C1 English Grammar — 33 Topics & Common Mistakes

Examples

• If I were you, I would accept the offer.
  Misuse: If I were you, I would accept the offer.

  Use bare infinitive (be/go/have — not be/goes/has) after formal mandative verbs; use `were` (not `was`) in hypothetical conditions for all persons.

• It is essential that every member be present at the meeting.
  Misuse: It is essential that every member be present at the meeting.

  Use bare infinitive (be/go/have — not be/goes/has) after formal mandative verbs; use `were` (not `was`) in hypothetical conditions for all persons.

• The judge ordered that the defendant remain in custody.
  Misuse: The judge ordered that the defendant remain in custody.

  Use bare infinitive (be/go/have — not be/goes/has) after formal mandative verbs; use `were` (not `was`) in hypothetical conditions for all persons.

Examples

• I suggest that he leave immediately.
  Misuse: I suggest that he leave immediately.

  After mandative verbs/adjectives/nouns + that, use the bare infinitive; for negation, place `not` before the bare infinitive.

• The doctor recommended that she take the medicine daily.
  Misuse: The doctor recommended that she take the medicine daily.

  After mandative verbs/adjectives/nouns + that, use the bare infinitive; for negation, place `not` before the bare infinitive.

• It is essential that every employee attend the training.
  Misuse: It is essential that every employee attend the training.

  After mandative verbs/adjectives/nouns + that, use the bare infinitive; for negation, place `not` before the bare infinitive.

Examples

• The tenant shall pay the rent on the first day of each month.
  Misuse: The tenant shall pay the rent on the first day of each month.

  Use `shall` in legal/contractual contexts for obligation and in first-person formal for future; use `be to + inf` for formal plans, orders, destiny, and in if-clauses meaning 'in order to'.

• The President is to address the nation tomorrow evening.
  Misuse: The President is to address the nation tomorrow evening.

  Use `shall` in legal/contractual contexts for obligation and in first-person formal for future; use `be to + inf` for formal plans, orders, destiny, and in if-clauses meaning 'in order to'.

• You are to report to the manager's office immediately.
  Misuse: You are to report to the manager's office immediately.

  Use `shall` in legal/contractual contexts for obligation and in first-person formal for future; use `be to + inf` for formal plans, orders, destiny, and in if-clauses meaning 'in order to'.

Examples

• Don't phone now — she will be having dinner.
  Misuse: Don't phone now — she will be having dinner.

  `will + have + pp / be + -ing` often expresses confident speculation about the present/past rather than future — interpret from context.

• By now, they will have finished the meeting.
  Misuse: By now, they will have finished the meeting.

  `will + have + pp / be + -ing` often expresses confident speculation about the present/past rather than future — interpret from context.

• He'll have been travelling for twelve hours when he arrives.
  Misuse: He'll have been travelling for twelve hours when he arrives.

  `will + have + pp / be + -ing` often expresses confident speculation about the present/past rather than future — interpret from context.

Examples

• I'm really loving this new coffee shop.
  Misuse: I'm really loving this new coffee shop.

  Use progressive of stative verbs for temporary states, current behaviour, current tentative opinions, or ongoing trends; simple tense for permanent traits and fixed opinions.

• You're being very patient with me today.
  Misuse: You're being very patient with me today.

  Use progressive of stative verbs for temporary states, current behaviour, current tentative opinions, or ongoing trends; simple tense for permanent traits and fixed opinions.

• I'm thinking of taking a gap year.
  Misuse: I'm thinking of taking a gap year.

  Use progressive of stative verbs for temporary states, current behaviour, current tentative opinions, or ongoing trends; simple tense for permanent traits and fixed opinions.

Examples

• Boys will be boys.
  Misuse: Boys will be boys.

  `Will` for characteristic present habits / scientific truths; `would` for nostalgic past repeated actions (not states); stressed `WILL/WOULD` signals criticism.

• She'll sit at that window for hours, just watching.
  Misuse: She'll sit at that window for hours, just watching.

  `Will` for characteristic present habits / scientific truths; `would` for nostalgic past repeated actions (not states); stressed `WILL/WOULD` signals criticism.

• My grandfather would always carry boiled sweets in his pocket.
  Misuse: My grandfather would always carry boiled sweets in his pocket.

  `Will` for characteristic present habits / scientific truths; `would` for nostalgic past repeated actions (not states); stressed `WILL/WOULD` signals criticism.

Examples

• That would be the postman at the door.
  Misuse: That would be the postman at the door.

  Advanced `would`: characteristic (typical behaviour), mild present guess, polite hedge, counterfactual present, narrative distancing — context distinguishes.

• I would imagine he's already left.
  Misuse: I would imagine he's already left.

  Advanced `would`: characteristic (typical behaviour), mild present guess, polite hedge, counterfactual present, narrative distancing — context distinguishes.

• That's just what she would say!
  Misuse: That's just what she would say!

  Advanced `would`: characteristic (typical behaviour), mild present guess, polite hedge, counterfactual present, narrative distancing — context distinguishes.

Examples

• It could be argued that the policy has been ineffective.
  Misuse: It could be argued that the policy has been ineffective.

  Use modals (may/might/could/would/should) + impersonal constructions (it could be said / one might argue) to soften claims, suggestions, and opinions in formal contexts.

• One might suggest that the author was influenced by his childhood.
  Misuse: One might suggest that the author was influenced by his childhood.

  Use modals (may/might/could/would/should) + impersonal constructions (it could be said / one might argue) to soften claims, suggestions, and opinions in formal contexts.

• I would say that the results are somewhat inconclusive.
  Misuse: I would say that the results are somewhat inconclusive.

  Use modals (may/might/could/would/should) + impersonal constructions (it could be said / one might argue) to soften claims, suggestions, and opinions in formal contexts.

Examples

• You must wear a seatbelt. (deontic — obligation)
  Misuse: You must wear a seatbelt. (deontic — obligation)

  Same modal can express deontic (obligation/permission) or epistemic (probability/deduction) meaning; context, perfect infinitive, and stress disambiguate.

• You must be exhausted after that journey. (epistemic — deduction)
  Misuse: You must be exhausted after that journey. (epistemic — deduction)

  Same modal can express deontic (obligation/permission) or epistemic (probability/deduction) meaning; context, perfect infinitive, and stress disambiguate.

• She should apologise for what she said. (deontic — advice)
  Misuse: She should apologise for what she said. (deontic — advice)

  Same modal can express deontic (obligation/permission) or epistemic (probability/deduction) meaning; context, perfect infinitive, and stress disambiguate.

Examples

• He may well be the best candidate for the job.
  Misuse: He may well be the best candidate for the job.

  `May/might/could well` emphasises probability; `might/may as well` suggests action given no alternative; concessive `may well` admits a point before countering.

• They might well have forgotten about the meeting.
  Misuse: They might well have forgotten about the meeting.

  `May/might/could well` emphasises probability; `might/may as well` suggests action given no alternative; concessive `may well` admits a point before countering.

• We might as well start without her — she's always late.
  Misuse: We might as well start without her — she's always late.

  `May/might/could well` emphasises probability; `might/may as well` suggests action given no alternative; concessive `may well` admits a point before countering.

Examples

• Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.
  Misuse: Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.

  Fronted negative/restrictive adverbial → invert auxiliary + subject (use do-support if no auxiliary); with `only when/after/if`, invert the main clause.

• Hardly had I entered the room when the lights went out.
  Misuse: Hardly had I entered the room when the lights went out.

  Fronted negative/restrictive adverbial → invert auxiliary + subject (use do-support if no auxiliary); with `only when/after/if`, invert the main clause.

• No sooner had she arrived than she began to complain.
  Misuse: No sooner had she arrived than she began to complain.

  Fronted negative/restrictive adverbial → invert auxiliary + subject (use do-support if no auxiliary); with `only when/after/if`, invert the main clause.

Examples

• It was Maria who solved the problem.
  Misuse: It was Maria who solved the problem.

  Use cleft structures (It was X that..., What I need is..., All I want is...) to foreground specific information or contrast.

• What I really need is a long holiday.
  Misuse: What I really need is a long holiday.

  Use cleft structures (It was X that..., What I need is..., All I want is...) to foreground specific information or contrast.

• All I want is some peace and quiet.
  Misuse: All I want is some peace and quiet.

  Use cleft structures (It was X that..., What I need is..., All I want is...) to foreground specific information or contrast.

Examples

• Beans I like; lentils I can't stand.
  Misuse: Beans I like; lentils I can't stand.

  Move a constituent to sentence-initial position for contrast, topic-setting, or literary effect; specific patterns trigger full inversion.

• Tired though I was, I kept working.
  Misuse: Tired though I was, I kept working.

  Move a constituent to sentence-initial position for contrast, topic-setting, or literary effect; specific patterns trigger full inversion.

• Down the road came a great procession.
  Misuse: Down the road came a great procession.

  Move a constituent to sentence-initial position for contrast, topic-setting, or literary effect; specific patterns trigger full inversion.

Examples

• My neighbour, he's always complaining about the noise.
  Misuse: My neighbour, he's always complaining about the noise.

  Dislocation: noun phrase at start or end + resumptive pronoun in normal subject/object position; informal register.

• That book, I couldn't put it down.
  Misuse: That book, I couldn't put it down.

  Dislocation: noun phrase at start or end + resumptive pronoun in normal subject/object position; informal register.

• He's a real character, Uncle Joe.
  Misuse: He's a real character, Uncle Joe.

  Dislocation: noun phrase at start or end + resumptive pronoun in normal subject/object position; informal register.

Examples

• Is it raining? I think so.
  Misuse: Is it raining? I think so.

  Avoid repetition with substitutes (so, do so, one/ones) or ellipsis (omit after aux, to, or in coordination); the omitted element must be recoverable from context.

• She loves jazz and so does her brother.
  Misuse: She loves jazz and so does her brother.

  Avoid repetition with substitutes (so, do so, one/ones) or ellipsis (omit after aux, to, or in coordination); the omitted element must be recoverable from context.

• He promised to help and he did so.
  Misuse: He promised to help and he did so.

  Avoid repetition with substitutes (so, do so, one/ones) or ellipsis (omit after aux, to, or in coordination); the omitted element must be recoverable from context.

Examples

• It is difficult to explain quantum mechanics in simple terms.
  Misuse: It is difficult to explain quantum mechanics in simple terms.

  Use dummy `it` or `there` subject when the real subject is a long clause; place the heavy subject at the end for end-weight and clarity.

• There is no denying that he is extraordinarily talented.
  Misuse: There is no denying that he is extraordinarily talented.

  Use dummy `it` or `there` subject when the real subject is a long clause; place the heavy subject at the end for end-weight and clarity.

• It is important that every student submit their work on time.
  Misuse: It is important that every student submit their work on time.

  Use dummy `it` or `there` subject when the real subject is a long clause; place the heavy subject at the end for end-weight and clarity.

Examples

• Having finished the meeting, we went for lunch.
  Misuse: Having finished the meeting, we went for lunch.

  Non-finite clauses (participial, to-inf, verbless) reduce full clauses; ensure implied subject matches main-clause subject to avoid dangling modifier.

• Walking through the park, I spotted a rare bird.
  Misuse: Walking through the park, I spotted a rare bird.

  Non-finite clauses (participial, to-inf, verbless) reduce full clauses; ensure implied subject matches main-clause subject to avoid dangling modifier.

• Pressed for time, she left without saying goodbye.
  Misuse: Pressed for time, she left without saying goodbye.

  Non-finite clauses (participial, to-inf, verbless) reduce full clauses; ensure implied subject matches main-clause subject to avoid dangling modifier.

Examples

• I do appreciate everything you've done for me.
  Misuse: I do appreciate everything you've done for me.

  Combine emphatic `do`, repetition, rhetorical questions, exclamatives, intensifiers, and emphatic negation for rhetorical force beyond cleft/inversion.

• It was a long, long journey.
  Misuse: It was a long, long journey.

  Combine emphatic `do`, repetition, rhetorical questions, exclamatives, intensifiers, and emphatic negation for rhetorical force beyond cleft/inversion.

• Who would have thought we'd meet again?
  Misuse: Who would have thought we'd meet again?

  Combine emphatic `do`, repetition, rhetorical questions, exclamatives, intensifiers, and emphatic negation for rhetorical force beyond cleft/inversion.

Examples

• The recently discovered ancient Egyptian manuscript now housed in the British Museum.
  Misuse: The recently discovered ancient Egyptian manuscript now housed in the British Museum.

  Stack pre-modifiers in conventional order (eval-size-age-colour-origin-material-purpose) and post-modifiers (PP > reduced RC > full RC) around a head noun for information-dense NPs.

• Those two beautiful small antique Chinese porcelain tea cups.
  Misuse: Those two beautiful small antique Chinese porcelain tea cups.

  Stack pre-modifiers in conventional order (eval-size-age-colour-origin-material-purpose) and post-modifiers (PP > reduced RC > full RC) around a head noun for information-dense NPs.

• The government's controversial decision to raise taxes on sugary drinks.
  Misuse: The government's controversial decision to raise taxes on sugary drinks.

  Stack pre-modifiers in conventional order (eval-size-age-colour-origin-material-purpose) and post-modifiers (PP > reduced RC > full RC) around a head noun for information-dense NPs.

Examples

• She stood at the window. Why had he not written? Did he no longer care?
  Misuse: She stood at the window. Why had he not written? Did he no longer care?

  Literary style blends free indirect discourse, stylistic inversion, lexical density, figurative language, and sentence-length variation for aesthetic effect.

• Down came the rain in torrents.
  Misuse: Down came the rain in torrents.

  Literary style blends free indirect discourse, stylistic inversion, lexical density, figurative language, and sentence-length variation for aesthetic effect.

• Gone are the days of innocent trust.
  Misuse: Gone are the days of innocent trust.

  Literary style blends free indirect discourse, stylistic inversion, lexical density, figurative language, and sentence-length variation for aesthetic effect.

Examples

• PM to announce new tax policy tomorrow.
  Misuse: PM to announce new tax policy tomorrow.

  News register uses compressed headlines (no articles, `to + inf` for future), nominalisation, cautious attribution (said to have, allegedly), and inverted pyramid structure.

• Three killed in motorway pile-up.
  Misuse: Three killed in motorway pile-up.

  News register uses compressed headlines (no articles, `to + inf` for future), nominalisation, cautious attribution (said to have, allegedly), and inverted pyramid structure.

• The government is said to be considering drastic measures.
  Misuse: The government is said to be considering drastic measures.

  News register uses compressed headlines (no articles, `to + inf` for future), nominalisation, cautious attribution (said to have, allegedly), and inverted pyramid structure.

Examples

• It could be argued that recent findings challenge the prevailing hypothesis.
  Misuse: It could be argued that recent findings challenge the prevailing hypothesis.

  Academic English combines hedging, impersonal constructions, Latinate vocabulary, nominalisation, complex NPs, passive methodology, and precise discourse markers; avoid contractions, phrasal verbs, and informality.

• The data appear to suggest a correlation, though causation cannot be established.
  Misuse: The data appear to suggest a correlation, though causation cannot be established.

  Academic English combines hedging, impersonal constructions, Latinate vocabulary, nominalisation, complex NPs, passive methodology, and precise discourse markers; avoid contractions, phrasal verbs, and informality.

• One may conclude that further investigation is warranted.
  Misuse: One may conclude that further investigation is warranted.

  Academic English combines hedging, impersonal constructions, Latinate vocabulary, nominalisation, complex NPs, passive methodology, and precise discourse markers; avoid contractions, phrasal verbs, and informality.

Examples

• I was wondering if you could possibly send the report by Friday.
  Misuse: I was wondering if you could possibly send the report by Friday.

  Business English uses polite indirectness, hedged refusals, meeting formulas, euphemisms for bad news, and industry jargon; balances diplomacy with clarity.

• I'm afraid we won't be able to meet that deadline.
  Misuse: I'm afraid we won't be able to meet that deadline.

  Business English uses polite indirectness, hedged refusals, meeting formulas, euphemisms for bad news, and industry jargon; balances diplomacy with clarity.

• Let's circle back to this point after lunch.
  Misuse: Let's circle back to this point after lunch.

  Business English uses polite indirectness, hedged refusals, meeting formulas, euphemisms for bad news, and industry jargon; balances diplomacy with clarity.

Examples

• The food was not bad at all.
  Misuse: The food was not bad at all.

  Use litotes (negation of opposite: `not bad`, `not uncommon`) and understatement (`a bit`, `somewhat`, `a touch`) for indirect affirmation, negation, or irony — typical of British register.

• It's somewhat concerning that no one has replied.
  Misuse: It's somewhat concerning that no one has replied.

  Use litotes (negation of opposite: `not bad`, `not uncommon`) and understatement (`a bit`, `somewhat`, `a touch`) for indirect affirmation, negation, or irony — typical of British register.

• He's a bit of a genius, really.
  Misuse: He's a bit of a genius, really.

  Use litotes (negation of opposite: `not bad`, `not uncommon`) and understatement (`a bit`, `somewhat`, `a touch`) for indirect affirmation, negation, or irony — typical of British register.

Examples

• My grandfather passed away last month.
  Misuse: My grandfather passed away last month.

  Use euphemisms for taboo, sensitive, or uncomfortable topics (death, sex, dismissal, money, illness, lies); context determines appropriateness.

• Unfortunately, we have had to let Sarah go.
  Misuse: Unfortunately, we have had to let Sarah go.

  Use euphemisms for taboo, sensitive, or uncomfortable topics (death, sex, dismissal, money, illness, lies); context determines appropriateness.

• The minister was somewhat economical with the truth.
  Misuse: The minister was somewhat economical with the truth.

  Use euphemisms for taboo, sensitive, or uncomfortable topics (death, sex, dismissal, money, illness, lies); context determines appropriateness.

Examples

• They dined at a Michelin-starred restaurant. (formal: ate)
  Misuse: They dined at a Michelin-starred restaurant. (formal: ate)

  Select synonyms by register: Germanic roots generally informal; Latinate/Greek roots generally formal; match synonym register to overall text register.

• I need to consume more calories. (formal/technical: eat)
  Misuse: I need to consume more calories. (formal/technical: eat)

  Select synonyms by register: Germanic roots generally informal; Latinate/Greek roots generally formal; match synonym register to overall text register.

• We wolfed down the sandwiches. (informal: ate quickly)
  Misuse: We wolfed down the sandwiches. (informal: ate quickly)

  Select synonyms by register: Germanic roots generally informal; Latinate/Greek roots generally formal; match synonym register to overall text register.

Examples

• The tiger is endangered. (formal scientific)
  Misuse: The tiger is endangered. (formal scientific)

  For generic reference: `the + singular` (formal/scientific/classifying); `a/an + singular` (typical example, definitional); bare plural / uncount (neutral everyday); `the + plural adj` for social groups.

• A tiger is a large carnivorous mammal. (definitional)
  Misuse: A tiger is a large carnivorous mammal. (definitional)

  For generic reference: `the + singular` (formal/scientific/classifying); `a/an + singular` (typical example, definitional); bare plural / uncount (neutral everyday); `the + plural adj` for social groups.

• Tigers are found in Asia. (everyday)
  Misuse: Tigers are found in Asia. (everyday)

  For generic reference: `the + singular` (formal/scientific/classifying); `a/an + singular` (typical example, definitional); bare plural / uncount (neutral everyday); `the + plural adj` for social groups.

Examples

• He's been in hospital for a week.
  Misuse: He's been in hospital for a week.

  Institutions in role-sense (in hospital/at school), meals (have breakfast), transport (by car), daily routines (go to bed), and time phrases (at night) use zero article.

• She's at school until 3 pm.
  Misuse: She's at school until 3 pm.

  Institutions in role-sense (in hospital/at school), meals (have breakfast), transport (by car), daily routines (go to bed), and time phrases (at night) use zero article.

• We go to work by bus.
  Misuse: We go to work by bus.

  Institutions in role-sense (in hospital/at school), meals (have breakfast), transport (by car), daily routines (go to bed), and time phrases (at night) use zero article.

Examples

• She's been under a lot of pressure lately.
  Misuse: She's been under a lot of pressure lately.

  Prepositions extend spatial/temporal meanings to abstract domains in fixed phrases; memorise key prepositional idioms rather than deriving from literal meaning.

• The president is under fire for his latest comments.
  Misuse: The president is under fire for his latest comments.

  Prepositions extend spatial/temporal meanings to abstract domains in fixed phrases; memorise key prepositional idioms rather than deriving from literal meaning.

• Unemployment is on the rise.
  Misuse: Unemployment is on the rise.

  Prepositions extend spatial/temporal meanings to abstract domains in fixed phrases; memorise key prepositional idioms rather than deriving from literal meaning.

Examples

• She committed a serious crime.
  Misuse: She committed a serious crime.

  Collocations vary from strong (near-fixed, e.g., commit a crime) to weak (substitutable, e.g., big/large problem); learn strong collocations holistically.

• Please pay attention to the instructions.
  Misuse: Please pay attention to the instructions.

  Collocations vary from strong (near-fixed, e.g., commit a crime) to weak (substitutable, e.g., big/large problem); learn strong collocations holistically.

• Heavy rain is forecast for tomorrow.
  Misuse: Heavy rain is forecast for tomorrow.

  Collocations vary from strong (near-fixed, e.g., commit a crime) to weak (substitutable, e.g., big/large problem); learn strong collocations holistically.

Examples

• The bad weather affected our plans; the effect was frustrating.
  Misuse: The bad weather affected our plans; the effect was frustrating.

  Learn specific paronym pairs as fixed contrasts: affect/effect, imply/infer, principle/principal, historic/historical, continual/continuous, economic/economical, complementary/complimentary, stationary/stationery, discreet/discrete.

• His remark implied criticism; I inferred he was unhappy.
  Misuse: His remark implied criticism; I inferred he was unhappy.

  Learn specific paronym pairs as fixed contrasts: affect/effect, imply/infer, principle/principal, historic/historical, continual/continuous, economic/economical, complementary/complimentary, stationary/stationery, discreet/discrete.

• The school principal upheld the principles of fair conduct.
  Misuse: The school principal upheld the principles of fair conduct.

  Learn specific paronym pairs as fixed contrasts: affect/effect, imply/infer, principle/principal, historic/historical, continual/continuous, economic/economical, complementary/complimentary, stationary/stationery, discreet/discrete.

Examples

• She arrived late; the meeting had already started.
  Misuse: She arrived late; the meeting had already started.

  Semicolon connects independent clauses; colon introduces; em-dash emphasises; en-dash ranges; parentheses add background; Oxford comma disambiguates lists.

• He had three goals: love, work, and peace.
  Misuse: He had three goals: love, work, and peace.

  Semicolon connects independent clauses; colon introduces; em-dash emphasises; en-dash ranges; parentheses add background; Oxford comma disambiguates lists.

• She was — and remains — my closest friend.
  Misuse: She was — and remains — my closest friend.

  Semicolon connects independent clauses; colon introduces; em-dash emphasises; en-dash ranges; parentheses add background; Oxford comma disambiguates lists.

Examples

• I am reading The Lord of the Rings.
  Misuse: I am reading The Lord of the Rings.

  Capitalise proper nouns, proper adjectives, titles of works (title case), specific titled individuals (the Queen), historical periods, and nationalities; lowercase seasons, directions used as directions, and generic common nouns.

• French cuisine is world-famous.
  Misuse: French cuisine is world-famous.

  Capitalise proper nouns, proper adjectives, titles of works (title case), specific titled individuals (the Queen), historical periods, and nationalities; lowercase seasons, directions used as directions, and generic common nouns.

• The Queen addressed Parliament yesterday.
  Misuse: The Queen addressed Parliament yesterday.

  Capitalise proper nouns, proper adjectives, titles of works (title case), specific titled individuals (the Queen), historical periods, and nationalities; lowercase seasons, directions used as directions, and generic common nouns.