JLPT N1 Grammar — 35 Topics & Common Mistakes

Examples

• 試験に合格すべく、毎日努力した。
  試験に合格すべき、毎日努力した。

  Shiken ni gōkaku subeku, mainichi doryoku shita. — I worked hard every day in order to pass the exam. | 合格すべく ('in order to pass') gives the purpose of the effort in the main clause; する shortens to す before べく. 〜べき means 'should': it modifies a noun or ends a clause (守るべき規則, 行くべきだ), so it cannot link a purpose to the next clause.

• この先、立ち入るべからず。

  Kono saki, tachiiru bekarazu. — No entry beyond this point. | Dictionary form 立ち入る + べからず is a blunt written prohibition, typical of old-style signs; a modern sign would say 立入禁止.

• 夢を実現すべく、彼は海外に渡った。

  Yume o jitsugen subeku, kare wa kaigai ni watatta. — He went abroad in order to realise his dream. | 実現する → 実現すべく: the purpose behind a bold, deliberate step, told in written narrative style.

Examples

• 一日たりとも練習を休まなかった。
  一日たりとも練習を休んだ。

  Ichinichi taritomo renshū o yasumanakatta. — I did not miss a single day of practice. | 一日たりとも ('not even one day') must be followed by a negative, here 休まなかった. With the affirmative 休んだ the sentence is ungrammatical.

• 親といえども、子供の気持ちがすべて分かるわけではない。

  Oya to iedomo, kodomo no kimochi ga subete wakaru wake de wa nai. — Even parents do not understand everything their children feel. | Parents are the people you would expect to understand their children; といえども concedes this, and the main clause says the expectation does not fully hold.

• 一円たりとも無駄にはできない。

  Ichien taritomo muda ni wa dekinai. — I cannot waste even a single yen. | 一円 is the smallest unit of money, and たりとも + できない excludes even that.

Examples

• もう二度とあそこには行くまい。
  もう二度とあそこには行かないまい。

  Mō nido to asoko ni wa iku mai. — I will never go there again. | The speaker states a firm resolution with 二度と + 〜まい. まい is already negative and follows the dictionary form of a godan verb, so 行かないまい is wrong.

• この空模様なら、雨は降るまい。

  Kono soramoyō nara, ame wa furu mai. — With the sky looking like this, it probably won't rain. | Nobody controls the rain, so 降るまい is a guess (= 降らないだろう), not a resolution.

• もう嘘はつくまい。

  Mō uso wa tsuku mai. — I won't tell lies any more. | A promise to oneself: first-person subject + an action the speaker controls, so 〜まい expresses will.

Examples

• 夢を実現せんがため、彼は海外に渡った。
  夢を実現しんがため、彼は海外に渡った。

  Yume o jitsugen sen ga tame, kare wa kaigai ni watatta. — He went abroad for the sole purpose of realising his dream. | Before ん, する takes its classical stem せ: 実現する → 実現せんがため. The modern nai-form stem し does not work here, so 実現しんがため is wrong.

• 彼女は泣かんばかりの顔をしていた。

  Kanojo wa nakan bakari no kao o shite ita. — She looked as if she were about to burst into tears. | 泣く → 泣かん + ばかり + の + noun describes a face so upset that she almost cried; she did not actually cry.

• 彼は飛び上がらんばかりに喜んだ。

  Kare wa tobiagaran bakari ni yorokonda. — He was so happy that he almost jumped for joy. | 〜んばかりに before a verb shows how intense the joy was: 飛び上がる → 飛び上がらん.

Examples

• 待っても待っても、彼は来やしない。
  待っても待っても、彼は来るやしない。

  Matte mo matte mo, kare wa ki ya shinai. — I wait and wait, but he just doesn't come. | 来る → masu-stem 来 (き) + やしない voices the speaker's frustration. やしない follows the masu-stem, never the dictionary form, so 来るやしない is wrong.

• やる気なんか、ありゃしない。

  Yaruki nanka, arya shinai. — I don't have the slightest bit of motivation. | ある → あり + は + しない → ありゃしない: in speech, り and the following は fuse into りゃ.

• そんなこと、誰にも分かりゃしない。

  Sonna koto, dare ni mo wakarya shinai. — Nobody could possibly know that. | 分かる → 分かりゃしない dismisses the question as one nobody can answer.

Examples

• 皆様の幸せを心から願ってやみません。
  皆様の幸せを心から願ってやめません。

  Minasama no shiawase o kokoro kara negatte yamimasen. — I sincerely wish you all every happiness. | Te-form 願って + やみません, the polite form of やまない, is a typical way to close a speech or letter. The verb is やむ ('cease'), not やめる ('quit'), so やめません is wrong.

• 彼を愛してやまない。

  Kare o aishite yamanai. — I love him with all my heart. | 愛する + やまない: a love that has lasted and never fades, in a literary, heartfelt style.

• 卒業生の皆さんの今後の活躍を期待してやみません。

  Sotsugyōsei no minasan no kongo no katsuyaku o kitai shite yamimasen. — I have the highest hopes for all our graduates' future success. | A set phrase in graduation speeches: the polite やみません, addressed to an audience.

Examples

• 被害者の話を聞いて、涙を禁じ得なかった。
  被害者の話を聞いて、涙が禁じ得なかった。

  Higaisha no hanashi o kiite, namida o kinjienakatta. — Listening to the victims' stories, I could not hold back my tears. | The trigger comes first with 〜を聞いて. 禁じる is transitive, so the feeling noun 涙 takes を; 涙が禁じ得なかった is wrong.

• 政府の無責任な対応には、怒りを禁じ得ない。

  Seifu no musekinin na taiō ni wa, ikari o kinjienai. — I cannot help feeling angry at the government's irresponsible response. | A typical editorial sentence: 〜には marks what provokes the anger.

• 最後まで諦めない選手たちの姿に、深い感動を禁じ得なかった。

  Saigo made akiramenai senshutachi no sugata ni, fukai kandō o kinjienakatta. — Seeing the players refuse to give up until the very end, I could not help being deeply moved. | With 感動, the pattern also expresses a positive feeling that wells up unbidden.

Examples

• 駅までの道を歩きつつ、明日の会議のことを考えていた。
  駅までの道を歩くつつ、明日の会議のことを考えていた。

  Eki made no michi o aruki tsutsu, ashita no kaigi no koto o kangaete ita. — Walking to the station, I was thinking about tomorrow's meeting. | Masu-stem 歩き + つつ: two actions by the same person at the same time, a written-style 〜ながら. つつ never follows the dictionary form, so 歩くつつ is wrong.

• 悪いと知りつつ、嘘をついてしまった。

  Warui to shiri tsutsu, uso o tsuite shimatta. — I told a lie even though I knew it was wrong. | Concessive つつ with 知る: the speaker acted against better knowledge, and 〜てしまった adds regret.

• 彼は笑いつつ、私の話を聞いていた。

  Kare wa warai tsutsu, watashi no hanashi o kiite ita. — He listened to me, laughing as I talked. | Two actions by the same subject at the same time; the main action, 聞いていた, comes last.

Examples

• 私が一番尊敬しているのは、祖父です。
  私が一番尊敬していることは、祖父です。

  Watashi ga ichiban sonkei shite iru no wa, sofu desu. — The person I respect most is my grandfather. | A pseudo-cleft: the clause + のは comes first and the focus, 祖父, comes last before です. の can stand for a person; こと cannot, so 尊敬していることは is wrong.

• 知らなかった、その時の彼の本当の気持ちを。

  Shiranakatta, sono toki no kare no hontō no kimochi o. — I never knew how he really felt at that time. | Inversion (倒置): the predicate 知らなかった comes first for emotional weight, and the object follows with its particle を. The neutral order is その時の彼の本当の気持ちを知らなかった.

• この役にふさわしいのは、彼女しかいない。

  Kono yaku ni fusawashii no wa, kanojo shika inai. — She is the only one suited to this role. | A pseudo-cleft with しか〜ない: のは puts the focus at the end, and しかいない sharpens it to 'no one but her'.

Examples

• 日本と言えば、桜ですね。

  Nihon to ieba, sakura desu ne. — When you think of Japan, cherry blossoms come to mind. | と言えば names the association that 日本 typically brings to mind; ね invites the listener to agree.

• 山田さんと言うと、あの背の高い方ですか。

  Yamada-san to iu to, ano se no takai kata desu ka. — By Yamada, do you mean that tall person? | と言うと echoes the name the other person used and checks who is meant. と言えば cannot be used for this kind of question.

• あの時の感動と言ったら、言葉では言い表せない。

  Ano toki no kandō to ittara, kotoba de wa iiarawasenai. — I can't put into words how moved I was at that moment. | と言ったら introduces a feeling so strong that the rest of the sentence calls it beyond words.

Examples

• あの先生の授業に1分でも遅刻しようものなら、教室に入れてもらえない。
  あの先生の授業に1分でも遅刻するものなら、教室に入れてもらえない。

  Ano sensei no jugyō ni ippun demo chikoku shiyō mono nara, kyōshitsu ni irete moraenai. — If you are even a minute late for that teacher's class, he won't let you into the room. | Volitional 遅刻しよう + ものなら sets up a dire result, and でも stresses how small the trigger is. With an ordinary verb such as 遅刻する, ものなら needs the volitional form, so 遅刻するものなら is wrong.

• 一言でも文句を言おうものなら、首になる。

  Hitokoto demo monku o iō mono nara, kubi ni naru. — If anyone complained even once, they would be fired. | Godan 言う → 言おう + ものなら. 首になる ('get fired') is the kind of extreme result the pattern announces.

• 嘘をつこうものなら、信用を失う。

  Uso o tsukō mono nara, shin'yō o ushinau. — If you told a lie, you would lose people's trust. | つく → つこう + ものなら; the main clause states the serious result, not an instruction.

Examples

• 努力なしには、成功は望めない。

  Doryoku nashi ni wa, seikō wa nozomenai. — Without effort, you cannot hope for success. | なしには + a negative main clause (望めない) says that effort is indispensable.

• 許可なしに、立ち入ることはできません。

  Kyoka nashi ni, tachiiru koto wa dekimasen. — Entry without permission is not allowed. | 許可なしに: permission is needed but missing. なしに is typical of notices and other written rules.

• 冗談抜きで、危険な状況だ。

  Jōdan nuki de, kiken na jōkyō da. — Joking aside, this is a dangerous situation. | 冗談抜きで ('joking aside') is a set phrase that makes the speaker sound serious.

Examples

• 風のごとく走り去った。
  風ごとく走り去った。

  Kaze no gotoku hashirisatta. — He ran off like the wind. | Noun + のごとく = literary 'like' before a verb (走り去った). In a comparison, the noun needs の, so 風ごとく is wrong.

• 子供ごときに何が分かる。

  Kodomo gotoki ni nani ga wakaru. — What would a mere child understand? | Without の, 子供ごとき belittles the child ('the likes of a child'); the rhetorical question makes the tone contemptuous.

• 山のごとき波が押し寄せた。

  Yama no gotoki nami ga oshiyoseta. — Waves as high as mountains came surging in. | Noun + のごとき + noun (波) works like のような + noun.

Examples

• 私の知る限りでは、彼は信頼できる。
  私は知る限りでは、彼は信頼できる。

  Watashi no shiru kagiri de wa, kare wa shinrai dekiru. — As far as I know, he can be trusted. | 知る限りでは limits the judgement to what the speaker knows. 私の知る is a noun-modifying clause, so its subject takes の (or が), not は.

• 法律に違反しない限りにおいて、表現の自由は保障される。

  Hōritsu ni ihan shinai kagiri ni oite, hyōgen no jiyū wa hoshō sareru. — Freedom of expression is guaranteed insofar as it does not break the law. | 限りにおいて is a formal, written way to set the condition under which the main clause holds.

• 見た限りでは、問題はない。

  Mita kagiri de wa, mondai wa nai. — From what I've seen, there is no problem. | The ta-form 見た shows that the judgement rests on what the speaker has already seen; other checks might reveal more.

Examples

• プロでないまでも、なかなか上手だ。

  Puro de nai made mo, nakanaka jōzu da. — He may not be a professional, but he is pretty good. | Noun + でないまでも: the highest level (a professional) is not reached, but a lower level on the same scale (quite skilled) holds.

• 完璧でないまでも、十分な結果だ。
  完璧ないまでも、十分な結果だ。

  Kanpeki de nai made mo, jūbun na kekka da. — It may not be perfect, but it is a satisfactory result. | Na-adjective + でないまでも. 完璧 needs で before ない, so 完璧ないまでも is wrong.

• 天才でないまでも、頭はいい。

  Tensai de nai made mo, atama wa ii. — He may not be a genius, but he is certainly clever. | は on 頭 marks the lower level that does hold.

Examples

• 先生ともあろう人が、そんな間違いをするとは。
  先生ともあろうが、そんな間違いをするとは。

  Sensei to mo arō hito ga, sonna machigai o suru to wa. — To think that a teacher, of all people, would make such a mistake! | ともあろう is followed by 人 (or 者) + が. Ending in 〜とは。 leaves out a word such as 驚いた ('I am shocked').

• 大臣ともあろう者が、嘘をつくとは情けない。

  Daijin to mo arō mono ga, uso o tsuku to wa nasakenai. — It is shameful that a minister, of all people, would lie. | 者 sounds harsher than 人; 情けない ('shameful') states the criticism openly.

• 専門家ともあろう人が、それを知らないとは。

  Senmonka to mo arō hito ga, sore o shiranai to wa. — To think that an expert would not know that! | An expert is expected to know; ともあろう stresses how far the person falls short of that role.

Examples

• 本日はご多用の中、ご出席いただき、心よりお礼申し上げます。
  本日はご多用の中、ご出席していただき、心よりお礼申し上げます。

  Honjitsu wa go-tayō no naka, go-shusseki itadaki, kokoro yori o-rei mōshi-agemasu. — Thank you from the bottom of my heart for attending today, busy as you are. | The host's standard opening: 本日 and ご多用の中 are the formal words for 'today' and 'busy', and お礼申し上げます is the humble way to thank. The guests' attending takes ご + noun + いただく; ご出席していただき is often heard, but it is considered incorrect keigo because it builds on the humble ご出席する.

• 心よりお悔やみ申し上げます。
  重ね重ねお悔やみ申し上げます。

  Kokoro yori o-kuyami mōshi-agemasu. — Please accept my heartfelt condolences. | The standard condolence: お悔やみ + humble 申し上げます, strengthened with 心より. 重ね重ね ('again and again') is a repeated word (重ね言葉), avoided at funerals because it suggests that misfortune will repeat.

• これをもちまして、披露宴をお開きとさせていただきます。
  これをもちまして、披露宴を終わりとさせていただきます。

  Kore o mochimashite, hirōen o o-hiraki to sasete itadakimasu. — With this, we bring the reception to a close. | Words of ending and separation are taboo at weddings, so the master of ceremonies closes the reception with お開き ('opening up') instead of 終わり. これをもちまして is the formal 'with this'.

Examples

• ご令息のご入学、心よりお祝い申し上げます。
  愚息のご入学、心よりお祝い申し上げます。

  Go-reisoku no go-nyūgaku, kokoro yori o-iwai mōshi-agemasu. — My heartfelt congratulations on your son's starting school. | ご令息 is the honorific word for the reader's son. 愚息 means 'my son', so it cannot refer to the reader's child, and your own son's school entry would not take ご.

• ご尊父様のご逝去の報に接し、謹んでお悔やみ申し上げます。

  Go-sonpu-sama no go-seikyo no hō ni sesshi, tsutsushinde o-kuyami mōshi-agemasu. — On hearing of your father's passing, I offer my deepest condolences. | The standard opening of a condolence letter: ご尊父様 raises the reader's father, and ご逝去 is the honorific word for his death. For the reader's mother, write ご母堂様.

• 貴殿のご活躍を心よりお祈り申し上げます。

  Kiden no go-katsuyaku o kokoro yori o-inori mōshi-agemasu. — I sincerely wish you every success. | 貴殿 is the written 'you' of formal letters and official notices, traditionally to a man of equal or higher rank. In speech, use the person's name instead.

Examples

• 恐れ入りますが、明日の会議を欠席させていただきたく存じます。
  恐れ入りますが、明日の会議を欠席していただきたく存じます。 (intended: I'm sorry to trouble you, but I would like to be excused from tomorrow's meeting.)

  Osore-irimasu ga, ashita no kaigi o kesseki sasete itadakitaku zonjimasu. — I'm sorry to trouble you, but I would like to be excused from tomorrow's meeting. | Your own absence needs the other person's permission, so the causative 欠席させて + いただきたく存じます is used. Without させ, 欠席していただきたく存じます asks the other person to stay away from the meeting.

• 恐れ入りますが、少々お時間をいただけますでしょうか。

  Osore-irimasu ga, shōshō o-jikan o itadakemasu deshō ka. — I'm sorry to trouble you, but could you spare me a moment? | The cushion 恐れ入りますが prepares the request, and いただけますでしょうか is a very polite 'could I receive'.

• ご協力のほど、お願い申し上げます。

  Go-kyōryoku no hodo, o-negai mōshi-agemasu. — We kindly ask for your cooperation. | のほど makes the request less direct, and お願い申し上げます is the most formal 'I ask'. Notices and letters often add よろしく: ご協力のほど、よろしくお願い申し上げます.

Examples

• 今は昔、竹取の翁といふ者ありけり。

  Ima wa mukashi, taketori no okina to iu mono arikeri. — Long ago, there was a man known as the old bamboo cutter. | The famous opening of The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter (竹取物語). けり after the continuative あり marks the past of a tale the narrator knows from tradition; modern Japanese would say いた. いふ is the old spelling of いう.

• やうやう白くなりゆく山ぎは、すこしあかりて、紫だちたる雲のほそくたなびきたる。

  Yōyō shiroku nariyuku yamagiwa, sukoshi akarite, murasakidachitaru kumo no hosoku tanabikitaru. — Gradually the sky along the mountain ridge grows white and a little brighter, and thin purple-tinged clouds trail across it. | From the opening of The Pillow Book (枕草子), right after 春はあけぼの ('In spring, the dawn'). たる is the attributive form of たり ('has … and stays so'), so たなびきたる = modern たなびいている. やうやう is read ようよう, 'gradually'.

• この理を知るべし。

  Kono kotowari o shiru beshi. — One must understand this principle. | べし after the conclusive form 知る means 'should, must'; modern Japanese would say 知るべきだ or 知らなければならない.

Examples

• 外がやけに静かだと思ったら、夜のうちに雪が積もっていたのだ。

  Soto ga yake ni shizuka da to omottara, yoru no uchi ni yuki ga tsumotte ita no da. — I had wondered why it was so quiet outside: snow had piled up during the night. | 〜と思ったら sets up a puzzle, and のだ gives the revelation behind it, a typical narrative use. In conversation the sentence would end in 〜んだ or 〜んです.

• ただ前に進むのみ。

  Tada mae ni susumu nomi. — There is nothing to do but go forward. | Verb + のみ at the end of a sentence means 'all that is left is to …'. のみ is the written 'only'; in conversation, use だけ (前に進むだけだ).

• これぞ、まさに職人の技である。

  Kore zo, masa ni shokunin no waza de aru. — This, indeed, is true craftsmanship. | これぞ keeps the old emphatic ぞ after a noun ('this, and nothing else'); it is a literary set phrase, also used in advertising. Elsewhere in modern Japanese, ぞ normally comes at the end of a sentence.

Examples

• 本研究では、大学生200名を対象に調査を実施した。
  本研究では、大学生200名を対象に調査をやった。

  Honkenkyū de wa, daigakusei nihyakumei o taishō ni chōsa o jisshi shita. — In this study, a survey was carried out among 200 university students. | Academic writing uses kango such as 本研究, 対象 and 実施する ('carry out'). やる is everyday speech and clashes with the academic frame; the formal native verb 行う would also be correct.

• 調査の結果、回答者の大半がこの案に賛成した。

  Chōsa no kekka, kaitōsha no taihan ga kono an ni sansei shita. — The survey showed that most respondents supported the plan. | 大半 ('the greater part', more than half) suits reports and news. It is not simply a formal ほとんど: ほとんど would claim that almost all respondents agreed.

• クラスのほとんどの人が、その案に賛成しました。

  Kurasu no hotondo no hito ga, sono an ni sansei shimashita. — Almost everyone in the class agreed with the idea. | ほとんど ('almost all') is the everyday word. It usually means more than 大半, which can be just over half.

Examples

• 拝啓　春暖の候、ますますご清栄のこととお慶び申し上げます。
  前略　春暖の候、ますますご清栄のこととお慶び申し上げます。

  Haikei, shundan no kō, masumasu go-seiei no koto to o-yorokobi mōshi-agemasu. — Dear Sir or Madam, in this warm spring season, I am glad to know that you are prospering more than ever. | The standard opening: 拝啓, a seasonal greeting (春暖の候 suits April) and a greeting about the reader's wellbeing. 前略 means 'skipping the preliminaries', so neither a seasonal greeting nor a wellbeing greeting can follow it.

• 平素は格別のご高配を賜り、厚くお礼申し上げます。

  Heiso wa kakubetsu no go-kōhai o tamawari, atsuku o-rei mōshi-agemasu. — We are deeply grateful for your exceptional support at all times. | A thank-you line that business letters place after the wellbeing greeting: ご高配 is 'your kind consideration', 賜る the humble 'receive', and 厚くお礼申し上げます a very formal 'thank you'.

• 前略　早速ですが、用件のみ申し上げます。

  Zenryaku, sassoku desu ga, yōken nomi mōshi-agemasu. — Please excuse the omission of the usual greetings; let me come straight to the point. | 前略 opens a short or urgent letter to someone you know well and is followed directly by the body, with no seasonal or wellbeing greeting. Its closing word is 草々.

Examples

• 本研究の結果から、睡眠不足が学習効率を低下させると考えられる。
  本研究の結果から、睡眠不足が学習効率を低下させると思う。

  Hon kenkyū no kekka kara, suimin busoku ga gakushū kōritsu o teika saseru to kangaerareru. — The results of this study suggest that lack of sleep lowers learning efficiency. | 〜と考えられる presents the conclusion as following from the evidence. Plain 〜と思う states the writer's personal opinion, which sounds subjective in a research paper.

• 以上のことから、この指導法は高齢の学習者にも有効であると言える。
  以上のことから、この指導法は高齢の学習者にも有効であると言われる。 (intended: From the above, it can be said that this teaching method is also effective for older learners.)

  Ijō no koto kara, kono shidōhō wa kōrei no gakushūsha ni mo yūkō de aru to ieru. — From the above, it can be said that this teaching method is also effective for older learners. | 〜と言える draws a conclusion that the preceding evidence supports. 〜と言われる means 'people say', so it would turn the writer's own conclusion into hearsay.

• 夏目漱石は、近代日本文学を代表する作家とされる。

  Natsume Sōseki wa, kindai Nihon bungaku o daihyō suru sakka to sareru. — Natsume Sōseki is regarded as one of the leading writers of modern Japanese literature. | 〜とされる reports a view that is generally accepted, not a finding of the writer's own study.

Examples

• 政府は8日、新たな経済対策を発表した。

  Seifu wa yōka, arata na keizai taisaku o happyō shita. — On the 8th, the government announced new economic measures. | A typical lead: the subject with は, then the date, then the event in the plain past 〜た. Radio and TV news would say the same sentence with 発表しました.

• 首相は記者団に対し、「国民の生活を守ることが最優先だ」と述べた。

  Shushō wa kishadan ni taishi, "Kokumin no seikatsu o mamoru koto ga saiyūsen da" to nobeta. — The prime minister told reporters, "Protecting people's livelihoods is the top priority." | 「…」と述べた is the standard attribution for a formal statement. 記者団に対し means 'to reporters'.

• 事故は8日午前10時ごろ、東京都内の交差点で発生した。

  Jiko wa yōka gozen jūji goro, Tōkyō tonai no kōsaten de hassei shita. — The accident happened at around 10 a.m. on the 8th at an intersection in Tokyo. | News gives the exact date, time and place. Sino-Japanese 発生した ('occurred') is the usual news verb for accidents and incidents.

Examples

• 申請者は、申請書及び住民票の写しを5月31日までに提出すること。

  Shinseisha wa, shinseisho oyobi jūminhyō no utsushi o gogatsu sanjūichinichi made ni teishutsu suru koto. — Applicants must submit the application form and a copy of their residence certificate by 31 May. | 〜すること at the end of a rule states a requirement without addressing anyone directly. 及び is the written 'and' of official texts.

• 事業者は、あらかじめ本人の同意を得ないで、個人データを第三者に提供してはならない。

  Jigyōsha wa, arakajime honnin no dōi o enaide, kojin dēta o daisansha ni teikyō shite wa naranai. — Businesses must not give personal data to a third party without first obtaining the consent of the person concerned. | 本人 is the person the data is about, and 第三者 is anyone other than the business and that person. 〜てはならない ('must not') states a legal prohibition.

• この規定に違反した者は、30万円以下の罰金に処する。

  Kono kitei ni ihan shita mono wa, sanjūman en ika no bakkin ni shosuru. — Anyone who violates this provision shall be punished by a fine of up to 300,000 yen. | 〜者 ('a person who') defines who the rule covers, and 〜に処する is the standard formula for a penalty. 以下 includes the amount itself.

Examples

• 「今度の土曜日、一緒に映画を見に行きませんか。」「土曜日はちょっと……。」

  Kondo no doyōbi, issho ni eiga o mi ni ikimasen ka. / Doyōbi wa chotto… — 'Would you like to go and see a film together this Saturday?' / 'Saturday is a bit …' | Leaving the sentence unfinished after ちょっと is a clear but polite refusal. The reason stays unsaid, and the person who asked should not press for it.

• 「この資料、明日までにお願いできますか。」「明日までですか。それはちょっと難しいですね。」

  Kono shiryō, ashita made ni onegai dekimasu ka. / Ashita made desu ka. Sore wa chotto muzukashii desu ne. — 'Could you get these documents done by tomorrow?' / 'By tomorrow? That would be rather difficult.' | In reply to a request, 難しいですね usually means no. It does not mean 'difficult, but I will try'.

• 「新しいプランの資料です。ぜひご検討ください。」「ありがとうございます。社内で検討させていただきます。」

  Atarashii puran no shiryō desu. Zehi go-kentō kudasai. / Arigatō gozaimasu. Shanai de kentō sasete itadakimasu. — 'Here are the materials for our new plan. We hope you will consider it.' / 'Thank you. We will discuss it internally.' | 検討させていただきます ('we will consider it') can be sincere, but without a date or a next step it often signals a polite no.

Examples

• 「寝坊して、パジャマのまま学校に行っちゃった。」「それは草。」

  Nebō shite, pajama no mama gakkō ni itchatta. / Sore wa kusa. — 'I overslept and went to school still in my pyjamas.' / 'LOL.' | 草 ('grass') means 'lol': w, short for 笑 ('laugh'), was typed as www, which looks like grass. It started in online chat and is now also spoken among young people.

• 「月曜日の朝って、本当に起きたくないよね。」「わかりみが深い。」

  Getsuyōbi no asa tte, hontō ni okitakunai yo ne. / Wakarimi ga fukai. — 'On Monday mornings you really don't want to get up, do you?' / 'I feel that so much.' | わかりみ adds the noun suffix み to the verb わかる ('understand'), which standard Japanese does not do; 〜が深い ('is deep') makes it stronger.

• このケーキ、かわいすぎ！

  Kono kēki, kawaisugi! — This cake is sooo cute! | Standard 〜すぎる means 'too much' and usually criticises (高すぎる 'too expensive'). In casual speech and on social media, 〜すぎ (often without る) with a positive word such as かわいい is an exclamation of delight; with a negative word it still complains (高すぎ！ 'way too expensive!').

Examples

• 少子化は深刻な問題である。したがって、早急に対策を考えなければならない。
  少子化は深刻な問題である。したがって、早急に対策を考えなきゃならない。

  Shōshika wa shinkoku na mondai de aru. Shitagatte, sōkyū ni taisaku o kangaenakereba naranai. — The falling birth rate is a serious problem. We must therefore think about measures urgently. | The whole text stays in written style: である, したがって and the full form 〜なければならない. The spoken contraction 〜なきゃ breaks it.

• 資料を添付いたしました。ご確認ください。
  資料を添付いたしました。確認してね。

  Shiryō o tenpu itashimashita. Go-kakunin kudasai. — I have attached the documents. Please check them. | A business email keeps the same level of keigo in every sentence. After 添付いたしました, the casual request 確認してね is a jarring drop.

• 拝啓　春暖の候、ますますご清栄のこととお喜び申し上げます。
  拝啓　春暖の候、お元気？

  Haikei shundan no kō, masumasu go-seiei no koto to o-yorokobi mōshiagemasu. — Dear Sir or Madam, in this warm spring season, I am delighted to know that you continue to prosper. | A letter that opens with 拝啓 and a seasonal greeting (春暖の候) continues in formal keigo. A casual question such as お元気？ clashes with the formal frame.

Examples

• 何度も試行錯誤を重ねた末、ようやく新しい製法が完成した。
  何度も思考錯誤を重ねた末、ようやく新しい製法が完成した。

  Nando mo shikō sakugo o kasaneta sue, yōyaku atarashii seihō ga kansei shita. — After much trial and error, a new production method was finally completed. | 試行錯誤 (しこうさくご) often appears in the set phrases 試行錯誤を重ねる and 試行錯誤の末 ('after much trial and error'); here 末 ('after, in the end') follows the ta-form: 重ねた末. Its first half is 試行 ('trying out'); 思考 ('thinking') has the same reading but is the wrong word.

• 二人は長年のライバルとして切磋琢磨し、ともに日本を代表する選手に成長した。

  Futari wa naganen no raibaru to shite sessa takuma shi, tomo ni Nihon o daihyō suru senshu ni seichō shita. — As long-time rivals, the two pushed each other to improve, and both grew into athletes who represent Japan. | 切磋琢磨 (せっさたくま) works as a verb with する and is always positive: people improve by studying, training or competing together.

• 会議中に部下を大声で侮辱するなど、言語道断だ。

  Kaigichū ni buka o ōgoe de bujoku suru nado, gongo dōdan da. — Loudly insulting a subordinate in the middle of a meeting is outrageous. | 言語道断 (ごんごどうだん) condemns behaviour that is too bad for words. It keeps the Buddhist reading ごんご, not げんご, and works as a noun with だ.

Examples

• 一度、腹を割って話し合いませんか。
  一度、腹を開いて話し合いませんか。

  Ichido, hara o watte hanashiaimasen ka. — Why don't we sit down and have a frank talk? | 腹を割って話す ('split open one's belly and talk') means 'talk frankly, hiding nothing'. The verb is fixed as 割る: 開く belongs to a different idiom, 心を開く ('open one's heart'), and 腹を開いて is not an idiom.

• 自分のミスは棚に上げて、部下ばかり責める上司もいる。

  Jibun no misu wa tana ni agete, buka bakari semeru jōshi mo iru. — Some bosses ignore their own mistakes and blame only their staff. | 棚に上げる ('put up on the shelf') means to leave something aside. With 自分の〜は it criticises someone who ignores their own faults while blaming others.

• 先方の顔を立てて、今回はこちらが譲ることにしました。

  Senpō no kao o tatete, konkai wa kochira ga yuzuru koto ni shimashita. — To let the other party save face, we decided to give way this time. | 顔を立てる means 'act so that someone keeps face'. 先方 ('the other party') is common in business, and the opposite idiom is 顔をつぶす ('make someone lose face').

Examples

• 当社は、すべての製品の品質を保証しております。
  当社は、すべての製品の品質を保障しております。

  Tōsha wa, subete no seihin no hinshitsu o hoshō shite orimasu. — We guarantee the quality of all our products. | 保証 (証 = proof) is a promise that something is reliable, as in 品質保証 and 保証書 ('warranty'). 保障 protects a state or a right from harm (社会保障), so it does not go with 品質.

• 工事で被害を受けた住民に対し、会社が損害を補償した。

  Kōji de higai o uketa jūmin ni taishi, kaisha ga songai o hoshō shita. — The company compensated the residents who had suffered damage from the construction work. | 補償 (償 = make amends) is compensation for a loss or damage: 損害を補償する, 補償金 ('compensation money').

• 少子高齢化が進む中、社会保障制度の見直しが急がれている。

  Shōshi kōreika ga susumu naka, shakai hoshō seido no minaoshi ga isogarete iru. — With fewer children being born and the population ageing, the social security system urgently needs reform. | 保障 (障 = barrier) protects a state or a right from harm: 社会保障 ('social security'), 安全保障 ('national security'), 権利を保障する.

Examples

• 展示会の会期は3月1日〜5日です。
  展示会の会期は3月1日ー5日です。

  Tenjikai no kaiki wa sangatsu tsuitachi kara itsuka made desu. — The exhibition runs from 1 to 5 March. | 〜 marks a range and is read から…まで. ー is the katakana long-vowel mark (as in コーヒー), which Japanese input often produces when you type a hyphen; it cannot mark a range.

• マリー・キュリーは、ノーベル賞を二度受賞した。

  Marī Kyurī wa, Nōberushō o nido jushō shita. — Marie Curie won the Nobel Prize twice. | In a foreign name written in katakana, ・ separates the given name and the family name. Japanese names in kanji are written without it (山田花子).

• 入場料は大人・子ども共通で500円です。

  Nyūjōryō wa otona kodomo kyōtsū de gohyakuen desu. — Admission is 500 yen for adults and children alike. | ・ joins short, parallel nouns, as is common in notices and price lists. Longer items and whole phrases are separated with 、 instead.

Examples

• 夜が更けるにつれて、雪がしんしんと降り積もった。

  Yoru ga fukeru ni tsurete, yuki ga shinshin to furitsumotta. — As the night deepened, the snow fell silently and steadily and piled up. | しんしんと describes snow falling without a sound, on and on. It is the typical partner of 雪が降る and 降り積もる.

• 風が吹くたびに、桜の花びらがはらはらと散っていく。

  Kaze ga fuku tabi ni, sakura no hanabira ga harahara to chitte iku. — Every time the wind blows, cherry petals flutter down one after another. | はらはらと describes light things such as petals, leaves or tears falling one after another. With と it describes falling; はらはらする means 'feel anxious'.

• 一枚の枯れ葉が、はらりと足元に落ちた。

  Ichimai no kareha ga, harari to ashimoto ni ochita. — A single dead leaf drifted down at my feet. | The り form はらりと describes one light thing falling once, while the doubled はらはらと is for many falling one after another. り forms sound especially literary.

Examples

• このたびは、心よりお悔やみ申し上げます。
  このたびは、重ね重ねお悔やみ申し上げます。

  Kono tabi wa, kokoro yori o-kuyami mōshi-agemasu. — Please accept my sincere condolences. | 心より ('from the heart') is the standard intensifier in condolences. 重ね重ね ('again and again') is fine in thanks, but at a funeral doubled words suggest that misfortune will repeat, so they are avoided.

• 故人のご冥福を心よりお祈りいたします。

  Kojin no go-meifuku o kokoro yori o-inori itashimasu. — I pray from my heart for the peace of the departed. | 冥福 is happiness in the next world, a Buddhist idea, so this phrase belongs to Buddhist funerals. It is used mainly in writing: telegrams, letters and messages.

• お父様のご逝去の報に接し、謹んでお悔やみ申し上げます。

  Otōsama no go-seikyo no hō ni sesshi, tsutsushinde o-kuyami mōshi-agemasu. — On hearing the sad news of your father's passing, I offer my respectful condolences. | ご逝去 ('passing') is the honorific word for the death of someone else's relative, and 〜の報に接し ('on hearing the news of …') is a fixed written opening. 謹んで ('respectfully') adds formality.