Lenguia | C1 French Grammar: 32 Topics & Examples

At C1 you write the passé simple yourself, for the main events of a literary or historical narrative. -er verbs end in -ai, -as, -a, -âmes, -âtes, -èrent (il parla, ils parlèrent). Other verbs take -it / -irent (il finit, il prit, il vit), -ut / -urent (il fut, il eut, il put) or -int / -inrent (il vint, il tint), and the irregular ones must be learned verb by verb. The nous and vous forms carry a circumflex (nous parlâmes, vous fîtes). Keep the imparfait for background and the passé composé for conversation: 'Il pleuvait. Soudain, on frappa à la porte.' (It was raining. Suddenly, someone knocked at the door.)

Key rule

Use the passé simple for the main events of a literary or historical narrative, with the imparfait for background, and never in conversation. Endings: -er verbs -a / -èrent (il parla, ils parlèrent); other verbs -it / -irent (il finit, il prit, il vit), -ut / -urent (il fut, il eut, il connut) or -int / -inrent (il vint); the nous and vous forms take a circumflex (nous parlâmes, vous fîtes).

Examples

Il entra dans la pièce et vit un étranger.
Il entra dans la pièce et vut un étranger.
entrer is an -er verb: il entra. voir belongs to the i type, il vit, even though its past participle is vu, so 'vut' does not exist. English: He entered the room and saw a stranger.
Napoléon mourut en 1821 à Sainte-Hélène.
Napoléon mourit en 1821 à Sainte-Hélène.
mourir is an -ir verb, but its passé simple belongs to the u type: il mourut, ils moururent (like courir: il courut). 'Mourit' does not exist. English: Napoleon died in 1821 on Saint Helena.
Elle prit son manteau et sortit en courant.
Elle prena son manteau et sortit en courant.
prendre has the short stem pr- in the passé simple: je pris, elle prit, ils prirent. The ending -a belongs only to -er verbs. sortir takes the i type, like partir: elle sortit. English: She grabbed her coat and ran out.

Common mistakes

Passé composé mixed into a passé simple narrative
Il ouvrit la porte et a vu un étranger.
Il ouvrit la porte et vit un étranger.
In a narrative written in the passé simple, all the main events take the passé simple. The passé composé belongs to speech, including dialogue inside the story.
Passé simple built on the -iss- stem
Ils finissèrent leur repas en silence.
Ils finirent leur repas en silence.
Regular -ir verbs form the passé simple on the short stem, without the -iss- of nous finissons, and take the i-type endings: il finit, ils finirent. The ending -èrent is only for -er verbs.

C1Verb tenses

Passé Antérieur - Active Production

Passé antérieur - Production

In a story told in the passé simple, the passé antérieur marks a single action completed just before the next one. Form: the passé simple of avoir or être + past participle (il eut fini, elle fut partie, elle se fut assise). It mostly follows quand, lorsque, dès que, aussitôt que, une fois que, après que or à peine ... que, and the main verb is in the passé simple: 'Quand il eut fini, il partit.' (When he had finished, he left.) In everyday French, say 'Quand il a fini, il est parti' or 'Après avoir fini, il est parti'.

Key rule

Passé antérieur = passé simple of avoir or être + past participle, with the same auxiliary and agreement as in the passé composé (il eut fini, elle fut partie). Use it only in a passé simple narrative, for a single action completed just before the main one, mostly after quand, lorsque, dès que, aussitôt que, une fois que, après que or à peine ... que; for a repeated action, use the plus-que-parfait + imparfait.

Examples

Quand il eut fini son discours, il quitta la tribune.
Quand il eut fini son discours, il a quitté la tribune.
eut fini is the passé antérieur of finir, an avoir verb: the speech was over just before he left. The passé antérieur only goes with a main verb in the passé simple (quitta); with the passé composé it mixes two systems. English: When he had finished his speech, he left the rostrum.
Dès qu'elle fut partie, nous commençâmes à discuter.
Dès qu'elle eut parti, nous commençâmes à discuter.
partir takes être in compound tenses (elle est partie), so its passé antérieur is elle fut partie, with agreement. English: As soon as she had left, we began to talk.
À peine fut-il entré qu'on l'applaudit.
À peine fût-il entré qu'on l'applaudit.
À peine at the start of the sentence brings inversion: fut-il entré. The auxiliary is the passé simple fut, with no circumflex; fût-il is an imperfect subjunctive, as in 'fût-il roi' (even if he were king). English: He had barely come in when people applauded him.

Common mistakes

Passé composé main verb after a passé antérieur
Dès qu'il eut reçu la lettre, il a répondu.
Dès qu'il eut reçu la lettre, il répondit.
The passé antérieur only goes with a main verb in the passé simple. In a story told in the passé composé, write 'Dès qu'il a reçu la lettre, il a répondu'.
'avoir' with a verb that takes 'être'
Aussitôt qu'elle eut arrivé, elle téléphona à sa mère.
Aussitôt qu'elle fut arrivée, elle téléphona à sa mère.
The passé antérieur keeps the auxiliary of the passé composé: elle est arrivée, so elle fut arrivée, with agreement.

C1Verb tenses

Surcomposé Tenses (j'ai eu fait)

Temps surcomposés

The passé surcomposé adds a second auxiliary: the passé composé of avoir + the past participle of a verb that takes avoir (j'ai eu fini, il a eu terminé). In a story told in the passé composé, it stresses that one action was over before the next, mostly after quand, dès que, aussitôt que, une fois que or après que: 'Quand j'ai eu fini, je suis parti.' (When I had finished, I left.) It belongs to speech and informal writing. The plain passé composé is also correct ('Quand j'ai fini, je suis parti'), and formal writing prefers 'Après avoir fini, je suis parti'.

Key rule

Passé surcomposé = passé composé of avoir + past participle of a verb that takes avoir (j'ai eu fini); eu never agrees, and object pronouns go before the first auxiliary (je l'ai eu lu). Use it, mainly in speech, after quand, dès que, aussitôt que, une fois que or après que when the main verb is in the passé composé; with a passé simple main verb, use the passé antérieur instead (quand il eut fini, il partit).

Examples

Quand j'ai eu fini mon travail, je suis parti.
Quand j'ai eu fini mon travail, je partis.
j'ai eu fini is the passé surcomposé: the passé composé of avoir (j'ai eu) + fini. It belongs to a story told in the passé composé (je suis parti). With a passé simple main verb, literary French uses the passé antérieur: 'Quand j'eus fini mon travail, je partis.' English: When I had finished my work, I left.
Dès qu'il a eu terminé, il est sorti.
Dès qu'il est eu terminé, il est sorti.
The extra auxiliary eu is the participle of avoir, so it is always conjugated with avoir: il a eu terminé. The être of il est sorti belongs to sortir, not to the surcomposé. English: As soon as he had finished, he went out.
Après qu'elle a eu mangé, elle est allée se coucher.
Après qu'elle a eue mangé, elle est allée se coucher.
eu never agrees, even with a feminine subject: elle a eu mangé. Note also that après que takes the indicative. English: After she had eaten, she went to bed.

Common mistakes

Passé surcomposé with a passé simple main verb
Quand il a eu fini, il partit.
Quand il a eu fini, il est parti.
The passé surcomposé belongs to a story told in the passé composé. In a passé simple narrative, the matching form is the passé antérieur: 'Quand il eut fini, il partit.'
'être' instead of 'avoir' before 'eu'
Dès qu'elle est eu terminé, elle est sortie.
Dès qu'elle a eu terminé, elle est sortie.
eu is the participle of avoir, so the first auxiliary is always avoir: j'ai eu, tu as eu, elle a eu.

C1Verb usage

Ne Explétif (Advanced Usage)

Ne explétif - Avancé

The ne explétif is a ne without pas that does not make the sentence negative. Careful French can add it after avant que, à moins que, de peur que, verbs of fear (craindre que, avoir peur que), éviter que and comparisons of inequality (plus / moins ... que + a clause): 'Je crains qu'il ne soit trop tard' (I'm afraid it's too late), 'Il est plus grand que je ne pensais' (He's taller than I thought). It is optional: without it, the sentence means the same. With pas, the negation becomes real.

Key rule

The ne explétif is an optional, non-negative ne before the verb after avant que, à moins que, de peur que, craindre / avoir peur que, éviter que and comparisons of inequality (plus / moins / mieux ... que + clause). It never takes pas, does not follow aussi ... que, bien que or pour que, and leaves the mood unchanged: subjunctive after the conjunctions and verbs of fear, indicative after comparisons.

Examples

Je pars avant qu'il n'arrive.
Je pars avant qu'il n'arrive pas. (intended: I'm leaving before he arrives.)
After avant que, the ne explétif has no negative meaning: the sentence means 'before he arrives'. Adding pas turns it into a real negation ('before he doesn't arrive'), which is not what is meant. Note the elision before a vowel: n'arrive. English: I'm leaving before he arrives.
Je viendrai, à moins qu'il ne pleuve.
Je viendrai, à moins qu'il ne pleut.
À moins que always takes the subjunctive (pleuve), and the ne explétif does not change that. Without ne, 'à moins qu'il pleuve' is equally correct. English: I'll come, unless it rains.
Je crains qu'il ne soit trop tard.
Je crains qu'il ne soit pas trop tard. (intended: I'm afraid it's too late.)
After a verb of fear, ne alone is not negative: the fear is that it is too late. With pas, the meaning flips: 'I'm afraid it isn't too late'. English: I'm afraid it's too late.

Common mistakes

'pas' added to a ne explétif
Fermez la fenêtre avant qu'il ne fasse pas froid. (intended: Close the window before it gets cold.)
Fermez la fenêtre avant qu'il ne fasse froid.
The ne after avant que is not negative, so it never takes pas. With pas, the clause means 'before it isn't cold'.
ne explétif after a comparison of equality
C'est aussi difficile que je ne le craignais.
C'est aussi difficile que je le craignais.
The ne explétif follows only comparisons of inequality (plus, moins, mieux, meilleur, pire, autre ... que). After aussi ... que, write the clause without ne.

C1Verb usage

Faire / Rendre / Laisser - Causative Nuances (advanced)

Faire/rendre/laisser - Nuances

Faire + infinitive means 'make someone do something' or 'have something done': 'Je fais réparer ma voiture' (I'm having my car repaired). Laisser + infinitive means 'let': 'Je les laisse jouer' (I let them play). Se faire + infinitive is for something done to you, a service or a misfortune: 'Il s'est fait voler son portefeuille' (He had his wallet stolen). 'Make' + adjective is rendre: 'Ce bruit me rend nerveux.' Object pronouns go before faire or laisser, and fait + infinitive never agrees: 'la voiture que j'ai fait réparer'.

Key rule

Faire + infinitive (make, have done) keeps the infinitive right after faire ('J'ai fait venir le médecin'). Object pronouns go before faire or laisser ('Je le fais réparer', 'Je les laisse jouer'); if the infinitive has its own object, the doer becomes lui / leur or à / par ('Je leur fais lire ce livre'). Fait + infinitive never agrees ('Elle s'est fait couper les cheveux'), and 'make' + adjective is rendre ('Ça me rend nerveux').

Examples

Je fais réparer ma voiture par le garagiste.
Je fais ma voiture réparer par le garagiste.
With faire, the infinitive comes right after faire and the noun follows it: faire réparer ma voiture. Par introduces the person who does the job. English: I'm having my car repaired by the mechanic.
Le bruit constant la rend nerveuse.
Le bruit constant la fait nerveuse.
'Make' + adjective is rendre, and the adjective agrees with the person (nerveuse). Faire takes an infinitive (ça la fait rire) or a noun of feeling (ça lui fait peur). English: The constant noise makes her nervous.
Je les laisse jouer dans le jardin.
Je laisse les jouer dans le jardin.
With laisser, as with faire, the object pronoun goes before laisser, not before the infinitive that follows it: 'Je les laisse jouer', 'Je vais les laisser jouer'. English: I let them play in the garden.

Common mistakes

Noun placed between 'faire' and the infinitive
J'ai fait mon frère venir.
J'ai fait venir mon frère.
With faire, the infinitive comes straight after faire and the person or thing follows it: faire venir quelqu'un. Only object pronouns go before faire: 'Je l'ai fait venir'.
Pronoun placed before the infinitive
Je vais faire le réparer demain.
Je vais le faire réparer demain.
In a causative, the object pronoun goes before faire, even when faire is itself an infinitive: je vais le faire réparer.

C1Verb usage

Lexical Aspect (Aktionsart)

Aspect lexical

Lexical aspect is the way the action of a verb phrase unfolds in time. States last without change (savoir, connaître, aimer); activities go on with no built-in end (marcher, nager); accomplishments head for an end point (construire une maison, lire un roman); achievements happen at one moment (trouver, arriver). The class guides the time phrase and the tense: pendant says how long a state or an activity lasted ('Il a marché pendant une heure'), en says how long an accomplishment or an achievement took to reach its end ('Il a trouvé la clé en cinq minutes'), and a state in the passé composé often means its beginning: 'J'ai su la vérité' (I found out the truth), 'J'ai connu mon mari en 2000' (I met my husband in 2000).

Key rule

Identify the class of the verb phrase: pendant + duration says how long a state (être malade) or an activity (marcher) lasted, and en + duration says how long an accomplishment (lire un roman) or an achievement (trouver la clé) took to reach its end. In the passé composé, a state either covers a closed period ('Il a vécu dix ans à Paris') or changes meaning: j'ai su = I found out, j'ai connu = I met, j'ai pu = I managed to.

Examples

Dès que j'ai su la vérité, je t'ai appelé.
Dès que je savais la vérité, je t'ai appelé.
savoir is a state. In the passé composé it marks the moment the knowledge begins: j'ai su = I found out. Here the dès que clause gives that one moment, and a single event follows it (je t'ai appelé), so the imparfait, which describes a state already in place, does not fit. English: As soon as I found out the truth, I called you.
J'ai connu mon mari en 2000, à Lyon.
Je connaissais mon mari en 2000, à Lyon. (intended: I met my husband in 2000, in Lyon.)
connaître in the passé composé marks the start of knowing someone: j'ai connu = I met. The imparfait describes the state: 'Je connaissais mon mari en 2000' means that in 2000 you already knew him. English: I met my husband in 2000, in Lyon.
Il a marché pendant une heure.
Il a marché en une heure.
marcher is an activity with no end point, so its length is measured with pendant. En + duration needs an end point: 'Il a marché jusqu'à la gare en une heure.' English: He walked for an hour.

Common mistakes

Imparfait of 'connaître' for meeting someone
Nous nous connaissions en 2015, pendant un stage. (intended: We met in 2015, during an internship.)
Nous nous sommes connus en 2015, pendant un stage.
Se connaître in the passé composé marks the moment you met. The imparfait describes the state: it means you already knew each other in 2015.
'en' with an activity
Elle a nagé en trente minutes.
Elle a nagé pendant trente minutes.
nager has no built-in end point, so its length takes pendant. En + duration needs an end point: 'Elle a nagé un kilomètre en trente minutes.'

C1Subjunctive

Imparfait and Plus-que-parfait du Subjonctif (literary)

Imparfait et plus-que-parfait du subjonctif

Literary French has two extra subjunctive forms. The imperfect subjunctive is built on the passé simple: its il / elle form, by far the most common, is the passé simple with a circumflex on the last vowel, plus -t for -er verbs (il parla → qu'il parlât, il finit → qu'il finît, il vint → qu'il vînt, il fut → qu'il fût, il eut → qu'il eût). The pluperfect subjunctive is the imperfect subjunctive of avoir or être + past participle (qu'il eût parlé, qu'elle fût partie). Classic texts use them after a main verb in the past or the conditional: 'Je voulais qu'il vînt' (I wanted him to come). The pluperfect subjunctive can also replace the past conditional: 'Qui l'eût cru ?' = 'Qui l'aurait cru ?' (Who would have thought it?). Modern French says 'Je voulais qu'il vienne', so learn to recognize these forms and use them only in literary writing or in set phrases such as 'Qui l'eût cru ?'.

Key rule

The imperfect subjunctive is built on the passé simple: its il / elle form adds a circumflex to the last vowel, plus -t for -er verbs (il parla → qu'il parlât, il vint → qu'il vînt, il fut → qu'il fût); the pluperfect subjunctive is the imperfect subjunctive of avoir or être + past participle (qu'il eût parlé, qu'elle fût partie). After a main verb in the past or the conditional, literary French uses the imperfect subjunctive for the same time or later and the pluperfect subjunctive for an earlier action, where modern French uses the present and past subjunctive; the pluperfect subjunctive can also replace the past conditional ('Qui l'eût cru ?' = 'Qui l'aurait cru ?').

Examples

Je voulais qu'il vînt me voir.
Je voulais qu'il vint me voir.
After a main verb in the past (voulais), literary French uses the imperfect subjunctive: vînt, with a circumflex. Without it, vint is the passé simple, an indicative, which cannot follow vouloir que. Everyday French says 'Je voulais qu'il vienne me voir'. English: I wanted him to come and see me.
Elle eût aimé qu'il fût plus attentif.
Two literary forms in one sentence. Eût aimé is the pluperfect subjunctive used as a past conditional (= elle aurait aimé), and fût is the imperfect subjunctive of être, which follows a conditional in literary concordance. Everyday French: 'Elle aurait aimé qu'il soit plus attentif'. English: She would have liked him to be more attentive.
Il fallait qu'elle parlât plus fort.
Il fallait qu'elle parla plus fort.
For -er verbs, the il / elle form of the imperfect subjunctive is the passé simple (elle parla) + -t, with a circumflex: qu'elle parlât. Parla alone is the passé simple and cannot follow il fallait que. Everyday French: 'Il fallait qu'elle parle plus fort'. English: She had to speak louder.

Common mistakes

Passé simple instead of the imperfect subjunctive
Il fallait qu'il vint tout de suite.
Il fallait qu'il vînt tout de suite.
Il fallait que requires the subjunctive. Here the circumflex is the only written difference between the imperfect subjunctive (vînt) and the passé simple (vint); -er verbs also add -t (il parla → qu'il parlât).
-er verb without the -t and the circumflex
Il aurait fallu qu'elle chanta plus juste.
Il aurait fallu qu'elle chantât plus juste.
For -er verbs, the il / elle form of the imperfect subjunctive adds -t and a circumflex to the passé simple: elle chanta → qu'elle chantât.

C1Subjunctive

Subjunctive in Independent Clauses (wishes, orders)

Subjonctif - Propositions indépendantes

The subjunctive can also stand on its own, without a main verb. Most often it follows que, to give an order or express a wish about a third person: 'Qu'il attende !' (Let him wait!), 'Qu'elle soit heureuse !' (May she be happy!), 'Que personne ne bouge !' (Nobody move!). A few fixed formulas have no que: 'Vive la France !', 'Dieu soit loué !', 'Ainsi soit-il', 'Advienne que pourra'. In formal or literary French, puisse + inverted subject expresses a wish: 'Puisse-t-il réussir !' (May he succeed!).

Key rule

To give an order or express a wish about a third person, use que + subjunctive ('Qu'il attende !', 'Qu'elle soit heureuse !'); followed by et, the same pattern states a supposition ('Qu'il fasse un geste, et je tire'). Without que, it appears in fixed formulas (vive, Dieu soit loué, ainsi soit-il, advienne que pourra, soit in mathematics) and in literary wishes with puisse + inverted subject ('Puisse-t-il réussir !').

Examples

Qu'il parte tout de suite !
Il parte tout de suite !
French has no imperative for il or elle, so an order about a third person uses que + subjunctive. Without que, an ordinary subjunctive such as parte cannot stand on its own: 'Il parte !' is not French. English: Let him leave right now!
Vive la France !
Vive is the subjunctive of vivre, used without que in a fixed wish (long live, hurray for). Before a plural noun it usually stays invariable ('Vive les vacances !'); vivent is also correct. English: Long live France!
Puisse-t-il réussir son examen !
Puisse-il réussir son examen !
Puisse (subjunctive of pouvoir) + inverted subject expresses a formal wish. Between the final -e of puisse and il, French inserts -t-, with hyphens: puisse-t-il. Everyday French: 'J'espère qu'il réussira son examen'. English: May he pass his exam!

Common mistakes

Missing que in a third-person order
Elle vienne me voir demain !
Qu'elle vienne me voir demain !
An order or wish about a third person needs que + subjunctive. Only fixed formulas such as vive or Dieu soit loué, and literary wishes with puisse + inverted subject, start without que.
Indicative after que in a third-person order
Qu'il fait ses valises tout de suite !
Qu'il fasse ses valises tout de suite !
In an independent order or wish, que is followed by the subjunctive: fasse, not fait.

C1Subjunctive

Subtle Mood Contrasts That Change Meaning

Indicatif ou subjonctif : nuances de sens

In some structures French can use either the indicative or the subjunctive, and the choice changes the meaning: the indicative presents a fact, the subjunctive a goal, an order, a hypothesis or something not yet found. 'Il a parlé fort, de sorte que tout le monde l'a entendu' (so everyone heard him: a result) is not the same as 'Parle fort, de sorte que tout le monde t'entende' (so that everyone hears you: a goal). The same contrast appears with dire que ('Maman dit que tu viens' = says you're coming; 'Maman dit que tu viennes' = says you should come) and in relative clauses ('J'ai trouvé un appartement qui a un jardin', but 'Je cherche un appartement qui ait un jardin').

Key rule

When both moods are possible, the indicative presents a fact and the subjunctive a goal, an order, a hypothesis or something not established: de sorte que + indicative = result, + subjunctive = goal; dire que + indicative = information, + subjunctive = order; a relative clause takes the indicative for something that exists and the subjunctive for something sought ('un appartement qui a / qui ait un jardin'). Non que always takes the subjunctive, and après que takes the indicative in careful French.

Examples

Parle plus fort, de sorte que tout le monde t'entende.
Parle plus fort, de sorte que tout le monde t'entend.
After an order, de sorte que can only introduce a goal, so it takes the subjunctive: entende. The indicative would state the hearing as an established fact, which makes no sense after an order. English: Speak louder so that everyone can hear you.
Il a parlé fort, de sorte que tout le monde l'a entendu.
Here de sorte que introduces what really happened, so it takes the indicative: a entendu. With the subjunctive, 'Il a parlé fort de sorte que tout le monde l'entende' would only say what he was aiming at, not whether it worked. English: He spoke loudly, so everyone heard him.
Maman dit que tu viennes manger.
Maman dit que tu viens manger. (intended: Mum says you should come and eat.)
Dire que + subjunctive passes on an order: viennes. With the indicative, 'Maman dit que tu viens manger' only reports information: Mum says you are coming to eat. English: Mum says you should come and eat.

Common mistakes

Indicative after de sorte que expressing a goal
Range tes affaires de sorte qu'on peut passer.
Range tes affaires de sorte qu'on puisse passer.
After an order, de sorte que introduces a goal, and a goal takes the subjunctive: puisse.
Indicative after non que
Je reste, non que j'ai peur, mais parce que je suis curieux.
Je reste, non que j'aie peur, mais parce que je suis curieux.
Non que rejects a possible reason and always takes the subjunctive: j'aie, not j'ai. The real reason, after parce que, stays in the indicative.

C1Subjunctive

Fixed Formulas with Relative Subjunctive

Concession au subjonctif : qui que, quoi que, quel que

To say 'whoever', 'whatever', 'wherever' or 'however + adjective' in a concession, French uses fixed structures followed by the subjunctive: qui que (whoever), quoi que (whatever), où que (wherever), quel que + être (whatever + noun, with quel agreeing: 'Quelles que soient tes raisons') and si or aussi + adjective + que (however): 'Où que tu ailles, je te suivrai' (Wherever you go, I'll follow you), 'Si intelligent qu'il soit, il peut se tromper' (However clever he is, he can make mistakes). Quoi que in two words means 'whatever'; quoique in one word means 'although'.

Key rule

Qui que (whoever), quoi que (whatever), où que (wherever), quel que + être (whatever + noun, with quel and the verb agreeing: 'Quelles que soient tes raisons') and si or aussi + adjective + que (however) take the subjunctive, even when the main clause is in the future ('Où que tu ailles, je te suivrai'). Write quoi que and quel que in two words (quoique means 'although'); tout + adjective + que ('Tout brillant qu'il est') concedes a real fact and usually takes the indicative.

Examples

Qui que tu sois, sois le bienvenu.
Qui que tu es, sois le bienvenu.
Qui que (whoever) always takes the subjunctive: sois, not the indicative es. The second sois is the imperative of être. English: Whoever you are, you are welcome.
Quoi qu'il fasse, il n'y arrivera pas.
Quoiqu'il fasse, il n'y arrivera pas.
Quoi que in two words means 'whatever' and takes the subjunctive. Quoique in one word means 'although', which makes no sense here. English: Whatever he does, he won't manage.
Où que tu ailles, je te retrouverai.
Où que tu iras, je te retrouverai.
Où que (wherever) takes the subjunctive, even when the main clause is in the future. There is no future subjunctive: the present subjunctive ailles also covers the future. English: Wherever you go, I'll find you.

Common mistakes

Indicative after qui que
Qui que vous êtes, vous devez respecter les règles.
Qui que vous soyez, vous devez respecter les règles.
Qui que (whoever) refers to any possible person, so it takes the subjunctive: soyez.
'Quoique' (although) instead of 'quoi que' (whatever)
Quoiqu'on dise, il ne changera pas d'avis.
Quoi qu'on dise, il ne changera pas d'avis.
Quoi que in two words means 'whatever'. Quoique in one word means 'although' and needs a complete clause after it.

C1Subjunctive

Full Literary Concordance of Tenses in Subjunctive

Concordance littéraire du subjonctif

Literary French matches the subjunctive to the tense of the main verb. After a main verb in the present or the future, use the present subjunctive for the same time or later and the past subjunctive for an earlier action: 'Je regrette qu'il soit parti.' After a main verb in a past tense or the conditional, classic texts use the imperfect subjunctive for the same time or later and the pluperfect subjunctive for an earlier action: 'Je voulais qu'il vînt' (I wanted him to come), 'Je regrettais qu'il fût parti' (I regretted that he had left). Modern French uses the present and past subjunctive after every tense: 'Je voulais qu'il vienne', 'Je regrettais qu'il soit parti'.

Key rule

Choose the subjunctive by the tense of the main verb and the time of the que-clause. After a present or future main verb, use the present subjunctive (same time or later) or the past subjunctive (earlier); after a past or conditional main verb, literary French uses the imperfect subjunctive (same time or later: 'Je voulais qu'il vînt') or the pluperfect subjunctive (earlier: 'Je regrettais qu'il fût parti'), while modern French keeps the present and past subjunctive ('Je voulais qu'il vienne').

Examples

Je voulais qu'il vînt me voir.
The main verb is in the past (voulais) and the visit comes later, so literary concordance uses the imperfect subjunctive: vînt. Modern French says 'Je voulais qu'il vienne me voir', which is correct in every register, writing included. English: I wanted him to come and see me.
Je veux qu'il vienne me voir.
Je veux qu'il vînt me voir.
After a main verb in the present, an action at the same time or later takes the present subjunctive, in literary French too. The imperfect subjunctive vînt needs a main verb in the past or the conditional. English: I want him to come and see me.
Je regrettais qu'il fût parti sans nous.
Je regrettais qu'il partît sans nous. (intended: I regretted that he had left without us.)
He had left before the regret, so literary concordance uses the pluperfect subjunctive: fût parti. Qu'il partît would mean 'that he was leaving without us', at the time of the regret. Modern French: 'Je regrettais qu'il soit parti sans nous'. English: I regretted that he had left without us.

Common mistakes

Imperfect subjunctive after a present main verb
Je souhaite qu'elle vînt demain.
Je souhaite qu'elle vienne demain.
After a main verb in the present, an action now or later takes the present subjunctive, in literary French as well. The imperfect subjunctive follows a main verb in the past or the conditional.
Imperfect subjunctive for an earlier action
Il regrettait qu'elle partît la veille. (intended: He regretted that she had left the day before.)
Il regrettait qu'elle fût partie la veille.
An action completed before a past main verb takes the pluperfect subjunctive in literary French (fût partie), or the past subjunctive in modern French (soit partie). Qu'elle partît places the departure at the time of the regret or later.

C1Syntax

Advanced Fronting for Focus

Antéposition et mise en relief

To highlight an element, French can put it at the start of the sentence. After peut-être, sans doute, à peine or aussi (meaning 'so') at the start, careful French puts a pronoun subject after the verb: 'Peut-être viendra-t-il demain.' A noun subject stays in front and is repeated by a pronoun after the verb: 'Peut-être Paul viendra-t-il.' Everyday French says 'Peut-être qu'il viendra demain.' A direct object put first is taken up by a pronoun: 'Ce livre, je l'ai lu.'

Key rule

In careful French, peut-être, sans doute, à peine and aussi ('so') at the head of a clause are followed by inversion: 'Peut-être viendra-t-il', or with a noun subject 'Peut-être Paul viendra-t-il'; everyday French says 'Peut-être qu'il viendra'. A fronted direct object is taken up by a pronoun ('Ce livre, je l'ai lu'), and a fronted adjective agrees with the subject after être ('Rares sont ceux qui refusent').

Examples

Peut-être viendra-t-il demain.
Peut-être il viendra demain.
With peut-être at the head, written French inverts the pronoun subject and adds -t- between the two vowels: 'viendra-t-il'. Everyday alternatives are 'Peut-être qu'il viendra demain' and 'Il viendra peut-être demain'. 'Peut-être il viendra', with neither inversion nor que, is heard in casual speech but counts as a mistake in writing. English: Perhaps he'll come tomorrow.
Sans doute Claire a-t-elle raison.
Sans doute a Claire raison.
With a noun subject, the noun stays before the verb and a pronoun is added after it: 'Claire a-t-elle'. Putting the noun itself after the verb ('a Claire') is impossible when the verb has a complement, as here. Note that sans doute means 'probably'. English: Claire is probably right.
À peine était-il arrivé qu'il repartit.
À peine at the head: the pronoun comes after the auxiliary ('était-il arrivé'), and que introduces the next event. The passé simple 'repartit' belongs to written narrative; in speech or an everyday account you would say 'qu'il est reparti'. English: Scarcely had he arrived when he left again.

Common mistakes

No inversion after 'peut-être' at the head
Peut-être il pleuvra demain.
Peut-être pleuvra-t-il demain.
In written French, peut-être at the head of the clause is followed either by inversion or by que: 'Peut-être pleuvra-t-il' or 'Peut-être qu'il pleuvra'. The plain order after it is heard in casual speech but counts as a mistake in writing.
Both 'que' and inversion after 'peut-être'
Peut-être que viendra-t-il ce soir.
Peut-être qu'il viendra ce soir.
Use one strategy only: peut-être que + normal order, or peut-être + inversion ('Peut-être viendra-t-il ce soir'). Combining them is impossible.

C1Syntax

Left Dislocation with Resumptive Pronoun

Dislocation à gauche

In left dislocation you name the topic first, then comment on it in a full clause where a pronoun takes it up: 'Moi, je pense que oui.' 'Ce livre, je l'ai lu.' 'Pierre, je lui ai tout dit.' 'Paris, j'y vais souvent.' It is extremely common in spoken French; writing uses it more sparingly, mainly to introduce or contrast a topic, with a comma after the topic.

Key rule

Left dislocation names the topic first, followed by a comma, and the clause takes it up with the pronoun that would replace it there: a subject pronoun ('Moi, je...', 'Mon père, il...'), le, la, les for a direct object, lui, leur for à + person (but à + stressed pronoun after penser à, s'intéresser à, faire attention à and tenir à: 'Ma sœur, je pense à elle'), y for a place after à, en or dans, en for a quantity or de + thing. When moi or toi is the subject, je or tu must still follow.

Examples

Moi, je pense que c'est vrai.
Moi pense que c'est vrai.
Moi is a stressed pronoun: it names the topic but cannot be the subject of 'pense' on its own, so je must follow. English: Personally, I think it's true.
Jean, il arrive demain.
A noun subject named first is taken up by il, elle, ils or elles. The neutral sentence would be 'Jean arrive demain'; the dislocated version is typical of speech. English: Jean's arriving tomorrow.
Ce livre, je l'ai offert à ma sœur.
Ce livre, j'ai offert à ma sœur.
A direct object put first must be taken up by le, la or les (here l', before a vowel). Without the pronoun, 'offrir' has no direct object. English: That book, I gave it to my sister.

Common mistakes

Stressed pronoun used alone as the subject
Moi pense que oui.
Moi, je pense que oui.
Moi and toi can name the topic, but they cannot be the subject of the verb on their own: je or tu must follow.
Fronted object not taken up by a pronoun
Ce gâteau, j'ai fait moi-même.
Ce gâteau, je l'ai fait moi-même.
A direct object put first must be taken up by le, la, l' or les in the clause; the noun at the front only announces the topic.

C1Syntax

Right Dislocation (colloquial emphasis)

Dislocation à droite

In right dislocation you say the sentence with a pronoun first and add the noun it refers to at the end: 'Il est fou, ce type !' 'Je l'ai adoré, ce film.' 'J'y vais souvent, à Paris.' It is typical of relaxed conversation, for clarifying, reacting or emphasising. Keep the pronoun in the clause, and put a comma before the final noun.

Key rule

In right dislocation the clause comes first with a pronoun, and the noun it stands for is added at the end after a comma: 'Je l'ai adoré, ce film.' 'Je lui ai parlé, à Paul.' The clause must be complete without that noun; with c'est, the adjective stays masculine singular ('C'est cher, les fraises').

Examples

Il arrive demain, Jean.
Arrive demain, Jean. (intended: Jean is arriving tomorrow.)
The clause needs its subject pronoun il; 'Jean' at the end only identifies him. Without il, 'Arrive demain, Jean' is an order addressed to Jean (Arrive tomorrow, Jean). English: He's arriving tomorrow, Jean is.
Je l'ai réparé, ton vélo.
J'ai réparé, ton vélo.
The clause keeps its object pronoun 'l'', and the noun at the end only reminds the listener what it refers to. Without the pronoun, 'réparé' has no object in its own clause. English: I fixed it, your bike.
Elle est belle, ta robe !
A spontaneous compliment: elle refers to 'ta robe', and the adjective agrees with it (belle). English: It's beautiful, your dress!

Common mistakes

Object pronoun missing from the clause
J'ai déjà lu, ce roman.
Je l'ai déjà lu, ce roman.
The clause must be complete without the noun at the end, so it keeps its object pronoun (le, la, l', les). The final noun only repeats who or what you mean.
Direct object pronoun for 'à + person'
Je l'ai téléphoné ce matin, à Sophie.
Je lui ai téléphoné ce matin, à Sophie.
Téléphoner à quelqu'un takes lui or leur. The noun at the end keeps its à.

C1Syntax

Ellipsis and Gapping

L'ellipse

French can leave out words that the context makes clear: the verb of a second parallel clause ('Marie mange des pommes, Pierre des poires'), a repeated subject after et ('Il est venu et a parlé'), or a whole verb phrase ('Pierre a lu ce livre, Marie aussi'). Unlike English, French cannot keep just the auxiliary: 'Oui, j'ai' and 'Marie a aussi' are wrong.

Key rule

French can leave out the verb of a second parallel clause ('Marie mange des pommes, Pierre des poires'), a repeated subject after et, ou, mais or ni ('Il est venu et a parlé'), and a whole verb phrase after aussi, non plus or si ('Marie aussi'). It never keeps a bare auxiliary: say 'Marie aussi' and 'Oui, j'ai fini', not 'Marie a aussi' or 'Oui, j'ai'.

Examples

Marie mange des pommes, Pierre des poires.
Gapping: 'mange' is not repeated in the second clause, and only the new information (Pierre, des poires) remains. 'Pierre mange des poires', with the verb repeated, is also correct, just heavier. Gapping is typical of written style. English: Marie eats apples, Pierre pears.
Il est arrivé à midi et a déjeuné avec nous.
Il est arrivé à midi et déjeuné avec nous.
The subject il is shared, so it can be left out after et. The auxiliary cannot be shared, though: arriver takes être and déjeuner takes avoir, so 'a' must be repeated. English: He arrived at noon and had lunch with us.
Pierre a lu ce livre, Marie aussi.
Pierre a lu ce livre, Marie a aussi.
French has no equivalent of 'Marie did too' or 'Marie has too': after the noun, aussi alone stands for the whole verb phrase. 'Marie a aussi' leaves the auxiliary hanging. English: Pierre read this book, and so did Marie.

Common mistakes

Keeping only the auxiliary
Paul a vu le film, et Léa a aussi.
Paul a vu le film, et Léa aussi.
French has no short form like 'Léa has too' or 'Léa did too'. Aussi after the noun or stressed pronoun stands for the whole verb phrase.
'Moi aussi' after a negative statement
Je ne mange pas de viande. — Moi aussi.
Je ne mange pas de viande. — Moi non plus.
To agree with a negative statement, use non plus. To disagree with it, use si: 'Moi si.'

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C1Syntax

Stylistic Inversion (after adverbs, in relatives, in literary narration)

Inversion stylistique

In formal and literary French, the subject can come after the verb in a statement. You meet this in quotation tags ('« Je pars », dit-il'), in relative clauses with a noun subject ('le livre que lit mon frère'), after comme ('comme le dit le proverbe') and after some adverbs at the head of the clause ('Ainsi parla Zarathoustra', 'Sans doute a-t-elle raison'). Add -t- between two vowels: 'demanda-t-elle'.

Key rule

In formal statements the subject can follow the verb: in quotation tags both pronouns and nouns do ('dit-il', 'demanda-t-elle', 'répondit Marie'), and after peut-être, sans doute, à peine or aussi ('so') a pronoun does, while a noun subject is taken up by one ('Sans doute a-t-elle raison', 'Peut-être Paul viendra-t-il'), with -t- between two vowels. In relative clauses, after comme and in narrative, only a noun subject or a word like certains can follow the verb, and only when no direct object comes after it ('le livre que lit mon frère', 'comme le pensent certains', 'Survint alors un orage', but 'le livre qu'il lit').

Examples

« Je pars demain », dit-il.
« Je pars demain », il dit.
After a quotation, the verb of saying comes before its subject: 'dit-il'. This is the rule in written French, even in the press; 'il dit' after the quotation is a mistake in writing. English: "I'm leaving tomorrow," he said.
« Tu viens ? » demanda-t-elle.
« Tu viens ? » demanda-elle.
'Demanda' ends in a vowel and 'elle' begins with one, so -t- goes between them: 'demanda-t-elle'. After a quotation ending in a question mark, no comma is added before the tag. English: "Are you coming?" she asked.
Le livre que lit mon frère est excellent.
In a relative clause, a noun subject may follow the verb, especially when it is longer than the verb: 'que lit mon frère'. The normal order 'que mon frère lit' is just as correct. English: The book my brother is reading is excellent.

Common mistakes

No inversion after a quotation
« J'arrive », elle a dit.
« J'arrive », a-t-elle dit.
In written French, a quotation tag always puts the verb before the subject: 'a-t-elle dit', 'dit-elle'. 'Elle a dit' after the quotation belongs to casual speech.
Missing -t- between two vowels
« Vraiment ? » demanda-elle.
« Vraiment ? » demanda-t-elle.
When the verb ends in a vowel and the pronoun is il, elle or on, add -t- between them: 'demanda-t-elle', 'a-t-il'.

C1Connectors

Precision Reformulation Connectors

Connecteurs de reformulation et de précision

To restate an idea, use c'est-à-dire ('Il viendra lundi, c'est-à-dire dans trois jours'), autrement dit or the more formal en d'autres termes. To be more precise, use plus précisément, or à savoir before a list. To correct yourself, use ou plutôt ('Il est fatigué, ou plutôt épuisé'). Inside a sentence, put a comma before the connector ('lundi, c'est-à-dire dans trois jours'); at the start of a sentence, put a comma after it ('En d'autres termes, nous devons recommencer').

Key rule

Choose the connector by what you are doing: c'est-à-dire (que), autrement dit or en d'autres termes to restate; plus précisément to narrow down; à savoir to list items you have just announced ('trois candidats, à savoir...'); ou plutôt to correct yourself; disons or pour ainsi dire to soften. C'est-à-dire presents both wordings as equivalent, so it cannot introduce a correction.

Examples

Il viendra lundi, c'est-à-dire dans trois jours.
Il viendra lundi, c'est à dire dans trois jours.
C'est-à-dire is written with two hyphens. It introduces an equivalent of what was just said. English: He'll come on Monday, that is, in three days.
Il refuse d'aider, autrement dit il abandonne le projet.
Il refuse d'aider, autrement dit qu'il abandonne le projet.
Autrement dit is followed directly by the clause, without que (unlike c'est-à-dire que). It often spells out the real meaning. English: He refuses to help; in other words, he's abandoning the project.
La situation est délicate ; en d'autres termes, elle est dangereuse.
La situation est délicate ; en autres termes, elle est dangereuse.
The formal en d'autres termes needs d' before autres. A new clause after it is preceded by a comma. English: The situation is delicate; in other words, it's dangerous.

Common mistakes

'C'est-à-dire' used for a self-correction
Le film dure deux heures, c'est-à-dire deux heures et demie.
Le film dure deux heures, ou plutôt deux heures et demie.
C'est-à-dire presents both wordings as equivalent. To correct or upgrade what you said, use ou plutôt or plus exactement.
'C'est-à-dire' without hyphens
Rendez-vous lundi, c'est à dire dans trois jours.
Rendez-vous lundi, c'est-à-dire dans trois jours.
C'est-à-dire is always written with two hyphens; the written abbreviation is c.-à-d.

C1Connectors

Evidentiality Markers

Marqueurs d'évidentialité

French marks where information comes from. Hearsay: 'Il paraît qu'elle est malade', 'On dit que...', 'C'est, paraît-il, très bon.' A named source: 'Selon le ministre...', 'D'après les experts...'. What you can see: 'Il est visiblement ému.' Journalists use the conditional for unconfirmed facts: 'Le ministre aurait démissionné.'

Key rule

Mark your source: il paraît que and on dit que (+ indicative), or inserted paraît-il and dit-on, for hearsay; selon and d'après for a named source; apparemment, visiblement and manifestement for inference. For unconfirmed news, use the conditional: present for a current situation ('Le suspect serait en fuite'), past for a past event ('Le ministre aurait démissionné').

Examples

Il paraît qu'elle est malade.
Il paraît qu'elle soit malade.
Il paraît que reports something you have heard and takes the indicative: 'elle est'. Don't confuse it with il semble que, which usually takes the subjunctive. English: Apparently she's ill (so I've heard).
On dit qu'il est très riche.
On dit qu'il soit très riche.
On dit que (they say) also takes the indicative: hearsay is reported as a statement, not as a doubt. English: They say he's very rich.
Apparemment, le projet a été annulé.
Apparemment (apparently) marks a conclusion drawn from what you have seen or heard, without vouching for it. English: Apparently, the project has been cancelled.

Common mistakes

Subjunctive after 'il paraît que'
Il paraît que le musée soit fermé.
Il paraît que le musée est fermé.
Il paraît que passes on information as a fact you have heard, so it takes the indicative. The subjunctive belongs to il semble que.
Present conditional for a past event
Selon la presse, l'incendie ferait trois blessés hier.
Selon la presse, l'incendie aurait fait trois blessés hier.
The journalistic conditional keeps the time reference: a past event takes the past conditional ('aurait fait'). The present conditional cannot refer to 'hier'.

C1Connectors

Text-Structuring Connectors for Extended Discourse

Connecteurs pour structurer un texte

Essays and formal texts use connectors to show the plan of the argument: to open (tout d'abord, d'emblée), to add a point (par ailleurs, en outre, de surcroît), to grant a point and counter it ('Certes, ..., mais...', 'Il n'en reste pas moins que...') and to conclude (en définitive, en somme). Choose formal ones: au final and du coup belong to speech.

Key rule

Structure an argument with connectors chosen by function: open (tout d'abord, d'emblée), add (par ailleurs, en outre, de surcroît), grant and counter (certes ..., mais; il n'en reste pas moins que + indicative), acknowledge (force est de constater que) and conclude (en définitive, en somme). In formal writing, avoid au final and du coup.

Examples

D'emblée, il convient de rappeler les enjeux.
D'emblée (right from the start) opens an essay or a speech by stating something essential first. It is formal. English: From the outset, we should recall what is at stake.
Par ailleurs, les études confirment cette hypothèse.
Par ailleurs adds an argument from a different angle (moreover, besides). English: Moreover, studies confirm this hypothesis.
En outre, il faut noter la rapidité du processus.
En outre (furthermore) adds a further point in formal writing. English: Furthermore, the speed of the process should be noted.

Common mistakes

Missing 'de' in 'force est de constater'
Force est constater que la situation s'aggrave.
Force est de constater que la situation s'aggrave.
The fixed phrase is force est de constater que: the de cannot be left out.
'Quoiqu'il en soit' written as one word
Quoiqu'il en soit, nous devons agir.
Quoi qu'il en soit, nous devons agir.
Quoi qu'il en soit is written in two words (quoi que = whatever). Quoique in one word means 'although'.

C1Register

Literary Register & Style

Registre littéraire

Literary French is the style of novels, classic essays and polished prose. Its main markers are the passé simple for the events of a story (il entra, elle dit), with the imparfait for the background; inversion in dialogue tags (« Oui », dit-il) and after an initial à peine or peut-être; elevated words such as demeurer (rester), songer (penser), vêtu (habillé) and fort (très); and negations such as ne… guère or nul ne. Example: 'À peine fut-il entré qu'elle se leva.' (Scarcely had he come in when she stood up.)

Key rule

Literary narration puts events in the passé simple and the background in the imparfait, without switching to the passé composé; it inverts verb and subject in dialogue tags (dit-il) and after an initial à peine (… que) or peut-être. It also prefers elevated words (demeurer, songer, fort) and literary negations (ne… guère, nul ne, never followed by pas), and may put a subjunctive after a past verb into the imperfect subjunctive (qu'il vînt).

Examples

Il ouvrit la porte et aperçut une silhouette dans l'ombre.
Il ouvrit la porte et a aperçu une silhouette dans l'ombre.
In a written narrative, successive events all go in the passé simple: ouvrit, then aperçut. Switching to the passé composé for the second event mixes the written and the spoken narrative systems; choose one and keep it. English: He opened the door and saw a figure in the shadows.
À peine eut-il prononcé ces mots qu'elle pâlit.
À peine eut-il prononcé ces mots quand elle pâlit.
À peine at the start of the sentence brings inversion (eut-il prononcé), the passé antérieur marks the action completed first, and the second clause opens with que, not quand, even though English says 'scarcely… when'. English: Scarcely had he uttered these words when she turned pale.
Il fallait qu'elle partît sans tarder.
Il fallait qu'elle partit sans tarder.
After a past main verb (il fallait que), literary concordance uses the imperfect subjunctive: partît, with a circumflex in the il / elle form. Without the circumflex, 'partit' is the passé simple indicative, which cannot follow 'il fallait que'. Everyday French says 'Il fallait qu'elle parte'. English: She had to leave without delay.

Common mistakes

Passé composé inside a passé simple narrative
Elle entra dans le salon et s'est assise près du feu.
Elle entra dans le salon et s'assit près du feu.
A written narrative chains its events in one tense system. The first event is in the passé simple, so the next one is too: s'assit, from s'asseoir.
Passé simple instead of the imperfect subjunctive
Elle voulait qu'il vint la chercher.
Elle voulait qu'il vînt la chercher.
Vouloir que requires the subjunctive. In literary concordance after a past main verb, that is the imperfect subjunctive, whose il / elle form has a circumflex: vînt. 'Vint' without it is the passé simple indicative. Everyday French says 'qu'il vienne'.

C1Register

Journalistic Register & Style

Registre journalistique

French news writing has a few strong conventions. Unconfirmed information goes in the conditional: 'Le ministre aurait démissionné' (the minister has reportedly resigned). Sources are introduced with selon or d'après, and a reporting clause placed after a quotation is inverted: « Nous refusons », a déclaré le porte-parole. Headlines are short, often without a verb (Démission du Premier ministre), and the press uses set phrases such as faire la une, tabler sur and dresser le bilan.

Key rule

In news writing, put unverified information in the conditional (present for a current or future situation: serait; past for a past event: aurait démissionné) and attribute it with selon or d'après. After a quotation, the reporting clause is inverted (« … », a déclaré le ministre; a-t-il précisé), and headlines are short, often without a verb (Démission du Premier ministre).

Examples

Le ministre aurait démissionné hier soir.
Le ministre démissionnerait hier soir.
The conditional presents the information as unconfirmed ('reportedly'). For a past event, use the past conditional (aurait démissionné); the present conditional refers to now or to the future, so it clashes with 'hier soir'. English: The minister reportedly resigned last night.
Selon nos informations, plusieurs responsables seraient impliqués dans l'affaire.
Selon + source, with the present conditional for a current situation that the paper has not verified. With the indicative (sont impliqués), the article would state it as a fact. English: According to our information, several officials are allegedly involved in the affair.
« Nous refusons ce compromis », a déclaré le porte-parole.
« Nous refusons ce compromis », le porte-parole a déclaré.
When the reporting clause follows the quotation, the verb comes before its subject, even when the subject is a noun: a déclaré le porte-parole. English: 'We reject this compromise,' the spokesperson said.

Common mistakes

Present conditional for an unconfirmed past event
Selon la police, le suspect prendrait la fuite hier soir.
Selon la police, le suspect aurait pris la fuite hier soir.
An unconfirmed past event takes the past conditional (aurait + past participle). The present conditional (prendrait) refers to now or later and contradicts 'hier soir'.
No inversion after a quotation
« La réforme sera maintenue », le ministre a affirmé.
« La réforme sera maintenue », a affirmé le ministre.
A reporting clause placed after a quotation has the verb before its subject: a affirmé le ministre.

C1Register

Legal / Administrative French

Français juridique et administratif

Legal and administrative French relies on fixed formulas. Letters to an administration open with 'Madame, Monsieur,', ask with 'Je vous serais reconnaissant de bien vouloir…' and close with 'Je vous prie d'agréer, Madame, Monsieur, l'expression de mes salutations distinguées.' Contracts and official texts use compound prepositions with a fixed partner (conformément à, en vertu de, à compter de), words such as ledit (the said; dudit after de) and nonobstant (notwithstanding), and the present tense to state obligations: Le loyer est payable le 1er du mois.

Key rule

Administrative and legal French uses fixed formulas word for word: requests with 'Je vous serais reconnaissant de bien vouloir…', closings with 'Je vous prie d'agréer, Madame, Monsieur, l'expression de mes salutations distinguées', attestations with 'Je soussigné(e)'. Compound prepositions keep their fixed partner (conformément à, en vertu de, à compter de), and ledit contracts like an article (dudit, audit).

Examples

Conformément à l'article 5 du contrat, le loyer est payable le 1er de chaque mois.
Conformément avec l'article 5 du contrat, le loyer est payable le 1er de chaque mois.
Conformément (in accordance) is always followed by à; 'avec' is a calque of English 'with'. 'Est payable' is the present tense used to state an obligation. English: In accordance with Article 5 of the contract, the rent is payable on the 1st of each month.
En vertu de cette clause, le locataire doit prévenir le propriétaire trois mois à l'avance.
En vertu à cette clause, le locataire doit prévenir le propriétaire trois mois à l'avance.
En vertu de (by virtue of, under) is always followed by de; learners mix it up with conformément à. English: Under this clause, the tenant must give the landlord three months' notice.
En vous remerciant par avance, je vous prie d'agréer, Madame, l'expression de mes salutations distinguées.
En vous remerciant par avance, veuillez agréer, Madame, l'expression de mes salutations distinguées.
A gérondif such as 'en vous remerciant' has the same subject as the main verb. With 'je vous prie d'agréer', the writer is the one who thanks; with 'veuillez agréer', the subject is vous, so grammatically the reader would be thanking. After such an opening phrase, use 'je vous prie d'agréer'. English: Thanking you in advance, yours faithfully.

Common mistakes

'Avec' after 'conformément'
Conformément avec votre demande, nous vous adressons le formulaire.
Conformément à votre demande, nous vous adressons le formulaire.
Conformément is always followed by à (in accordance with = conformément à). 'Avec' is a calque of English 'with'.
Opening phrase that does not match 'veuillez'
Dans l'attente de votre réponse, veuillez agréer, Monsieur, l'expression de mes salutations distinguées.
Dans l'attente de votre réponse, je vous prie d'agréer, Monsieur, l'expression de mes salutations distinguées.
'Dans l'attente de votre réponse' describes the writer, so the main clause needs je as its subject. With 'veuillez agréer' the subject is vous, as if the reader were waiting for his own reply.

C1Register

Irony, Understatement and Litote

Ironie, euphémisme, litote

French often says things indirectly. A litote says less to mean more, usually by negating the opposite: 'Ce n'est pas mauvais' (= it's good), 'Il n'est pas bête' (= he's clever). A euphemism softens something painful: 'Il nous a quittés' or 'Il s'est éteint' (= he died). Irony says the opposite of what you mean, and the context shows it: 'Bravo, tu as encore oublié tes clés !' Watch out: 'pas terrible' means 'not great', never 'not terrible'.

Key rule

A litote negates the opposite to say more (Ce n'est pas mauvais = it's good; pas mal = quite good), a negative understatement softens criticism (pas terrible = rather poor, never praise), and a euphemism softens something painful (il s'est éteint = he died). Irony says the opposite of what is meant, so read the context (Bravo, tu as encore cassé le vase !).

Examples

Ce n'est pas mauvais, ton gratin !
Ce n'est pas terrible, ton gratin ! (intended: your gratin is really good)
'Pas mauvais' is a litote: by denying the opposite, it praises. 'Pas terrible' looks similar but means 'not great, rather poor', so 'Ce n'est pas terrible, ton gratin !' criticises the dish. English: Your gratin isn't bad! (= it's good)
Notre grand-père s'est éteint paisiblement dans la nuit.
Notre grand-père a éteint paisiblement dans la nuit.
S'éteindre (literally 'to go out', like a light) is a gentle euphemism for dying. It is pronominal, with être; without se, éteindre means 'to switch off' and needs an object. English: Our grandfather passed away peacefully during the night.
Vous n'êtes pas sans savoir que la réunion est annulée.
Vous n'êtes pas sans ignorer que la réunion est annulée.
'Ne pas être sans savoir' is a litote: 'you are not without knowing' = you surely know. With ignorer (not to know), the logic flips: 'not without not knowing' means 'you do not know', the opposite of what is meant. English: As you no doubt know, the meeting has been cancelled.

Common mistakes

'Pas terrible' used as praise
Merci pour le dîner, ce n'était pas terrible ! (intended: dinner was really good)
Merci pour le dîner, ce n'était pas mal du tout !
'Pas terrible' means 'not great'. To praise with understatement, say 'pas mal du tout' or 'pas mauvais du tout'; to praise directly, 'c'était délicieux'.
'Sans ignorer' instead of 'sans savoir'
Vous n'êtes pas sans ignorer que les inscriptions ferment vendredi.
Vous n'êtes pas sans savoir que les inscriptions ferment vendredi.
'Vous n'êtes pas sans savoir' (you surely know) is a litote built on savoir. With ignorer, the negations add up to the opposite meaning: 'you do not know'.

C1Vocabulary

Paronyms and Near-Homonyms

Paronymes

Paronyms (paronymes) are words that look or sound almost the same but mean different things, so mixing them up changes the meaning. Learn them in pairs, each with a typical context: un danger imminent (about to happen) and un éminent chirurgien (distinguished); entrer par effraction (to break in) and une infraction au code de la route (an offence); un volcan en éruption and faire irruption dans une pièce (to burst in).

Key rule

Paronyms look or sound alike but mean different things, so choose by meaning and learn each word with a collocation: imminent (about to happen) and éminent (distinguished), effraction (break-in) and infraction (offence), éruption (volcano) and irruption (bursting in), vénéneux (plants) and venimeux (animals), compréhensif (understanding) and compréhensible (understandable).

Examples

Un orage est imminent : rentrons vite.
Un orage est éminent : rentrons vite.
Imminent = about to happen (un danger imminent, un départ imminent). Éminent = distinguished, outstanding, and describes people: un éminent juriste. English: A storm is about to break: let's go home quickly.
Les cambrioleurs sont entrés par effraction.
Les cambrioleurs sont entrés par infraction.
Effraction = breaking in (entrer par effraction, un vol avec effraction). Infraction = a breach of a rule or a law (une infraction au code de la route). English: The burglars broke in.
Les manifestants ont fait irruption dans la salle du conseil.
Les manifestants ont fait éruption dans la salle du conseil.
Faire irruption = to burst in. Éruption is for a volcano (entrer en éruption) or a skin rash (une éruption cutanée). English: The protesters burst into the council chamber.

Common mistakes

'Imminent' instead of 'éminent'
Un imminent chirurgien a opéré mon père.
Un éminent chirurgien a opéré mon père.
Éminent (distinguished) describes a person's standing. Imminent means 'about to happen' and describes events: un danger imminent.
'Compréhensible' instead of 'compréhensif'
Merci d'avoir été si compréhensible pendant ma maladie.
Merci d'avoir été si compréhensif pendant ma maladie.
A person who shows understanding is compréhensif. Compréhensible means 'understandable' and describes an explanation, a text or a reaction.

C1Vocabulary

Neologisms and Anglicisms - Integration

Néologismes et anglicismes - Avancé

French borrows many English words and creates new ones. Common anglicisms are normal French words with a gender and a French plural: le week-end, le parking, une start-up. Recently borrowed English verbs become -er verbs and conjugate like parler (liker, j'ai liké); most of them are informal. Some anglicisms are 'false': un smoking is a dinner jacket, un pressing a dry cleaner's. For some words French has its own term (un ordinateur, un logiciel), and in formal writing it prefers French terms such as courriel (e-mail) and numérique (digital). French also coins its own words: télétravail, ubériser, complotiste.

Key rule

Integrated anglicisms are normal French with a French gender and plural (le week-end, une start-up), and recent English verbs such as liker or checker conjugate like parler (j'ai liké) but are informal. Watch false anglicisms (un smoking = a dinner jacket, never the act of smoking) and English words French never borrowed (computer = ordinateur, software = logiciel), and in formal writing prefer the French terms (courriel, numérique).

Examples

Fumer est interdit dans ce bâtiment.
Le smoking est interdit dans ce bâtiment. (intended: smoking is not allowed in this building)
False anglicism: un smoking is a dinner jacket, so 'Le smoking est interdit' bans dinner jackets. The activity is fumer (or le tabac). English: Smoking is not allowed in this building.
J'ai installé un nouveau logiciel sur mon ordinateur.
J'ai installé un nouveau software sur mon ordinateur.
Some English words never entered French because French has its own term: software is un logiciel, a computer is un ordinateur. Logiciel is the normal word in every register. English: I installed a new piece of software on my computer.
Elle a créé une start-up à vingt-cinq ans.
Elle a créé un start-up à vingt-cinq ans.
Borrowed nouns get a French gender. Most are masculine (le week-end, le parking), but start-up is feminine (une start-up), like une interview and une playlist. English: She founded a start-up at twenty-five.

Common mistakes

False anglicism 'smoking' for the act of smoking
Le smoking nuit gravement à la santé. (intended: smoking seriously harms your health)
Fumer nuit gravement à la santé.
Un smoking is a dinner jacket. For the activity, use the verb fumer or the noun le tabac.
English word instead of the French one
Mon computer est encore en panne.
Mon ordinateur est encore en panne.
French did not borrow 'computer': the French word is un ordinateur. The same goes for software (un logiciel) and password (un mot de passe).

C1Vocabulary

Register-Based Synonym Selection

Synonymes selon le registre

Many French words have synonyms that differ mainly in register: familier (bosser, bagnole, fric, crevé), courant (travailler, voiture, argent, fatigué) and soutenu (œuvrer, véhicule, fonds, exténué). Choose the word that fits the situation and keep the same level throughout: 'Monsieur le Directeur, j'ai bossé tout le week-end' clashes, 'j'ai travaillé' fits. Soutenu words are not simply 'posher' versions: they often have a narrower meaning (se restaurer = to have something to eat to regain strength; les fonds = money available for a project or a payment, not everyday cash).

Key rule

Pick each word by register: familier (bosser, fric, bagnole, crevé) in relaxed situations such as a chat or a text message with friends or family, courant (travailler, argent, voiture, fatigué) as the safe default, soutenu (œuvrer, fonds, véhicule, exténué) for formal speech and writing, and keep one level throughout. Check the exact meaning too: higher-register synonyms are often narrower (se restaurer = to eat to regain strength, les fonds = money available for a project or a payment).

Examples

Madame, Monsieur, ma voiture a été endommagée dans le parking de votre résidence.
Madame, Monsieur, ma bagnole a été endommagée dans le parking de votre résidence.
The opening 'Madame, Monsieur,' makes this a formal letter, so the familier 'bagnole' clashes. The ladder is une bagnole (familier), une voiture (courant), un véhicule (formal, administrative). English: Dear Sir or Madam, my car was damaged in the car park of your building.
Monsieur le Directeur, je travaille dans ce service depuis dix ans.
Monsieur le Directeur, je bosse dans ce service depuis dix ans.
Addressing someone as 'Monsieur le Directeur' sets a formal situation, and 'bosser' (familier) does not fit it. The ladder is bosser (familier), travailler (courant), œuvrer (soutenu, with a goal). English: Director, I have been working in this department for ten years.
Je ne dispose pas des fonds nécessaires pour régler cette somme en une fois.
Je ne dispose pas du fric nécessaire pour régler cette somme en une fois.
'Disposer de' and 'régler une somme' are formal, so 'le fric' (familier: cash, dough) breaks the register. Les fonds suits a formal request about a payment; the courant word is l'argent. English: I do not have the necessary funds to pay this amount in one go.

Common mistakes

Familier noun in a formal letter
Madame, Monsieur, je vous écris car mon proprio refuse de réparer le chauffage.
Madame, Monsieur, je vous écris car mon propriétaire refuse de réparer le chauffage.
'Le proprio' is the familier short form of propriétaire. A letter that opens with 'Madame, Monsieur,' calls for courant or soutenu words.
Familier verb when addressing a superior
Monsieur le Directeur, j'ai bossé tout le week-end sur ce dossier.
Monsieur le Directeur, j'ai travaillé tout le week-end sur ce dossier.
'Bosser' is familier. Speaking to 'Monsieur le Directeur', use the courant travailler.

C1Pronouns

Precision with Relative Pronouns (lequel vs qui/que; redundant antecedents)

Pronoms relatifs - Précision

After a preposition, the relative pronoun depends on what it refers to: qui for people ('l'amie avec qui je voyage'), a form of lequel for things, agreeing in gender and number ('la table sur laquelle je travaille', 'les raisons pour lesquelles il est parti'), and quoi after ce, rien or quelque chose ('C'est ce à quoi je pense'). À and de contract with lequel: auquel, auxquels, auxquelles, duquel, desquels, desquelles (but à laquelle, de laquelle). After parmi, use lesquels or lesquelles even for people. The preposition always comes before the pronoun, never at the end of the clause, and nothing inside the clause repeats the relative: 'le film dont je t'ai parlé', not 'dont je t'en ai parlé'.

Key rule

After a preposition, use qui for people, a form of lequel for things, agreeing with the noun (sur laquelle, auxquels, duquel), and quoi after ce, rien or quelque chose (ce à quoi); after parmi, use lesquels or lesquelles even for people. Use de + lequel instead of dont after a compound preposition or a noun that follows a preposition (à la tête de laquelle), and add nothing that repeats the relative: no en or y for what the relative already stands for (le film dont je t'ai parlé) and no possessive after dont (dont le fils).

Examples

La table sur laquelle je travaille est trop petite.
La table sur qui je travaille est trop petite.
After a preposition, qui refers only to people. A table is a thing, so sur is followed by a form of lequel that agrees with 'la table': laquelle (feminine singular). English: The table I work on is too small.
C'est le projet auquel je tiens le plus.
C'est le projet à lequel je tiens le plus.
Tenir à (to care about) needs à, and à + lequel contracts to auquel, just as à + le becomes au. Only à laquelle stays in two words. English: It's the project I care about most.
Les candidats parmi lesquels nous choisirons sont tous excellents.
Les candidats parmi qui nous choisirons sont tous excellents.
After parmi, French uses lesquels or lesquelles, even for people; qui is not used. Lesquels is masculine plural, like 'les candidats'. English: The candidates we will choose from are all excellent.

Common mistakes

Qui after a preposition for a thing
Le stylo avec qui j'écris est cassé.
Le stylo avec lequel j'écris est cassé.
After a preposition, qui refers only to people. For things, use lequel, laquelle, lesquels or lesquelles, agreeing with the noun: le stylo → lequel.
Uncontracted 'à lesquelles'
Ce sont des questions à lesquelles je ne sais pas répondre.
Ce sont des questions auxquelles je ne sais pas répondre.
À contracts with lequel, lesquels and lesquelles (auquel, auxquels, auxquelles), as à + les becomes aux. Only à laquelle stays in two words.

C1Pronouns

Clitic Placement - Precision in Multi-verb Chains

Placement des clitiques - Précision

Object pronouns (me, te, se, nous, vous, le, la, les, lui, leur, y, en) go before the verb they belong to. After vouloir, pouvoir, devoir, aller and similar verbs, that is the infinitive: 'Je veux le voir', 'Je vais lui écrire'. With faire, laisser and verbs of perception (voir, entendre), the pronoun goes before faire, laisser or the verb of perception: 'Je le fais réparer', 'Je l'entends chanter'. Two pronouns follow a fixed order: me / te / se / nous / vous, then le / la / les, then lui / leur, then y, then en ('Il me le donne', 'Je la lui ai prêtée', 'Il y en a'). In an affirmative command they follow the verb with hyphens, le / la / les first and en last ('Donne-le-moi !', 'Donne-m'en !'); in a negative command they go back before the verb ('Ne me le donne pas.').

Key rule

Put an object pronoun before the verb it belongs to: before the infinitive after vouloir, pouvoir, devoir or aller ('Je veux le voir'), but before faire, laisser, voir or entendre ('Je le fais réparer', 'Je l'entends chanter'). Two pronouns go in the order me/te/se/nous/vous, le/la/les, lui/leur, y, en ('Je la lui donne'); affirmative commands put them after the verb with hyphens, le/la/les first and en last ('Donne-le-moi !', 'Donne-m'en !').

Examples

Je veux le voir demain.
Je le veux voir demain.
Le is the object of voir, so it goes before the infinitive voir, not before the conjugated verb veux. The order 'Je le veux voir' belongs to classical French and is now only a literary archaism. English: I want to see him tomorrow.
Je le fais réparer par un garagiste.
Je fais le réparer par un garagiste.
With faire + infinitive, the two verbs form a block and the pronoun goes before faire. English: I'm having it repaired by a mechanic.
Je la lui ai prêtée la semaine dernière.
Je lui l'ai prêtée la semaine dernière.
With two third-person pronouns, the direct object (le, la, les) comes before the indirect object (lui, leur): la lui. The participle prêtée agrees with la, a direct object placed before avoir. English: I lent it to him last week.

Common mistakes

Pronoun before aller instead of the infinitive
Je lui vais écrire ce soir.
Je vais lui écrire ce soir.
Lui is the object of écrire, so it goes before the infinitive. After aller, vouloir, pouvoir, devoir and similar verbs, the pronoun stays with the infinitive it belongs to.
Pronoun after laisser instead of before it
Je laisse les partir tôt le vendredi.
Je les laisse partir tôt le vendredi.
With laisser, faire and verbs of perception + infinitive, the pronoun for the person doing the action goes before the first verb: je les laisse partir.

C1Prepositions

Prepositions in Abstract / Figurative Relations

Prépositions - Relations abstraites

Beyond place and time, French prepositions express abstract relations, and English does not predict the choice. De gives the cause of an involuntary reaction or state ('mourir de faim', 'pleurer de joie'); par gives the motive of a deliberate act, a means or manner, or a rate ('Il l'a fait par amour', 'par courrier', 'par hasard', 'deux fois par semaine'); pour gives a purpose, a reason named with raison ('pour des raisons de santé') or the reason for a reward or a punishment ('condamné pour vol'). Sur gives the topic of a book or a talk ('un livre sur l'art', but 'parler de l'art') or a proportion ('un étudiant sur deux'), and envers or à l'égard de an attitude toward someone ('respectueux envers ses parents'). Formal writing adds compound prepositions such as face à, au regard de, eu égard à and aux dépens de.

Key rule

Choose the preposition by the relation, not by English: de for the cause of a reaction (pleurer de joie); par + a noun without an article for a motive (par amour) and par for a means, a manner or a rate (par courrier, par hasard, deux fois par semaine); pour for a purpose, a reason named with raison (pour des raisons de santé) or the reason for a reward or punishment (condamné pour vol); sur for the topic of a book or a talk (un livre sur l'art, but parler de l'art) and for a proportion (un sur deux); envers or à l'égard de for an attitude toward someone. Formal writing adds face à, au regard de, eu égard à and aux dépens de.

Examples

Il est mort de faim pendant la guerre.
Il est mort par faim pendant la guerre.
De introduces the cause of an involuntary reaction or state: mourir de faim, pleurer de joie, trembler de peur. Par gives the motive of a deliberate act, which dying of hunger is not. English: He died of hunger during the war.
Il l'a épousée par amour, pas pour son argent.
Il l'a épousée pour amour, pas pour son argent.
Par + a noun without an article gives the motive of a deliberate act: par amour, par jalousie, par curiosité. Pour introduces what he wanted to gain: pour son argent. English: He married her for love, not for her money.
Un étudiant sur deux travaille pendant ses études.
Un étudiant dans deux travaille pendant ses études.
Sur expresses a proportion ('one in two', 'one out of two') and marks ('15 sur 20'). Dans is a word-for-word copy of English 'in'. English: One student in two works while studying.

Common mistakes

Par instead of de for the cause of a reaction
Elle a rougi par honte.
Elle a rougi de honte.
The cause of an involuntary physical or emotional reaction takes de: rougir de honte, trembler de peur, pleurer de joie.
Pour instead of par for a motive
Il a accepté pour politesse.
Il a accepté par politesse.
The motive of a deliberate act takes par + a noun without an article: par politesse, par amitié, par curiosité. Pour + noun gives a goal or a beneficiary ('pour son argent', 'pour sa fille'), a reason named with raison ('pour des raisons de santé') or the reason for a reward or a punishment ('condamné pour vol').

C1Orthography

Advanced Punctuation (non-breaking spaces, guillemets, tiret)

Ponctuation avancée

French punctuation differs from English in visible ways. Put a space before : ; ! ? and inside guillemets (in print it is a non-breaking space, so the sign never starts a new line): 'Il a dit : « Je viens. »' Quote with « », keep a short incise such as dit-il inside them, and open each turn of dialogue with a dash (—). Separate groups of three digits with a space and use a decimal comma: '2 500 000 habitants', '1,85 m'. Put no comma before et in a list ('du pain, du fromage et du vin') and end a statement that contains an indirect question with a full stop, not a question mark ('Je me demande s'il viendra.').

Key rule

Put a space before : ; ! ? and inside « » (a non-breaking space in print), quote with « » and keep incises such as dit-il inside them, and open each dialogue turn with a dash. Write 2 500 000 and 1,85, put no comma before et in a list, and end a statement that contains an indirect question with a full stop ('Je me demande s'il viendra.').

Examples

Il a dit : « Je viens demain. »
Il a dit : "Je viens demain."
French quotes with guillemets « », with a space inside each one. English-style quotation marks are only used for a quotation inside another quotation. English: He said, "I'm coming tomorrow."
Attention : la route est glissante.
Attention: la route est glissante.
In French, the colon is preceded by a space (a non-breaking space in print), in France as in Québec, Belgium and Switzerland. What follows the colon stays lowercase. English: Careful: the road is slippery.
J'ai acheté du pain, du fromage et du vin.
J'ai acheté du pain, du fromage, et du vin.
French puts no comma before et (or ou) at the end of a simple list, unlike many English styles. English: I bought bread, cheese and wine.

Common mistakes

English quotation marks
Elle a répondu : "C'est hors de question."
Elle a répondu : « C'est hors de question. »
French quotations use guillemets « » with a space inside. "..." or “...” are kept for a quotation inside another quotation.
Comma as a thousands separator
La région compte 1,200,000 habitants.
La région compte 1 200 000 habitants.
French separates groups of three digits with a space. The comma is reserved for decimals.

C1Orthography

French Capitalization Rules and Titles

L'emploi des majuscules

French uses far fewer capital letters than English. Days, months, languages, adjectives of nationality and religions are lowercase: 'le lundi 5 janvier', 'J'apprends le français', 'un vin italien', 'le bouddhisme'. Nouns for the people of a country or a town take a capital: 'un Italien', 'les Parisiens'. Titles such as roi, pape or président are lowercase in running text ('le roi Louis XIV'), and in geographical names the generic word stays lowercase ('la mer Méditerranée'). In the title of a book or film, capitalise the first word, plus the first noun and any adjective before it when the title starts with le, la or les ('Le Petit Prince', 'Les Misérables'). Capital letters keep their accents: 'À bientôt', 'l'État'.

Key rule

Days, months, languages, adjectives of nationality, religions and titles such as roi or président are lowercase in French ('lundi', 'le français', 'un vin italien', 'le roi Louis XIV'); nouns for people of a country or a town, proper names and the first noun of an institution take a capital ('un Italien', 'l'Assemblée nationale'). In a title, capitalise the first word, plus the first noun and any adjective before it after le, la or les ('Le Petit Prince'), and always keep accents on capitals ('l'État').

Examples

Les cours reprennent en septembre.
Les cours reprennent en Septembre.
Months, like days of the week, are common nouns in French and are written in lowercase: janvier, septembre, lundi, samedi. English: Classes start again in September.
Elle parle couramment l'allemand.
Elle parle couramment l'Allemand.
Names of languages are lowercase: l'allemand, le français, l'arabe. With a capital, l'Allemand means 'the German man', which makes no sense here. English: She speaks German fluently.
J'ai rencontré deux Canadiens dans le train.
J'ai rencontré deux canadiens dans le train.
A noun for the people of a country, a region or a town takes a capital: un Canadien, les Français, une Parisienne. English: I met two Canadians on the train.

Common mistakes

Capital letter on a day of the week
Je travaille le Samedi matin.
Je travaille le samedi matin.
Days of the week and months are lowercase in French: lundi, samedi, janvier, août.
Capital letter on a language
J'apprends le Japonais depuis deux ans.
J'apprends le japonais depuis deux ans.
Names of languages are lowercase. With a capital, le Japonais means 'the Japanese man'.

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C1 French Grammar — 32 Topics & Common Mistakes

Passé Simple - Active Production

Passé Antérieur - Active Production

Surcomposé Tenses (j'ai eu fait)

Ne Explétif (Advanced Usage)

Faire / Rendre / Laisser - Causative Nuances (advanced)

Advanced Modal Periphrases (être censé, être supposé, avoir beau)

Lexical Aspect (Aktionsart)

Imparfait and Plus-que-parfait du Subjonctif (literary)

Subjunctive in Independent Clauses (wishes, orders)

Subtle Mood Contrasts That Change Meaning

Fixed Formulas with Relative Subjunctive

Full Literary Concordance of Tenses in Subjunctive

Advanced Fronting for Focus

Left Dislocation with Resumptive Pronoun

Right Dislocation (colloquial emphasis)

Ellipsis and Gapping

Stylistic Inversion (after adverbs, in relatives, in literary narration)

Precision Reformulation Connectors

Evidentiality Markers

Text-Structuring Connectors for Extended Discourse

Literary Register & Style

Journalistic Register & Style

Legal / Administrative French

Irony, Understatement and Litote

Paronyms and Near-Homonyms

Neologisms and Anglicisms - Integration

Register-Based Synonym Selection

Precision with Relative Pronouns (lequel vs qui/que; redundant antecedents)

Clitic Placement - Precision in Multi-verb Chains

Prepositions in Abstract / Figurative Relations

Advanced Punctuation (non-breaking spaces, guillemets, tiret)

French Capitalization Rules and Titles