall' is the traditional legal choice. 'Shall not' states a ban: 'The tenant shall not keep pets.'

• The President is to address the nation tomorrow evening.
  The President to address the nation tomorrow evening.

  'is to address' presents an official arrangement, as news reports often do. A full sentence needs 'be'; only headlines leave it out: 'President to address nation'.

• You are to report to the manager's office immediately.

  Here 'be to' is an order from someone in authority. It is formal and close in meaning to 'You must …'. The negative forbids something: 'You are not to leave the building.'

Examples

• Don't phone her now. She'll be having dinner.
  Don't phone her now. She'll have dinner. (intended: she is probably eating right now)

  'will be' + -ing form is a confident guess about an activity in progress now. 'She'll have dinner' refers to the future (she will eat later), so it does not explain why you should not phone now.

• By now, they will have finished the meeting.
  By now, they will finish the meeting.

  'by now' points to the present. For something that you assume is already finished, use 'will have' + past participle. 'will finish' refers to the future and does not fit 'by now'.

• He left at six this morning, so he'll have been travelling for twelve hours by now.
  He left at six this morning, so he'll be travelling for twelve hours by now.

  For an activity that you assume started earlier and is still going on, use 'will have been' + -ing form with 'for' + a period of time. 'will be travelling' cannot measure time up to 'now'.

Examples

• I'm really loving this new coffee shop.

  Continuous 'love' describes enthusiasm about something you are experiencing now, often something new. It is informal and typical of speech. 'I really love this coffee shop.' is also correct and states a general, lasting feeling.

• You're being very patient with me today.

  'be' in the continuous + an adjective describes how someone is behaving at the moment, often unusually. 'You're very patient.' would describe your character in general.

• I'm thinking of taking a gap year.
  I think of taking a gap year. (intended: I am considering it)

  'think' in the continuous means 'consider', for a decision that you are working on now. 'I think of taking a gap year' would mean that the idea comes into your head from time to time. For an opinion, 'think' stays simple: 'I think it's a good idea.'

Examples

• Boys will be boys.

  This proverb uses 'will' for typical behaviour that you should expect: boys typically behave in a noisy or naughty way. 'Accidents will happen.' works the same way. Neither sentence is about the future.

• She'll sit at that window for hours, just watching the street.

  Here 'will' does not refer to the future: it describes what she typically does. It is usually contracted and unstressed. 'She sits at that window for hours.' states the same fact more neutrally.

• My grandfather used to have a beard, and he would always carry sweets in his pocket.
  My grandfather would have a beard, and he would always carry sweets in his pocket.

  'have a beard' is a state, so it needs 'used to' (or the past simple 'had'). 'carry sweets' is an action that he repeated, so 'would' is possible.

Examples

• The doorbell's ringing. That would be the postman.

  This 'would' is not part of a condition. It is a guess about the present, based on what the speaker knows, for example that the post usually comes at this time. 'That'll be the postman.' is also correct and sounds a little more certain.

• I would imagine he's already left.

  'I would imagine…' presents a guess as a tentative opinion. It is softer than 'I'm sure he's already left.' and a little softer than 'I imagine he's already left.' In speech, the short form is common: 'I'd imagine he's already left.'

• It would rain on the one day we planned a picnic!

  Stressed 'would' complains about bad luck, as if the rain was bound to happen. It refers to something that really happened, not to an imagined situation. In speech, 'would' is stressed and not contracted here.

Examples

• It could be argued that the policy has been ineffective.
  It could be argue that the policy has been ineffective.

  'It could be argued that…' presents a critical view without saying who holds it, so the claim sounds cautious and impersonal. After the modal comes the passive, 'be' + past participle: 'be argued'.

• One might suggest that the author was influenced by his childhood.

  'One might suggest…' offers an interpretation without fully committing to it; 'one' is a formal, general subject. Compare the direct claim 'The author was influenced by his childhood.', which states it as a fact.

• I would say that the results are somewhat inconclusive.

  'I would say…' softens a personal judgement, and 'somewhat' softens it further. The direct 'The results are inconclusive.' is also correct, but it sounds more certain and could seem blunt to the people who produced the results.

Examples

• His office light is still on, so he must be working late tonight.
  His office light is still on, so he must work late tonight. (intended: I conclude that he is working late now)

  The light is evidence, so the speaker is making a deduction (the epistemic meaning). For an action in progress now, the deduction needs 'must be' + -ing form. 'He must work late tonight.' has the deontic meaning: he is obliged to work late.

• You must be exhausted after that journey.

  Nobody can be ordered to be exhausted, so this 'must' is a deduction: 'I'm sure you are exhausted.' 'be' + adjective usually gives the epistemic meaning. Compare 'You must wear a seatbelt.', where 'must' is an obligation to do something the listener can control.

• She must have been at home yesterday; her car was outside all day.
  She must be at home yesterday; her car was outside all day.

  A deduction about the past needs 'must have' + past participle. 'must be' is a deduction about the present, so it does not fit 'yesterday'.

Examples

• He may well be the best candidate for the job.

  'may well' means 'it is quite likely': the speaker thinks there is a good chance that he is the best candidate. Without 'well', 'He may be the best candidate for the job.' only says that it is possible.

• They might well have forgotten about the meeting.
  They might have well forgotten about the meeting.

  For a strong possibility about the past, use 'might well have' + past participle. 'well' comes straight after the modal, before 'have'.

• We might as well start without her; she's always late.
  We might well start without her; she's always late. (intended: there is no reason to wait for her)

  'might as well' suggests doing something because there is no good reason not to: waiting for her is pointless. 'We might well start without her.' is a prediction that means 'it is quite likely that we will start without her'.

Examples

• Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.
  Never I have seen such a beautiful sunset.

  'Never' starts the sentence, so the auxiliary 'have' comes before the subject 'I'. With normal word order, you would say 'I have never seen …'.

• Hardly had I entered the room when the lights went out.
  Hardly had I entered the room than the lights went out.

  'Hardly' goes with 'when' (or 'before'), not 'than'. The past perfect 'had … entered' shows the first event, and the second one followed immediately.

• No sooner had she arrived than she began to complain.
  No sooner she had arrived than she began to complain.

  After 'No sooner' at the start, 'had' must come before the subject: 'had she arrived'. 'No sooner' is a comparative, so it goes with 'than'.

Examples

• It was Maria who solved the problem.
  Was Maria who solved the problem.

  An it-cleft needs the subject 'it': 'It' + 'was' + focus ('Maria') + 'who' + the rest. English cannot leave out this subject.

• What I really need is a long holiday.
  What I really need, it's a long holiday.

  The clause 'What I really need' is the subject of 'is'. Do not add 'it' after it.

• All I want is some peace and quiet.
  All what I want is some peace and quiet.

  'All I want' means 'the only thing I want'. Use 'All' + clause (or 'All that' + clause), not 'All what'.

Examples

• Beans I like; lentils I can't stand.
  Beans do I like; lentils I can't stand.

  An ordinary fronted object does not cause inversion, so the subject and verb stay in normal order, with no 'do': 'Beans I like'. Fronting both objects creates the contrast. A negative object is different: it causes inversion ('Not a single word did he say.').

• Tired though I was, I kept working.
  As I was tired, I kept working. (intended: although I was tired)

  Adjective + 'though' + subject + verb means 'although I was tired'. 'As I was tired' at the start means 'because I was tired', which does not fit 'I kept working'.

• Down the road came a great procession.
  Down the road did come a great procession.

  After a fronted place or direction phrase, the main verb itself ('came') comes before a noun subject. No 'do' is added.

Examples

• My neighbour, he's always complaining about the noise.
  My neighbour, is always complaining about the noise.

  In left dislocation, the clause after the comma needs its own subject pronoun: 'he's'. Without the comma, the neutral sentence is 'My neighbour is always complaining.'

• That book, I couldn't put it down.
  That book, I couldn't put him down.

  The pronoun for a thing is 'it', even if the word for 'book' is masculine in your language. Here 'it' is the object of 'put … down'.

• He's a real character, Uncle Joe.
  Is a real character, Uncle Joe.

  In right dislocation, the clause still needs its subject pronoun ('He's'). The name at the end only makes clear who 'he' is.

Examples

• Is it raining? I think so.
  Is it raining? I think yes.

  After 'think', English uses 'so' to replace the whole clause ('that it is raining'). 'I think yes' is a word-for-word translation and is wrong.

• She loves jazz and so does her brother.
  She loves jazz and so is her brother.

  'loves' is present simple, so the auxiliary in 'so' + auxiliary + subject is 'does'. Use 'is' only when the first clause uses 'be'.

• He promised to help and he did so.

  'did so' replaces the whole action ('helped'). 'do so' is rather formal; in conversation, people often just say 'and he did'.

Examples

• It is difficult to explain quantum mechanics in simple terms.
  Is difficult to explain quantum mechanics in simple terms.

  An English sentence needs a subject, so 'it' fills the subject position. The real subject, 'to explain quantum mechanics …', comes at the end.

• There is no denying that he is extraordinarily talented.
  It is no denying that he is extraordinarily talented.

  The fixed pattern is 'There is no denying …' (= it is certain that …). It uses 'there', not 'it'.

• It is important that every student submit their work on time.
  This is important that every student submit their work on time.

  Anticipatory 'it' points forward to the that-clause; 'this' cannot do that. The base form 'submit' is formal; 'should submit' and 'submits' are also correct.

Examples

• Having finished the meeting, we went for lunch.
  Finished the meeting, we went for lunch.

  For an action that happened before the main action, use 'having' + past participle. 'having' cannot be left out when the verb has an object ('the meeting').

• Walking through the park, I spotted a rare bird.
  Walking through the park, a rare bird caught my eye. (intended: while I was walking through the park)

  The hidden subject of 'walking' is the subject of the main clause. In the incorrect sentence that subject is 'a rare bird', so the sentence says that the bird was walking through the park.

• Pressed for time, she left without saying goodbye.
  Pressing for time, she left without saying goodbye.

  'be pressed for time' (= not have enough time) has a passive form, so the clause uses the past participle 'pressed'.

Examples

• I do appreciate everything you've done for me.
  I am appreciate everything you've done for me.

  To emphasise a main verb, use 'do' + base form: 'I do appreciate'. 'be' cannot add emphasis to another verb.

• It was a long, long journey.

  Repeating the adjective ('long, long') stresses how long the journey felt. This is common in storytelling and speech; a comma separates the two words.

• Who would have thought we'd meet again?

  This rhetorical question expects no answer: it means 'nobody expected us to meet again'.

Examples

• The recently discovered ancient Egyptian manuscript now housed in the British Museum has attracted scholars from all over the world.
  The recently discovered ancient Egyptian manuscript now housed in the British Museum have attracted scholars from all over the world.

  The head noun is 'manuscript' (singular), so the verb is 'has attracted'. The modifiers before and after it do not change the agreement.

• My grandmother left me two beautiful small antique Chinese teacups.
  My grandmother left me two small antique beautiful Chinese teacups.

  The adjectives follow the usual order: opinion ('beautiful'), size ('small'), age ('antique'), origin ('Chinese'). An opinion adjective comes before the others.

• The government's controversial decision to raise taxes on sugary drinks has divided public opinion.
  The government's controversial decision of raising taxes on sugary drinks has divided public opinion.

  The noun 'decision' is followed by a to-infinitive, like the verb 'decide to'. 'decision of' + -ing is wrong.

Examples

• She stood at the window. Why had he not written? Did he no longer care?
  She stood at the window. Why he had not written? Did he no longer care?

  This is free indirect speech: the narrator asks the character's own questions in the third person and the past tense, with no 'she wondered' and no quotation marks. Because these are real questions, they keep question word order: 'Why had he not written?', not 'Why he had not written?'

• Down came the rain in torrents.
  Down came it in torrents.

  When a direction word such as 'down', 'out', or 'in' starts the sentence, a verb of movement can come before a noun subject: 'Down came the rain.' With a pronoun subject, keep normal order: 'Down it came in torrents.'

• Gone are the days of innocent trust.
  Gone is the days of innocent trust.

  A fronted past participle ('Gone') + 'be' + subject is a fixed literary pattern. The verb agrees with the subject that follows it: 'the days' is plural, so the verb is 'are'. With a singular subject: 'Gone is the old certainty.'

Examples

• PM to announce new tax policy tomorrow.

  In headlines, 'to' + base form shows a planned future event: 'PM to announce' means the Prime Minister is going to announce. The headline leaves out 'is' and the articles; the full sentence would be 'The Prime Minister is to announce a new tax policy tomorrow.'

• Three killed in motorway pile-up.

  Headlines leave out 'be' in the passive, so a past participle stands alone: 'Three killed' = three people were killed. Here 'killed' is not the past simple, and the headline does not say who or what killed them.

• The government is said to be considering drastic measures.
  The government is said that it is considering drastic measures.

  Use either 'It is said that the government is considering …' or 'The government is said to be considering …'. The second pattern needs a to-infinitive, and 'to be considering' shows an action happening now. Do not mix the two patterns.

Examples

• It could be argued that recent findings challenge the prevailing hypothesis.

  'It could be argued that …' presents a claim without saying who makes it, and 'could' hedges it: the writer offers the view as possible, not certain. 'the prevailing hypothesis' is the most widely accepted one. A less formal version: 'You could say that the new findings question the main theory.'

• The data appear to suggest a correlation, though causation cannot be established.
  The data appear suggesting a correlation, though causation cannot be established.

  'appear' and 'seem' are hedging verbs that soften a claim, and they are followed by a to-infinitive: 'appear to suggest'. The sentence also separates a correlation (two things occur together) from causation (one causes the other). 'data' can take a plural verb ('appear') or a singular one ('appears').

• One may conclude that further investigation is warranted.

  'One' is a formal impersonal pronoun meaning 'anyone' or 'people in general', and 'is warranted' means 'is justified'. Both are typical of formal academic prose; 'We can conclude that more research is needed' is a slightly less formal alternative.

Examples

• I was wondering if you could possibly send the report by Friday.
  I was wondering if could you possibly send the report by Friday.

  'I was wondering if you could …' is a very polite request; the past continuous and 'possibly' soften it further. After 'if', use statement word order: 'if you could', not 'if could you'.

• I'm afraid we won't be able to meet that deadline.
  I'm afraid we won't be able to keep that deadline.

  'I'm afraid' softens bad news, and 'won't be able to' sounds less blunt than 'can't'. The usual collocation is 'meet a deadline'. 'keep a deadline' is a common translation error, although 'keep to a deadline' is correct.

• Let's circle back to this point after lunch.

  'circle back to' (= return to a topic later) is common office jargon. It is fine among colleagues, but 'Let's come back to this after lunch' is plainer and clearer, especially with international partners.

Examples

• The food was not bad at all.
  The food was no bad at all.

  'not bad at all' is a litotes that means 'really quite good'. Use 'not' before an adjective ('not bad'); 'no' goes before a noun ('no problem').

• It's somewhat concerning that no one has replied.

  'somewhat' (= to some degree) makes the adjective milder, so 'somewhat concerning' sounds calm and polite. In a professional message, this understatement can signal real worry: the writer may be more concerned than the words suggest.

• He's a bit of a genius, really.
  He's a bit genius, really.

  'a bit of a' + noun is a typical understatement, used here as modest, slightly ironic praise. With a noun, you need 'of a': 'a bit of a genius', 'a bit of a problem'. With an adjective, 'a bit' stands alone: 'a bit tired'.

Examples

• My grandfather passed away last month.
  My grandfather passed out last month. (intended: he died)

  'pass away' is the gentle, standard way to say 'die'. 'pass out' means 'faint' (lose consciousness for a short time), so the incorrect sentence says that he fainted.

• Unfortunately, we have had to let Sarah go.

  'let someone go' is a gentle way of saying 'dismiss' or 'fire'. A name or a pronoun goes between 'let' and 'go': 'let Sarah go', 'let her go'. When a job disappears, British English also says 'Sarah has been made redundant'.

• The minister was somewhat economical with the truth.
  The minister was somewhat economic with the truth.

  'economical with the truth' is an ironic euphemism for lying or hiding facts, and 'somewhat' makes it even softer. The fixed phrase uses 'economical' (= careful not to waste), not 'economic' (= relating to the economy).

Examples

• They dined at a Michelin-starred restaurant.

  'dine' is formal and suggests a special, elegant meal, so it suits a Michelin-starred restaurant. In everyday speech, people say 'We had dinner at …' or 'We ate at …'.

• I need to consume more calories.

  'consume' is the technical word used in nutrition and science, especially with 'calories', 'energy', or 'fuel'. In everyday talk about food, 'eat' is normal: 'I need to eat more.'

• We wolfed down the sandwiches.

  'wolf down' is informal and means 'eat very quickly and hungrily', like a wolf. It suits a chat with friends; a formal report would say 'ate quickly'.

Examples

• Dogs are loyal animals.
  The dogs are loyal animals. (intended: dogs in general)

  For a statement about dogs in general, use the plural with no article. 'The dogs' refers to particular dogs that the listener can identify, such as the neighbours' dogs.

• The tiger is now an endangered species.
  A tiger is now an endangered species.

  Being endangered is true of the species as a whole, not of one single tiger, so 'a/an' does not work here. Use 'the' + singular for the species, or the plural: 'Tigers are now endangered.'

• A dictionary is a book that explains the meanings of words.
  Dictionary is a book that explains the meanings of words.

  A singular countable noun needs an article. In a definition, 'a/an' + singular means any typical member of the class: every dictionary is a book of this kind.

Examples

• My grandfather has been in hospital since Monday.

  He is there as a patient, so British English uses 'in hospital' with no article. American English says 'in the hospital' here. Both are correct. Someone who is only visiting is 'at the hospital' in both varieties.

• Lucy is ten, so she's still at school.
  Lucy is ten, so she's still at the school. (intended: she is still a pupil)

  'at school' means being a pupil, or being there for lessons. 'at the school' refers to a particular school or its building, so 'She's still at the school' would mean that she is still in the building, or still at a school that has already been mentioned.

• Mum went to the school to speak to Lucy's teacher.
  Mum went to school to speak to Lucy's teacher. (intended: she visited the building)

  Mum is not a pupil; she is visiting the building for another reason, so 'school' needs 'the'. 'Mum went to school' would mean that she was a pupil there.

Examples

• She's been under a lot of pressure at work lately.
  She's been in a lot of pressure at work lately.

  Pressure is a force that pushes on you from outside, so English says 'under pressure', like 'under stress' and 'under threat'.

• Unemployment is on the rise again.
  Unemployment is in the rise again.

  'on' is used for a process that is going on: 'on the rise', 'on the increase', 'on the decline'. The phrase keeps 'the'.

• Who is in charge of the project?
  Who is in charge for the project?

  The phrase is 'in charge of' + the thing or people you are responsible for, so 'for' cannot take the place of 'of'. 'for' can still come after 'in charge' when it adds other information, such as how long: 'She has been in charge for six months.'

Examples

• Heavy rain is expected this weekend.
  Strong rain is expected this weekend.

  English describes large amounts of rain, snow, or traffic as 'heavy'. 'strong' goes with 'wind', 'coffee', and 'tea'.

• He always keeps his promises.
  He always holds his promises.

  The verb for doing what you promised is 'keep': 'keep a promise'. Its opposite is 'break a promise'. 'hold' comes from a word-for-word translation of German 'halten'.

• I think you've made a mistake in the second paragraph.
  I think you've done a mistake in the second paragraph.

  'mistake' collocates with 'make', not 'do': 'make a mistake', 'make an error'.

Examples

• The new rules will affect everyone who works here.
  The new rules will effect everyone who works here.

  'affect' is the verb that means 'influence'. As a verb, 'effect' means 'to make something happen', which does not fit here.

• The new law had little effect on house prices.
  The new law had little affect on house prices.

  After 'had little', you need a noun meaning 'result' or 'influence': 'effect'. 'affect' is normally a verb.

• From the look on her face, I inferred that the news was bad.
  From the look on her face, I implied that the news was bad.

  The person who reaches a conclusion 'infers' it. The person or thing that suggests something 'implies' it: 'Her face implied that the news was bad.'

Examples

• She arrived late; the meeting had already started.
  She arrived late, the meeting had already started.

  Both parts are complete sentences, so a comma alone cannot join them; this error is called a comma splice. The semicolon shows that the two ideas are closely linked. A full stop or 'and' would also be correct.

• The forecast was good; however, it rained all afternoon.
  The forecast was good, however, it rained all afternoon.

  'however' is an adverb, not a conjunction like 'but', so commas alone cannot join the two sentences. Put a semicolon before it and a comma after it.

• He had three goals: to travel, to learn, and to write.
  He had three goals; to travel, to learn, and to write.

  A colon introduces the list that explains 'three goals'. A semicolon cannot introduce a list: apart from separating list items that already contain commas, it joins two complete sentences, and 'to travel, to learn, and to write' is not a complete sentence.

Examples

• Have you read The Lord of the Rings?
  Have you read The Lord Of The Rings?

  In title case, short words such as 'of' and 'the' stay lowercase unless they are the first or last word. The first 'The' has a capital because it starts the title.

• Her article "Why Sleep Is So Important" went viral.
  Her article "Why Sleep is So Important" went viral.

  In title case, verbs are important words, even short ones such as 'Is' and 'Be'. In sentence case, only 'Why' would have a capital. The incorrect title mixes the two systems.

• She teaches French literature at a university in Canada.
  She teaches french literature at a university in Canada.

  Adjectives made from the names of countries and people keep the capital: 'French', 'Shakespearean'. 'university' is lowercase here because it is not part of an official name.